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Kaskaskia

Kaskaskia is a historically significant village in Randolph County, southwestern Illinois, founded in 1703 by French Jesuit missionaries as a settlement and trading post among the Kaskaskia tribe of the Illinois Confederacy.^[1]^[2] It served as the capital of French Upper Louisiana, the Illinois Territory from 1809 to 1818, and the newly admitted state of Illinois from 1818 to 1820, functioning as a central hub for fur trade, agriculture, and regional governance during the colonial and early American periods.^[3]^[4]^[5] At its peak in the early 19th century, Kaskaskia had a population of approximately 7,000 residents, supporting churches, fortifications like Fort Kaskaskia built in 1759, and economic activities tied to the Mississippi River.^[3]^[2] The village's prominence waned after the state capital relocated to Vandalia in 1820, exacerbated by erosion and flooding from the Mississippi, culminating in a major avulsion in 1910 that rerouted the river and isolated Kaskaskia on what became Kaskaskia Island, geographically on the Missouri side of the border but remaining legally within Illinois.^[6]^[7] Today, Kaskaskia is accessible primarily by ferry, preserves landmarks such as the Immaculate Conception Church and the Liberty Bell of the West, and maintains a minimal population of 21 as recorded in the 2020 U.S. census, making it one of Illinois's smallest incorporated communities.^[7]

Geography and Environment

Location and Topography

Kaskaskia is located in Randolph County, Illinois, at approximately 37°55′17″N 89°54′59″W, situated about 5 miles (8 km) southwest of Chester, the county seat.^[8]^[9] The site occupies a low-lying position within the Mississippi River floodplain, at an elevation of roughly 374 feet (114 meters) above mean sea level.^[8] The topography consists of flat, alluvial terrain vulnerable to inundation, shaped by the river's meandering and depositional processes.^[10] Originally connected to the Illinois mainland east of the Mississippi River, the area became an isolated enclave following the river's avulsion during the 1881 flood, which diverted the main channel eastward and left Kaskaskia west of the current flow, effectively forming an island-like feature bounded by watercourses and levees.^[11]^[12] Surrounding the enclave are extensive wetlands and fertile agricultural lands typical of the Mississippi valley bottomlands, with the low relief exacerbating flood risks from seasonal rises in the river.^[13] Contemporary access relies on a single road extending from adjacent Missouri territory across an artificial embankment, subject to closure during high-water periods.^[14]

Mississippi River Dynamics

The Mississippi River, characterized by its meandering course through the floodplain, has historically undergone lateral migration and periodic channel cutoffs at the Kaskaskia site, driven by natural hydrological processes such as bank erosion, sediment deposition, and flood-induced avulsions. These dynamics isolated the original settlement location through progressive shifts, transforming a mainland position on the east bank into an island configuration without primary attribution to anthropogenic factors.^[15] A significant early event occurred in 1785, when a severe flood inundated the area, damaging structures and agricultural lands in the nascent French settlements near the Kaskaskia-Mississippi confluence.^[15] This flood, one of the most destructive on record for the upper Mississippi Valley up to that point, extended waters to adjacent bluffs and marked the onset of recurrent inundation challenges tied to the river's high variability.^[16] Subsequent flooding in 1844 submerged large portions of the town, initiating breaches that began separating the site from the Illinois mainland via an emerging secondary channel along the historic Kaskaskia River path.^[14] The process accelerated decisively during the April 1881 flood, when peak discharges eroded a narrow isthmus, enabling the main Mississippi channel to avulse eastward into the Kaskaskia River's lower reach, effectively cutoff the peninsula and rendering Kaskaskia an island approximately 10 miles long.^[11] This shift left the town west of the primary flow, accessible primarily by water, as the new channel deepened over subsequent years through ongoing scour and sediment transport.^[15] A further major flood in 1910 exacerbated erosion and inundation, contributing to the abandonment of remaining low-lying areas and underscoring the river's persistent migratory tendency, with historical gage data indicating discharge peaks exceeding 1 million cubic feet per second in the basin during such events.^[5] These changes reflect the river's geomorphic equilibrium, where cutoffs shorten meander wavelengths and redirect flow, as documented in regional hydrological records.^[17]

Native American Origins

The Kaskaskia Tribe

The Kaskaskia were one of several Algonquian-speaking tribes comprising the Illinois (Inoka) Confederacy, a loose alliance of Indigenous groups inhabiting the region between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. In the seventeenth century, the combined population of the Kaskaskia and closely related Peoria subtribes was estimated at around 6,000 individuals.^[18] Their society emphasized kinship ties and seasonal mobility, with men primarily serving as hunters and warriors using bows, arrows, and later firearms acquired through trade, while women managed agriculture and gathering. The Kaskaskia maintained semi-nomadic villages along major rivers such as the Kaskaskia and Mississippi, where fertile floodplains supported maize (corn), beans, and squash cultivation as staple crops, supplemented by hunting deer, bison, and smaller game, as well as fishing and wild plant gathering in a yearly cycle beginning with spring planting.^[19] Trade networks extended to neighboring tribes and early European contacts, exchanging furs, hides, and agricultural surplus for metal tools and cloth. However, intertribal conflicts severely impacted their numbers; a major Iroquois raid in September 1680 involved 600 to 700 warriors attacking the principal Kaskaskia village, forcing its estimated 7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants to flee southward and suffer heavy casualties.^[20] European-introduced diseases accelerated the demographic collapse, with epidemics including smallpox in 1704 and an unidentified outbreak—possibly measles—in 1714 that killed at least 200 Kaskaskia.^[21] By the 1760s, ongoing warfare, disease, and alcohol introduction had dispersed surviving bands, reducing Kaskaskia numbers near French settlements from about 600 in 1764 to 210 by 1778.^[22] Remnant groups signed the Treaty of Vincennes on August 13, 1803, ceding vast lands in present-day Illinois and Missouri to the United States in exchange for protection, annuity increases, and reserved hunting rights, marking the beginning of forced relocations.^[23] Today, Kaskaskia descendants are federally recognized within the Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, which incorporates survivors from multiple Illinois subtribes.^[22]

Pre-Contact Settlements

The region of present-day Kaskaskia, at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia Rivers in Randolph County, Illinois, exhibits archaeological evidence of Native American habitation extending thousands of years prior to European contact in the mid-17th century.^[14] Prehistoric occupations include components from Late Woodland and potentially transitional Mississippian periods, with the area's fertile floodplains supporting semi-permanent villages focused on maize agriculture, hunting, and gathering. Excavations in the vicinity, including surveys around historical Kaskaskia, have yielded artifacts indicative of regional trade networks during the Mississippian period (ca. 1000–1400 CE), such as shell-tempered pottery and copper implements sourced from distant areas like the Great Lakes region.^[24] These findings suggest the site participated in broader exchange systems linking the Mississippi Valley to upland resources, though no large ceremonial mound centers comparable to Cahokia (located approximately 60 miles north) have been identified directly at Kaskaskia itself. Ongoing research by Southern Illinois University, including 2023 geophysical surveys targeting the original settlement locus north of the modern remnant, continues to map these deep-time layers beneath later historic deposits.^[14] As proto-historic groups ancestral to or associated with the later Illinois confederacy occupied the area, settlements shifted repeatedly due to recurrent Mississippi River flooding, which eroded bluffs and altered channel courses. The most recent pre-contact village prior to sustained French presence was positioned upstream near modern Chester, Illinois, approximately 20 miles north, to exploit higher ground while maintaining access to riverine resources.^[25] This mobility reflects adaptive strategies to environmental instability, with empirical data from regional surveys confirming discontinuous but persistent occupation patterns from at least the Late Woodland phase onward.^[25]

French Colonial Era

European Exploration

In 1673, French explorers Jacques Marquette, a Jesuit priest, and Louis Jolliet, a fur trader, conducted the first documented European expedition through the upper Mississippi River region, including areas associated with the future site of Kaskaskia. Departing from the mission at Michilimackinac on May 17, they navigated south via Green Bay, the Fox River, and the Wisconsin River, reaching the Mississippi on June 17 after a portage. Their journey southward extended to roughly 34 degrees north latitude near the mouth of the Arkansas River before they reversed course, ascending the Mississippi and entering the Illinois River, where they passed several villages of the Illinois confederacy, including a Kaskaskia band settlement estimated at several hundred inhabitants.^[26]^[27] Marquette's firsthand account emphasized the Illinois peoples' welcoming demeanor, cornfields, and potential as trading partners, while mapping key waterways that linked the Great Lakes to the Mississippi system over approximately 2,000 miles of travel.^[28] These observations, recorded in Marquette's journal as part of the Jesuit Relations, highlighted the strategic value of Peoria and Kaskaskia villages—located along the Illinois River—as French allies against Iroquois expansion in the fur trade wars, based on the Illinois' reported conflicts with eastern tribes and their control of central riverine routes.^[29]^[30] Jolliet's concurrent notes focused on geographical features conducive to commerce, such as navigable depths and portage points, laying groundwork for subsequent French economic ventures without establishing permanent outposts. René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, advanced these explorations in 1682 by descending the Mississippi from the Illinois River starting in early February, with a party of about 30 that included soldiers and Native guides. Reaching the Gulf of Mexico by April 9, La Salle formally claimed the entire Mississippi watershed—spanning over 1,200 miles—for France under the name Louisiana, verifying the Illinois country's connectivity to southern outlets and probing fur trade extensions with Mississippi Valley tribes.^[31]^[32] This voyage, building on prior Illinois River surveys, documented no major new villages near Kaskaskia but reinforced the region's viability for French navigation and alliance-building, distinct from later settlement efforts.^[33]

Mission Establishment and Settlement

The Jesuit mission of the Immaculate Conception was established among the Kaskaskia tribe of the Illinois Confederacy, with early efforts by Claude Allouez in the 1670s and more sustained work by Jacques Gravier starting in 1689, who is regarded as its primary founder after succeeding Allouez.^[34] Gravier's decade of labor from 1687 focused on converting Native leaders, including Chief Rouensa, fostering alliances through baptism and intermarriage that integrated French influence with Kaskaskia society.^[35] These missionary activities laid the groundwork for European presence, emphasizing spiritual outreach amid the fur trade's economic pull on the fertile Mississippi floodplain.^[36] In 1703, Charles Juchereau de Saint-Denys initiated the first permanent civilian settlement at Kaskaskia under a royal concession for a tannery, aiming to exploit local resources for hides and establish a lasting outpost beyond transient trading posts.^[37] Despite an initial epidemic that claimed Juchereau's life and temporarily disrupted the venture, the site persisted as a hub for fur trading and agriculture, drawn by the region's viable soils for wheat and corn cultivation that supported self-sufficiency and exports to lower Louisiana.^[38] By the 1710s, French settlers introduced draft animals and constructed windmills to process grain, enabling farmsteads that bolstered food production.^[39] Kaskaskia emerged as the administrative center of Upper Louisiana, with its population expanding to over 1,000 French inhabitants by 1750, complemented by Native converts and comprising more than 40 percent enslaved Africans by 1752 per colonial censuses.^[40] ^[41] The settlement's economy intertwined fur procurement from allied tribes with lead shipments from nearby Mine La Motte operations starting in the 1720s, underscoring its role in resource extraction and trade networks. This diverse populace of French colonists, mission-integrated Natives, and enslaved laborers sustained growth until mid-century, prioritizing pragmatic economic footholds over expansive territorial claims.^[1]

Wars and Conflicts

During the French and Indian War (1754–1763), Kaskaskia served as a key outpost in the Illinois Country, but its garrison was significantly reduced as French forces prioritized eastern fronts against British advances, leaving the settlement vulnerable yet spared from direct assaults.^[42] The strategic value of Kaskaskia stemmed from its position along the Mississippi River, facilitating fur trade and control over western Native American alliances, which drew French reinforcements sparingly amid broader imperial losses.^[43] The Treaty of Paris in 1763 formally ceded the Illinois Country, including Kaskaskia, to Great Britain, ending French colonial claims but not immediate control, as lingering French loyalists and allied tribes resisted the transition.^[42] Pontiac's War, erupting in May 1763 under Ottawa leader Pontiac, disrupted British efforts to occupy remote outposts like Kaskaskia; Native forces, including Illinois tribes previously aligned with France, targeted British supply lines and forts in the Great Lakes region, delaying garrisons in the Illinois area for nearly two years.^[44] This resistance preserved French cultural dominance temporarily, with British troops only arriving in 1765 to assess the unfinished earthen Fort Kaskaskia, constructed around 1759 but never fully operational due to wartime constraints.^[43] In 1766, amid fears of British fortification, Kaskaskia residents—primarily French inhabitants—demolished the fort's earthworks and stockades to deny its use to the new occupiers, an act of defiance that underscored the settlement's role as a contested trade nexus vulnerable to imperial shifts.^[45] These conflicts exacerbated demographic pressures, with warfare and associated diseases contributing to population declines among both European settlers and local tribes, independent of later displacements.^[44] The instability highlighted Kaskaskia's causal exposure: its economic centrality invited targeting, yet local agency in sabotage prolonged French-influenced autonomy until fuller British administration in the 1770s.^[42]

American Acquisition and Prosperity

Revolutionary War Capture

George Rogers Clark, commissioned by Virginia Governor Patrick Henry, assembled a force of about 175 Virginia militiamen known as the Illinois Regiment to conduct a secretive expedition against British-held posts in the Illinois Country. In June 1778, the regiment descended the Ohio River from Corn Island near present-day Louisville, then marched approximately 120 miles overland to the Mississippi River, arriving near Kaskaskia undetected due to intelligence from local sympathizers and the element of surprise.^[46]^[47] On July 4, 1778, Clark's men entered Kaskaskia at night, capturing the village and its British commandant, Philippe Roche de Rocheblave, with negligible resistance from the approximately 70 British soldiers present, as the majority of the 1,000 or so French-speaking inhabitants opted for neutrality, swayed by news of the Franco-American alliance formalized earlier that year and assurances of protection under American governance.^[46]^[48] Clark quickly extended control to nearby Cahokia, where local French and American Indian leaders pledged allegiance, preventing British forces from rallying regional tribes into a coordinated offensive against American frontiers.^[46]^[49] British Lieutenant Governor Henry Hamilton recaptured Vincennes later in 1778, prompting Clark's retaliatory winter march from Kaskaskia in February 1779. With around 170 men, including French recruits from Kaskaskia, Clark traversed roughly 180 miles of flooded prairies and swamps over 18 days, employing deception and rapid assault to retake Fort Sackville on February 25, 1779, capturing Hamilton and securing the post without significant casualties.^[46]^[50] This demonstrated pragmatic alliances with French settlers over rigid ideological divides, as their participation proved decisive in sustaining the campaign's momentum.^[46] The captures disrupted British-Indian coalitions, limiting frontier raids and bolstering Virginia's claims to the region, which influenced British negotiators to cede the Northwest Territory—encompassing lands northwest of the Ohio River—in the 1783 Treaty of Paris, effectively doubling U.S. territory despite lacking formal Continental Congress authorization for the operations.^[49]^[51] Subsequent British attempts to regain control faltered, affirming American de facto possession through sustained militia presence.^[49]

Territorial and State Capital Role

Kaskaskia served as the capital of the Illinois Territory from its organization by Congress on February 3, 1809, until Illinois achieved statehood in 1818.^[52]^[53] During this period, territorial governor Ninian Edwards administered affairs from the settlement, which had been selected for its established infrastructure inherited from French colonial times, including administrative buildings and a central location along the Mississippi River.^[15]^[53] The territorial legislature convened there, enacting laws to organize counties, establish courts, and facilitate land claims amid rapid American settlement.^[52] Upon Illinois' admission to the Union as the 21st state on December 3, 1818, Kaskaskia retained its role as the state capital for a brief period until 1820, with Ninian Edwards continuing as the first governor.^[54]^[55] The town hosted the state's first constitutional convention from July 4 to August 26, 1818, where 43 delegates drafted a constitution enabling statehood, emphasizing a framework for representative government without slavery restrictions at the time.^[56]^[57] Legislative sessions, judicial courts, and early newspapers operated from Kaskaskia, underscoring its administrative hub status, with the population reaching approximately 1,200 residents by 1820 amid these functions.^[15] The capital relocated to Vandalia in 1820, driven by the need for a more centrally located seat as American settlement expanded northward and inland from the southern riverine areas.^[58]^[59] This shift reflected practical governance demands in a growing state whose population had surpassed 40,000 by statehood, prioritizing accessibility for emerging interior communities over Kaskaskia's Mississippi frontier position.^[55]^[58]

Economic Activities

Kaskaskia's economy in the American period relied heavily on agriculture, leveraging the fertile alluvial soils along the Mississippi River for wheat, corn, and vegetable cultivation, alongside livestock production for meat and other goods. These activities supported both local self-sufficiency and commercial exports, with farmers shipping produce downriver to markets in New Orleans.^[4]^[3] Wheat milling emerged as a key industry, with local mills processing crops into flour for bulk export; shipments of tons of flour via the Mississippi established the Illinois Country as a vital supplier to southern Louisiana, particularly during crop shortages in the lower regions. Pork and other meats supplemented these exports, capitalizing on the river's navigability for flatboat and keelboat transport.^[4]^[3] The fur trade persisted into the early 1800s but waned as agricultural output expanded, shifting economic focus toward land-based production. River commerce boomed in the 1810s with the advent of steamboats, which improved efficiency in moving grain, flour, and livestock southward, while nearby salt works provided additional export commodities like salt for preservation and trade. Kaskaskia's position as territorial and briefly state capital amplified this prosperity, fostering a frontier economy marked by commerce in staples that sustained regional development.^[4]^[60]^[3]

Decline and Modern Isolation

Flood Events and Geographical Shifts

The Great Flood of 1844 severely inundated Kaskaskia, destroying numerous homes and initiating a major diversion of the Mississippi River into a pre-existing, abandoned channel of the Kaskaskia River located west of the town. This event, characterized by exceptionally high discharge volumes, began the process of geographical isolation by allowing floodwaters to carve a parallel path that bypassed the original river alignment east of the settlement.^[15]^[4] Subsequent floods in the 1870s and 1880s exacerbated the damage, repeatedly submerging farmlands and structures while deepening the diverted channel. The critical avulsion occurred during the April 1881 flood, when high Mississippi River discharge permanently shifted the main stem westward into the Kaskaskia channel remnant, fully encircling Kaskaskia and transforming it into an island. This natural channel switch, driven by sediment aggradation raising the eastern path and the river's preference for a steeper gradient, cut off direct terrestrial access from Illinois and destroyed significant portions of the town's infrastructure and crops.^[11]^[61]^[62] Efforts to construct low earthen levees in the mid-19th century, including post-1844 attempts along vulnerable reaches, failed to contain the river's erosive power and recurrent high flows, allowing progressive incision of the new channel. Flooding persisted into the early 20th century, with events up to 1910 contributing to ongoing erosion and inundation that undermined the physical integrity of the site through sediment dynamics and discharge variability inherent to meandering alluvial rivers.^[63]^[5]

Demographic Collapse

The population of Kaskaskia stood at approximately 1,200 residents in the 1820 census, reflecting its role as the state capital prior to the relocation to Vandalia.^[64] By 1880, this figure had plummeted to fewer than 300, marking the onset of severe demographic contraction driven by geographical isolation following the capital's departure and the redirection of American migration toward more accessible interior farmlands.^[15] The town's position on low-lying riverine terrain exacerbated this trend, as repeated inundations eroded infrastructure and deterred settlement, compelling residents to seek stability elsewhere.^[14] A core factor in the exodus was the preference of Anglo-American settlers for upland agricultural districts, which offered superior soil and flood resistance compared to Kaskaskia's vulnerable floodplains; this shift aligned with broader patterns of westward expansion into Illinois' prairie regions during the antebellum era.^[57] The lingering French Creole population, predominantly Catholic and culturally distinct, maintained traditions amid the decline but proved insufficient to sustain growth, as intermarriage and out-migration reduced their numbers over generations.^[3] The 1910 Mississippi River flood intensified this process, prompting a mass departure to nearby higher ground such as Chester, Illinois, where evacuees rebuilt amid the destruction of homes and levees.^[65] By the mid-20th century, the village's population had further eroded to around 640 in 1940, continuing a trajectory tied to the site's progressive uninhabitability rather than ideological displacements.^[65] The 2020 census recorded just 14 permanent residents, many of whom occupy seasonal dwellings, underscoring a near-total abandonment attributable to cumulative environmental pressures and the lack of viable economic anchors.^[66] This empirical collapse reflects causal dynamics of terrain-driven migration and infrastructural decay, independent of modern interpretive overlays.

Etymology and Naming

Tribal and Linguistic Roots

The name Kaskaskia derives from Kaahkaahkia, the autonym used by members of the Kaskaskia subtribe within the Illinois Confederation to refer to themselves in the Miami-Illinois language, a member of the Algonquian family.^[67]^[68] This linguistic self-designation reflects the dialectal divisions among the confederation's groups, with Kaahkaahkia denoting the specific band associated with the term.^[69] Etymologically, Kaahkaahkia is onomatopoeic, evoking the repetitive "kaask-kaask" chirp of the katydid (Tettigoniidae family), an insect whose sound the word phonetically imitates in Miami-Illinois; this contrasts with less substantiated interpretations linking it to tools like hide scrapers, which lack direct attestation in primary linguistic records.^[70] Jesuit compilations and early French transcriptions preserved the term's form without alteration for symbolic or unrelated animal references, grounding it in observable Algonquian phonetic patterns rather than folklore.^[71] French Jesuit missionary Jacques Marquette first recorded the name in European accounts during his 1673 expedition along the Mississippi River, where he visited a Kaskaskia village and noted interactions with the band, transcribing it based on oral pronunciation from Algonquian speakers.^[28]^[71] This documentation marked the transition of the tribal autonym into broader cartographic and settlement nomenclature, initially applied to the people's primary village before extending to associated riverine and insular features following the tribe's later dispersals.^[72]

Contemporary Status

Population and Preservation Efforts

As of the 2020 United States Census, Kaskaskia had a population of 21 residents, reflecting its status as one of Illinois's smallest incorporated communities amid ongoing geographical isolation on a Mississippi River island.^[73]^[74] The settlement remains accessible solely by the free Ste. Genevieve-Modoc Ferry, operated seasonally across the Mississippi from Missouri, with no bridges connecting it to the Illinois mainland due to river avulsions and flood-induced shifts.^[75] The Illinois Department of Natural Resources' Historic Preservation Division oversees Kaskaskia as part of state historic sites, including Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site, focusing on maintenance of earthen fortifications and associated structures to prevent further erosion from fluvial dynamics.^[2] Key preserved landmarks include the Church of the Immaculate Conception, constructed in brick in 1843 in a traditional French style and subsequently relocated brick-by-brick in 1894 following major floods, with restorations documented in 1962, 1973, and 1993 to address flood damage and structural decay.^[76]^[77] Also maintained on-site is the "Liberty Bell of the West," a 1741 bronze bell cast in La Rochelle, France, and originally gifted by King Louis XV to the local Catholic mission, which has been preserved through conservation efforts despite repeated inundations.^[78] In 2023, archaeologists from Southern Illinois University Carbondale initiated geophysical surveys and excavations targeting the original pre-flood location of Kaskaskia, employing ground-penetrating radar and targeted digs to empirically map subsurface remnants of colonial-era foundations and artifacts, aiming to reconstruct settlement patterns without reliance on anecdotal histories.^[14] These efforts, part of ongoing field schools at Fort Kaskaskia, prioritize data-driven recovery of material evidence to inform site stabilization against hydrological threats.^[79]

Tourism and Historical Sites

Kaskaskia attracts visitors primarily to its state-managed historic sites, which preserve remnants of its colonial and early American past amid the village's geographical isolation on the Mississippi River's west bank in Missouri. Key attractions include the Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site, featuring the earthen ruins of a French-built fort constructed around 1759 to defend the settlement, along with scenic bluffs overlooking the river and the Garrison Hill Cemetery established in the 18th century.^[2]^[80] Adjacent to the fort site lies the Pierre Menard Home State Historic Site, a National Historic Landmark built circa 1815 in French Creole style by Pierre Menard, Illinois Territory's first lieutenant governor and a prominent fur trader; the home offers guided tours during seasonal hours, showcasing period furnishings and architecture reflective of early 19th-century frontier elite life.^[81]^[82] The Kaskaskia Bell State Memorial houses the Liberty Bell of the West, a 650-pound bell cast in France in 1741 and originally donated to the local Catholic parish; it gained its nickname after being rung on July 4, 1778, to celebrate George Rogers Clark's capture of the village from British forces during the Revolutionary War.^[83] An annual Independence Day event at the memorial commemorates this history with programs starting at 1 p.m., including historical presentations and food vendors opening earlier, drawing attendees to honor the bell's role despite flood damage in 1993 that halted traditional ringing.^[84]^[85] Access to these sites relies on the Modoc Ferry, which provides crossing from the Missouri side near Ste. Genevieve to the Illinois mainland, but operations are seasonal and highly susceptible to Mississippi River levels, often suspending service during high water or adverse weather.^[75] Persistent flood risks exacerbate isolation, as seen in 2019 when prolonged high waters rendered the village reachable only by boat for months, limiting infrastructure development and underscoring the dominance of natural river dynamics over human intervention in shaping visitor logistics.^[12]^[86] These factors contribute to modest tourism centered on self-guided exploration of remnants like the fort's earthworks and Menard's estate, with no extensive modern amenities due to the site's remote, flood-prone setting.^[80]

Legacy and Namesakes

Historical Significance

Kaskaskia functioned as a strategic British-held outpost in the Illinois Country during the American Revolutionary War, bridging French colonial legacies with emerging American frontier expansion. On July 4, 1778, George Rogers Clark led roughly 180 Virginia and Kentucky militiamen in a surprise capture of the village, exploiting minimal resistance due to local French inhabitants' neutrality or sympathy toward the American cause. This success in Clark's Illinois Campaign neutralized British influence across the region north of the Ohio River, bolstering U.S. negotiations for the Northwest Territory in the 1783 Treaty of Paris and preventing allied Native American raids from fortified bases.^[46] ^[4] Post-war, Kaskaskia transitioned into American administrative structures, initially as the seat of Illinois County under Virginia's jurisdiction before integration into the Northwest Territory. Designated capital of the Illinois Territory in 1809, it retained this role through statehood in 1818 and briefly as the first state capital until 1819, reflecting its established position amid sparse early settlements. However, this choice proved inefficient for long-term governance, as riverine isolation hindered connectivity to growing populations eastward, underscoring environmental constraints on frontier site selection despite initial advantages in trade and defense.^[4] The 1803 Treaty of Kaskaskia exemplified standard U.S. expansion tactics, with the tribe ceding claims to approximately 11 million acres in southern Illinois for two small reservations, an annual $300 annuity, and federal protection against other tribes. Negotiated under William Henry Harrison at Vincennes, the agreement facilitated white settlement patterns tied to Mississippi River access, though it highlighted causal vulnerabilities of such loci to flooding and erosion—factors that later isolated the village—without introducing unique controversies beyond era norms of land acquisition.^[23]

Modern References

The Kaskaskia River, a major tributary of the Mississippi River draining approximately 15,126 square kilometers across 22 Illinois counties, retains a direct hydrological connection to the historical village through its watershed and the dramatic 19th-century avulsion event that isolated the site.^[87] Similarly, Kaskaskia Island, formed when the Mississippi River shifted into the Kaskaskia River's channel around 1844, cutting off the original village peninsula and creating an Illinois exclave accessible primarily from Missouri, serves as a geographical remnant tied to flood-induced isolation rather than coincidental naming.^[12] Kaskaskia College, established in 1940 in Centralia, Illinois—over 100 miles northeast of the historical village—bears the name as a nod to regional Illinois heritage but lacks direct geographical or institutional ties to the original settlement, functioning instead as a community college serving southern Illinois with no shared lineage in location or founding purpose.^[88] Descendants of the Kaskaskia people, originally part of the Illinois Confederation, persist as remnants integrated into the federally recognized Peoria Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, formed through a 1854 confederation of Kaskaskia, Peoria, Piankashaw, and Wea bands following relocations from Illinois to Kansas and then Indian Territory in 1867.^[89] This tribal continuity represents a direct cultural and genealogical echo, distinct from broader Algonquian influences. Kaskaskia appears in minor literary contexts, primarily non-fiction historical accounts of George Rogers Clark's 1778 Illinois Campaign, such as detailed expedition memoirs emphasizing diplomatic captures over battles, rather than fictional narratives or widespread cultural motifs.^[90] Recent scholarly engagement, including Southern Illinois University's 2023 archaeological field school excavations at Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site, uncovered portions of an American-era fort on Garrison Hill and pursued geophysical surveys for the original village layout, underscoring ongoing empirical interest in material evidence without associated politicization.^[79]^[14]

References

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Kaskaskia, Illinois - Jesuits.org
French Jesuits founded Kaskaskia as a mission in 1703 along the Kaskaskia River, a tributary of the Mississippi River located in central and southern Illinois.
[2]
Fort Kaskaskia - Illinois Historic Preservation Division
1759 to defend the town of Kaskaskia. Founded in 1703, the town was for more than a century the region's principal commercial center, also serving from 1818 to ...
[3]
Kaskaskia | Mythic Mississippi Project - University of Illinois at ...
In 1818 Kaskaskia was named the capital of the new State of Illinois. It had a population of about 7,000. But a year later the capital was transferred to ...
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When Illinois Joined the Union, Its Capital Was Kaskaskia
The Mississippi river town of Kaskaskia was a frontier boomtown, playing an important role in the French and Indian War and the American Revolution.
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Chester-Kaskaskia Illinois 3 | https://www.historyillinois.org/
Kaskaskia served as Illinois Territorial Capitol (1809-1818) and as the first state capitol (1818-1820). When the capitol was moved to Vandalia, Kaskaskia ...
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The History of Kaskaskia Island - Ste. Genevieve Museum
Nov 8, 2024 · The Mississippi river town of Kaskaskia was a frontier boomtown, playing an important role in the French and Indian War and the American Revolution.
[7]
The Illinois village located in Missouri | FOX 2
Apr 9, 2022 · Kaskaskia is part of Randolph County, Illinois, but is located the Missouri side of the Mississippi River. The village has a current population of 21 people.
[8]
Kaskaskia, IL - TopoQuest
Kaskaskia, Illinois Kaskaskia is a populated place located in Randolph County, IL at N37.92144° W89.91316° (NAD83) and at an elevation of 374 ft MSL.
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Latitude and longitude coordinates are: 37.921574, -89.917809. Kaskaskia is a small village in Randolph County, southern Illinois, United States, located 11 ...Missing: elevation topography
[10]
Old Kaskaskia Topo Map in Randolph County IL
Coordinates: 37.9489411°N, -89.9220531°W ; Approx. Elevation: 390 feet (119 meters) ; USGS Map Area: Kaskaskia ; Feature Type: City.
[11]
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Oct 8, 2024 · In April 1881, a major Mississippi River flood destroyed most of Kaskaskia. When the flood waters subsided, Kaskaskians found their town west of ...
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Illinois' first capital is an island that's home to just 18 people. Recent ...
Jul 3, 2019 · The home of the first capital of Illinois from 1818 until 1820, Kaskaskia has been severed from the rest of the state for more than 135 years.
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Jul 12, 2019 · After three months of being submerged in flood waters, some bridges and roads are finally passable in the tiny island town of Kaskaskia, ...Missing: enclave | Show results with:enclave
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SIU researchers seek lost community: the original site of Kaskaskia
Feb 15, 2023 · A series of floods beginning in 1844 reduced and relocated the town, as its original site became in island in the river. Another flood in 1881 ...Missing: avulsion isolation
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Kaskaskia: The Lost Capital of Illinois
Jul 18, 2019 · Kaskaskia became the capital of the Illinois Territory and then the first state capital of Illinois in 1818 and the town was home to leading political and ...
[16]
Historic Flooding on the Missouri River - Vintage Cole Photos
-"The flood of 1785 was one of the severest in the history of the Mississippi. The water extended to the bluffs on both sides. The people of Cahokia and ...
[17]
[PDF] the 1973 mississippi river basin flood: compilation and analyses of ...
Mar 18, 2025 · Beginning on June 18, 1972, the remains of Hurricane Agnes produced floods in the eastern United States from Virginia to New York that killed ...
[18]
[PDF] The changing Illinois Indians under European influence: The split ...
... Kaskaskia or. Peoria population. During the seventeenth century the entire population of the Kaskaskia and. Peoria combined was around 6,000, with the Peoria ...
[19]
Native Americans:Historic:The Illinois:Society:Social Status
A woman could elevate her status by bearing and raising children, by harvesting bountiful crops of maize and other cultivated plants, and by building and ...
[20]
Explorers and Settlers (Old Kaskaskia Village Site)
In September, a war party of 600 to 700 Iroquois arrived, causing the 7,000 to 8,000 inhabitants of Old Kaskaskia Village to flee downstream immediately. About ...Missing: smallpox 1714
[21]
Native Americans:Historic:The Illinois:History:The Illinois Decline
There were also several epidemics of unidentified diseases, one of which killed at least 200 Kaskaskia Indians in 1714. Native drawing of a person suffering ...
[22]
Kaskaskia | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
The Kaskaskia are an American Indian tribe that is no longer extant. They were once a part of the Illinois, a group of approximately twelve Algonquian-speaking ...
[23]
Treaty with the Kaskaskia, 1803 - Tribal Treaties Database
ARTICLE 1st. Cession to the United States. ; ART. 2d. United States to take the Kaskaskias under their protection, etc. ; ART. 3d. Former annuity to be increased; ...Missing: Peoria | Show results with:Peoria
[24]
[PDF] Cultural Resource Survey of Historical Kaskaskia - DTIC
A cultural resources survey of five linear miles of shoreline of the upper Mississippi River at selected locations In Illinois and. Missouri was ...Missing: avulsion 1910
[25]
Research Reports - Illinois State Archaeological Survey
23: Late Woodland Frontiers: Patrick Phase Settlement along the Kaskaskia Trail, Monroe Country, Illinois. Authors: Brad Koldehoff and Joseph M ...
[26]
[PDF] The Mississippi Voyage of Jolliet and Marquette 1673
the Mexican Gulf, the return journey was begun. Continued along the Illinois River, past the Kaskaskia Indian village, and over the Des Plaines-Chicago ...
[27]
Native Americans:Historic:The Illinois:History:Exploration
Marquette and Jolliet set out from the Mackinac Straits in May, 1673, with five boatmen in two birchbark canoes. They paddled down Lake Michigan into Green Bay.
[28]
Marquette and Jolliet's Excellent Adventure - AMERICAN HERITAGE
In 1673, a Jesuit missionary, a fur trader, and a small group of canoe men traveled 2000 miles from what is now upper Michigan down to Arkansas and back.
[29]
The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents Volume 66
Gravier describes the arduous missions which he and Marest are carrying on in Illinois; and states that almost the entire village of Kaskaskia is now converted ...
[30]
[PDF] Indian Villages of the Illinois Country: Historic Tribes
The tribes discussed are: Illini, Miami, Sauk and Fox, Potawatomi, Ottawa, and Chippewa, Shawnee and Delaware, Winnebago and Menominee.<|separator|>
[31]
La Salle Expedition - Texas State Historical Association
Jun 12, 2024 · ... La Salle's 1682 exploration of the Mississippi from the mouth of the Illinois River to the Gulf of Mexico. Having first departed from La ...
[32]
Explorers and Settlers (Historical Background) - National Park Service
The party entered the Mississippi from the Illinois River in February 1682. In April they reached the mouth of the Mississippi, where La Salle ceremoniously ...
[33]
Illinois: The French Arrive
In 1682, La Salle's expedition to find the mouth of the Mississippi River reached its destination, and La Salle claimed the whole Mississippi drainage area ...
[34]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Jacques Gravier - New Advent
In 1687 he succeeded Allouez in the Illinois mission begun by Marquette. He is the true founder of that mission, where he spent ten years of incredible hardship ...
[35]
Jacques Largillier: Merchant, Then Missionary - NPS History
Aug 19, 2024 · An equally zealous and energetic missionary, Father Jacques Gravier, succeeded Father Allouez in 1689. The Kaskaskia Indians moved father south ...
[36]
Pays d'en Haut and Louisiana | Virtual Museum of New France
The post-Conquest French population in the region was comprised of Canadiens, people born in the Illinois Country, French from other colonies (especially ...
[37]
JUCHEREAU DE SAINT-DENYS, CHARLES (Sieur de Beaumarchais)
Saint-Denys was probably sincere in wishing to establish a permanent French settlement, as well as a tannery for quick profits. Had he been successful he ...
[38]
[PDF] Kaskaskia under the French regime - University of Illinois Library
culture of old Kaskaskia. Page 16. Chapter II. KASKASKIA BEGINNINGS. Mission, 1703 ... Country, 36-37. ' Charles Juchereau de St. Denys, granted a concession of ...Missing: permanent | Show results with:permanent
[39]
[PDF] ILLINOIS RIVER BASIN RESTORATION COMPREHENSIVE PLAN ...
The Illini began to grow wheat as early as 1700, and in 1711 or 1712 the French introduced draft animals and built windmills for the use of the Kaskaskia on the ...
[40]
The Time of the French in North America | Chicago Portage
In 1750 the village of Kaskaskia counted over 1,000 French residents. ... The French and Indian War left the French residents of Lower and Upper Louisiana ...Missing: population | Show results with:population
[41]
The Illinois Frontier - Borderlands
At their peak in 1752, the French population reached 1,380, about 40 percent were enslaved Africans. This section of an 1718 French map shows French and Native ...Missing: period | Show results with:period
[42]
[PDF] Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site Self-guided tour
Kaskaskia maintained a military presence from an early date, but this earthen redoubt was constructed in 1759 to protect villagers during the French and Indian ...
[43]
Fort Kaskaskia - Discover Lewis & Clark
Fort Kaskaskia was one of a series of forts constructed by the U.S. Army in 1803 under orders from Secretary of War Henry Dearborn to protect the frontier.
[44]
Native Americans:Historic:The Illinois:Society:Neighbors:The British
Pontiac objected when the British cut off vital supplies of gunpowder and ammunition needed by the Indians for hunting. He was also concerned by indications ...
[45]
Fort Kaskaskia - FortWiki Historic U.S. and Canadian Forts
Aug 19, 2020 · This incarnation of the fort was named Fort Kaskaskia and it remained until destroyed in 1766 by the citizens of Kaskaskia to keep it from ...
[46]
The Clark Campaign - George Rogers Clark National Historical Park ...
Nov 5, 2023 · During the summer of 1778 Clark directed his army down the Ohio River then overland some 120 miles to capture the British posts at Kaskaskia and ...
[47]
IHB: Taking Kaskaskia - IN.gov
On the 4th of July, [1778] in the evening, we got within a few miles of the town [Kaskaskia] and took possession of a house on the bank of the Kaskaskia river.
[48]
George Rogers Clark Biography - Indiana State Government
Clark offered the French inhabitants "all of the privileges of American citizenship" in return for their oath of allegiance of safe conduct out of the area.
[49]
Illinois in the Revolution - General Joseph bartholomew Chapter
Clark's victories in Illinois helped secure the western frontier for the American cause and were instrumental in the United States' claim to the Northwest ...
[50]
Winning the Illinois Country in the American Revolution
Clark led an expedition of nearly 175 men, including French allies recruited at Kaskaskia. They marched on foot a total of 180 miles east through flooded ...
[51]
The Legacy of George Rogers Clark - Americana Corner
Apr 23, 2024 · The Treaty of Paris of 1783 that ended the American Revolution, brought the United States its long-desired liberty and independence from Great ...
[52]
Kaskaskia, Illinois - Papers Of Abraham Lincoln
The town functioned as the capital of Illinois Territory from 1809-1818 and became the first capital of the new state of Illinois.
[53]
Historical Timeline - Illinois GenWeb
1809 - Congress organizes the Illinois Territory, with Kaskaskia the capital, Ninian Edwards (1775-1833) the governor. • 1811 - The first coal mine in ...
[54]
Kaskaskia, Illinois - FamilySearch
Kaskaskia (and all of present-day Illinois) was originally part of Quebec until the Mississippi River Valley was annexed by Louisiana on 27 September 1717.
[55]
Event Timeline - Illinois Historic Preservation Division
1778 Kaskaskia Captured On July 4, George Rogers Clark seizes Kaskaskia from the British without firing a shot, one of the western-most military actions of the ...
[56]
Background and a Brief History and Guide to the Illinois Judicial ...
In anticipation, a constitutional convention was held in Kaskaskia, the state's first capital, and the first state constitution was adopted there on August 26, ...
[57]
The fate of Kaskaskia
Kaskaskia was the obvious choice for the state capital when Illinois attained statehood on December 3, 1818.
[58]
Abraham Lincoln in Illinois
This meant the population center of the state continuously moved northward. In 1820, the state moved the capital to the town of Vandalia, which was farther ...
[59]
Vandalia Illinois | https://www.historyillinois.org/
In 1819, a year after Illinois gained statehood, the General Assembly voted to move state offices to Vandalia from Kaskaskia. The Second General Assembly ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Kaskaskia River Project - USACE St. Louis District - Army.mil
The Kaskaskia River Valley has drawn people throughout history because of its abundant fertile agricultural land and convenient transportation.Missing: avulsion 1910
[61]
Born of the river, island overrun by it - Tampa Bay Times
Jul 23, 1993 · Kaskaskia Island, created when the Mississippi changed course during a flood in 1881, was overrun by the mighty river after a section of ...
[62]
Mississippi and Kaskaskia rivers prior to April 18, 1881
Accompanies paper titled, "Destruction of Kaskaskia by the Mississippi River," by J.H. Burnham. Transactions of the Illinois State Historical Society for ...Missing: cutoff 1844
[63]
Course Changes of the Mississippi River - National Park Service
Eventually, as silt and sediment clog the rivers main channel, the river will rise, ultimately switching channels, finding a path that is steeper and more ...
[64]
Kaskaskia - Mississippi Valley Traveler
Nov 3, 2018 · Major floods in 1766 and 1785 had damaged the town around the edges, but the big flood of 1844 convinced many people that the village didn't ...
[65]
[PDF] Kaskaskia Island Drainage and Levee District, Illinois. - DTIC
Responsible Office: U.S. Army Engineer District, 210 North 12th. Street. St. Louis, Missouri 63101. Phone: 314/268-2822. 1. Name of Action.Missing: 1850s | Show results with:1850s
[66]
#SmallTownSaturday – Kaskaskia, IL – Illinois History & Lincoln ...
Feb 3, 2018 · The population has dwindled to 14 people, making it the second smallest incorporated town in Illinois. You can learn more about Kaskaskia and ...
[67]
Dialects of Miami-Illinois: What's the Difference Between the ...
May 6, 2025 · Myaamia, Peewaalia, Waayaahtanwa, Peeyankihšia, and Kaahkaahkia are unquestionably dialects of a single language, and not different languages.
[68]
A Guide to Indigenous People Who Call Chicago Home
There are several variations of words and spellings used to refer to the Indigenous nations and people that call Chicago home.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[69]
Language - Aacimotaatiiyankwi
Miami-Illinois is a central Algonquian language and is most closely related to Sauk-Meskwaki (Fox)-Kickapoo, Ojibwe-Potawatomi-Ottawa and Shawnee. Miami- ...
[70]
Miami – Illinois: Recovery of a Linguistic Landscape & French ...
Apr 18, 2021 · “Kaskaskia” means katydid (tettigoniidae), which is a name based on the sound made by the insect – kaaskaaskiiwa meaning “he who goes kaask- ...Missing: etymology Kaahkaahkia
[71]
The Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents Volume 59
They stop on the way to visit a Kaskaskia band, who desire Marquette to ... “The name here given by Marquette, [meaning] 'muddy water,' prevailed till ...Missing: Algonquian | Show results with:Algonquian<|separator|>
[72]
Expedition of Marquette and Joliet, 1673 | Wisconsin Historical Society
Find out about the two French explorers that traversed the Wisconsin countryside in 1673. This artcile details their exploration of the Mississippi.Missing: Kaskaskia | Show results with:Kaskaskia
[73]
Kaskaskia, Illinois - Ballotpedia
Kaskaskia is a city in Randolph County, Illinois. The city had 21 residents as of 2020, according to the United States Census Bureau.
[74]
Kaskaskia, IL - Profile data - Census Reporter
Kaskaskia, IL 34 Population 0.1 square miles 322.2 people per square mile Census data: ACS 2023 5-year unless noted Find data for this place.<|separator|>
[75]
Ste Gen - Modoc River Ferry (2025) - All You Need to ... - Tripadvisor
Rating 4.6 (19) Definitely take this ferry if you are visiting the Illinois sites ( Fort de Chartres and Fort Kaskaskia). It saves a lot of backtracking.
[76]
Immaculate Conception Church - Kaskaskia, IL - greatriverroad.com
Feb 4, 2019 · In 1843 a brick church was completed in the squared-off French style with the bell tower over the center entrance. The flood of 1881 created ...
[77]
Traveling the King's Road
Jun 11, 2016 · <p class="p1">Restored in 1962, and again in 1973 and 1993 after flooding, the Immaculate Conception Church's congregation is the same ...<|separator|>
[78]
Liberty Bell at Kaskaskia · SCRC Virtual Museum at Southern Illinois ...
Cast in 1741 by Louis XV of France as a gift to the Catholic Church of the Illinois Country, the Liberty Bell of the West was rung in Kaskaskia, Illinois, ...Missing: replica | Show results with:replica
[79]
SIU's archaeology summer field school continues to unearth Fort ...
Jun 23, 2023 · The park is at Fort Kaskaskia, 4372 Park Road, Ellis Grove, Illinois. To arrange for interviews and a specific time, contact Mark Wagner, ...Missing: town | Show results with:town
[80]
Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service)
May 21, 2021 · Located at the confluence of the Mississippi and Kaskaskia rivers, Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site is an ideal place for campers along the Lewis & Clark ...
[81]
Pierre Menard Home - Illinois Historic Preservation
The Pierre Menard Home is located within the boundaries of Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site. The grounds of the home are open daily from sunrise to sunset. It ...Missing: prehistoric | Show results with:prehistoric
[82]
Fort Kaskaskia State Historic Site - Enjoy Illinois
Built in 1815, the Pierre Menard Home showcases French Creole architecture and early Illinois history. This National Historic Landmark honors Illinois' first ...Missing: ruins | Show results with:ruins
[83]
Kaskaskia Bell Memorial - Southwest Region
The Kaskaskia Bell State Memorial is a brick building that houses a bell cast in 1741 by King Louis XV (1710-1774) of France as a gift to the Catholic Church ...
[84]
[PDF] Celebrate Independence Day at the Kaskaskia Bell State Memorial
Jun 23, 2025 · The July Fourth program begins at 1 p.m., and the food stand opens at 11 a.m. Visitors should bring chairs. This year's program will feature a ...
[85]
July 4th at Kaskaskia will focus on the Liberty Bell of the West
The celebration on July 4th, 2025, at Kaskaskia, Ill., will again proudly present the LIBERTY BELL OF THE WEST as an honored 1741 historic 650 pound bell.
[86]
Kaskaskia, IL Flood Map and Climate Risk Report - First Street
The city of Kaskaskia has minor risk from flooding. There are 4 properties in Kaskaskia at risk of flooding over the next 30 years. This represents 8.7% of all ...Missing: ferry tourism
[87]
Kaskaskia River Basin - Engineering With Nature
With a total of 15,126 square kilometers of drainage and a presence in 22 counties, the Kaskaskia River Basin is the main tributary of the Mississippi River, ...
[88]
[PDF] The Economic Value of Kaskaskia College
Established in 1940, KC has a rich history of serving students and community members through flexible course offerings in relevant, in-demand fields. In FY ...
[89]
History - Peoria Tribe Of Indians of Oklahoma
By the Treaty of August 13, 1803, 7 Stat. 78, the Kaskaskia ceded all of their remaining lands in Illinois to the United States in return for protection and ...
[90]
George Rogers Clark and the Kaskaskia Campaign, 1777-1778
Title: George Rogers Clark and the Kaskaskia Campaign, 1777-1778. Author: Clark, George Rogers, 1752-1818 · Author: Turner, Frederick Jackson, 1861-1932.Missing: literature novels