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Kendang

The kendang (also spelled kendhang or gendang) is a traditional two-headed drum central to the music of the Indonesian archipelago, particularly in Javanese and Balinese gamelan ensembles, where it serves as the primary rhythmic instrument played by hand to control tempo, dynamics, and structural transitions.^[1]^[2]^[3] Typically constructed from a single piece of jackfruit wood hollowed into an asymmetrical barrel or conical shape, it features heads of tanned buffalo or goat hide stretched over wooden or rattan hoops and tensioned with laced rawhide in patterns such as a zigzag or "Y" configuration, allowing for tunable pitches between the larger bass head and smaller treble head.^[1]^[2] In Javanese gamelan, the kendang exists in several specialized forms, including the large kendhang gendhing or ageng for majestic orchestral pieces, the ciblon for lively dance accompaniments, the wayangan for shadow puppet theater (wayang kulit), and the smaller ketipung for faster tempos, often played in pairs by one or two musicians who improvise to guide the ensemble's irama (rhythmic density).^[1]^[2] The instrument's right head produces deeper tones struck with the full palm, while the left yields higher, sharper sounds via fingertips or knuckles, enabling expressive patterns that reflect emotional content in performances ranging from court rituals to contemporary concerts.^[1] Historically, depictions of kendang-like drums appear in 9th-century Borobudur temple reliefs and 14th-century Panataran temple carvings, with their integration into formalized gamelan ensembles traceable to the Mataram Kingdom (late 16th to mid-18th centuries), underscoring their enduring spiritual and cultural role as heirlooms (pusaka) in Indonesian society.^[1]^[2] Balinese variants of the kendang adapt to the island's dynamic gamelan styles, such as gong kebyar and angklung, where pairs of conical drums—the smaller kendang lanang (male, higher-pitched) and the larger kendang wadon (female, lower-pitched)—are struck with mallets on the bass head and hands on the treble to drive interlocking rhythms (metimpal) and explosive accents characteristic of ceremonial processions or modern theater.^[3]^[4] In these contexts, the kendang not only anchors the heterophonic texture but also facilitates improvisation, with drummers signaling cues to flutes, metallophones, and gongs, adapting from subdued ceremonial roles to vibrant leads in kebyar-influenced repertoire.^[4] Beyond gamelan, the kendang influences regional genres like Sundanese penca ensembles and popular dangdut music, highlighting its versatility across Indonesia's diverse ethnic traditions.^[5]

Introduction

Overview

The kendang, also known as gendang in regions such as Sundanese Java, is a two-headed drum originating from the Indonesian Archipelago, constructed in asymmetrical barrel or conical shapes by various ethnic groups.^[6]^[1] It bears a relation to the ancient Indian double-headed mridangam drum, sharing structural and improvisational elements as a membranophone in percussion traditions.^[7] Physically, the kendang features two drumheads stretched over a wooden body, typically carved from jackfruit wood with heads of tanned buffalo or goat hide, measuring 30–60 cm in length, with lacing systems such as leather hoops or rawhide that allow for tuning.^[8]^[1] It is played horizontally across the lap or vertically on a stand, using hands or mallets depending on the variant and context.^[6]^[1] In traditional ensembles, the kendang acts as the rhythmic core, directing tempo and phrasing while serving as a timekeeper and leader for other musicians.^[1] It is essential in Javanese and Balinese gamelan orchestras, where it controls the temporal flow (irama).^[1]

Cultural Importance

The kendang holds a profound sacred status in Makassarese traditions of South Sulawesi, where it is revered as the most important musical instrument, often equated with bronze knobbed gongs in its spiritual potency and used to facilitate divine communication during rituals.^[9] In performances like pakarena, a ritual dance-drama, the kendang's pulsating rhythms create an exuberant sonic contrast to the restrained movements, symbolizing deeper cultural and spiritual dialogues that connect participants to ancestral and supernatural realms.^[10] This role underscores its function as a conduit for invoking higher powers in ceremonial contexts, reinforcing communal bonds with the divine. In Indonesian societies, particularly in Java, Bali, and Sulawesi, the kendang influences social structures by serving as a vital element in communal events and festivals, where it leads gamelan ensembles to foster collective participation and ethnic identity. For instance, in Balinese temple odalan ceremonies and Javanese selamatan feasts, the kendang directs the tempo and irama, enabling synchronized performances that strengthen community cohesion and express shared cultural heritage.^[11] In Sulawesi's Makassarese communities, its presence in cultural festivals like the annual Culture Week highlights ethnic pride and social unity, marking occasions that reaffirm group identity amid diverse influences.^[1] Symbolically, the kendang embodies balance and ancestral connections, most notably in Balinese gamelan through the wadon-lanang pair, where the lower-pitched wadon (female) and higher-pitched lanang (male) drums represent the duality of feminine and masculine energies essential for harmony and life creation.^[11] This pairing mirrors broader cosmological principles, linking performers to ancestral lineages by evoking the union that sustains both musical ensembles and societal continuity, as seen in ritual music that honors forebears.^[12] The kendang's impact extends across Southeast Asian performing arts, appearing as the gandang in kulintang ensembles of Brunei, Malaysia, and the Philippines, where it provides rhythmic foundation for celebrations and rituals that preserve indigenous identities. In these traditions, the drum synchronizes gongs and other instruments during communal gatherings, symbolizing cultural resilience and regional interconnectedness in Austronesian heritage.^[8]

History and Origins

Ancient Depictions

The earliest archaeological evidence of kendang precursors appears in the 9th-century reliefs of Borobudur, a Buddhist temple in Central Java, where asymmetrical barrel-shaped drums are depicted among ensembles in ceremonial processions and ritual scenes. These carvings illustrate musicians playing double-headed drums alongside other instruments like flutes and lutes, suggesting their role in structured musical performances accompanying dances and worship activities. Similar drum depictions, including cylindrical and convex forms, are found in the contemporaneous Prambanan temple complex, a Hindu site nearby, where reliefs portray diverse percussion instruments integrated into narrative panels of epics and religious rites.^[1]^[13]^[14] Artifacts from the Hindu-Buddhist era (8th-10th centuries) in Indonesia, such as those from Borobudur and Prambanan, link these early drums to Indian influences transmitted via maritime trade routes connecting the Indian subcontinent to Southeast Asia. The double-headed drum design evident in the reliefs mirrors the ancient Indian mridangam, a barrel-shaped percussion instrument used in classical music and rituals, indicating cultural exchange through merchants and missionaries who introduced Hindu and Buddhist practices. Iconographic analysis of these temple carvings reveals drums as central to ensemble music supporting dances, processions, and temple ceremonies, often held by figures in traditional attire, underscoring their symbolic importance in spiritual and communal events.^[14]^[15]^[16] Comparisons with ancient drums across Southeast Asia, such as slit drums and hand-held membranophones in Khmer and Cham artifacts from the same period, highlight the kendang's indigenous evolution in Java while incorporating external inspirations from Indian models. These regional parallels confirm a shared tradition of percussion in ritual music, adapted locally to fit Javanese gamelan precursors, as seen in the varied shapes and playing postures in Borobudur's Karmawibhangga panels. This blend of native innovation and imported elements establishes the kendang's foundational role in early Indonesian musical heritage.^[1]^[13]

Historical Development

The kendang's integration into Indonesian musical traditions accelerated during the 14th to 16th centuries with the expansion of Islamic sultanates in Java and Sulawesi, where it became a core element of court music ensembles. As Islam spread through trade and conquest, pre-existing drum forms blended with gamelan orchestras in royal courts, such as those of Demak and Mataram in Java, adapting the kendang to accompany refined performances that balanced spiritual and secular themes. In Sulawesi, particularly among Bugis and Makassar communities under emerging Islamic rulers around the early 17th century, the kendang supported processional and ceremonial music, reflecting influences from Middle Eastern percussion while retaining local barrel-drum constructions. This period marked the kendang's shift from ritualistic uses to a directive role in layered gamelan textures, unifying melodic and rhythmic elements in palace settings.^[8]^[17] During the Dutch colonial era from the 17th to early 20th centuries, the kendang underwent adaptations in urban gamelan ensembles while facing suppression in certain ritual contexts due to colonial policies favoring economic exploitation over indigenous cultural practices. In Java, European drums and rhythms were occasionally incorporated into court gamelan, creating hybrid forms like those in ronggeng dance music, where the kendang provided rhythmic foundations amid Western influences such as diatonic scales and violins. Suppression occurred as Dutch authorities dismantled Javanese courts in the mid-19th century, relocating gamelan—including kendang—to village settings and limiting its use in anti-colonial rituals, though urban adaptations persisted in theaters and military bands. In Bali and Lombok, Dutch preservation efforts post-1908 conquests allowed gamelan traditions to flourish in community clubs, mitigating some disruptions but fostering localized hybridizations. Key 19th-century ethnographies, such as those by Dutch scholars documenting Javanese music, first systematically recorded kendang patterns and tunings, laying groundwork for later studies.^[8]^[18] Following Indonesia's independence in 1945, the kendang experienced a revival as part of broader cultural policies emphasizing national unity, with gamelan ensembles promoted through state institutions and exports symbolizing Indonesian identity. Conservatories like the Konservatori Karawitan Indonesia (established 1960) and Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia (1967) integrated the kendang into formal curricula, standardizing its notation—such as the "notasi KOKAR" system—and teaching techniques via rote mnemonics and texts like Martopangrawit's Titilaras Kendangan (1972), which codified patterns for educational use. This era saw the kendang's role expand in national diplomacy, with gamelan sets exported to universities worldwide, reinforcing its status in post-colonial cultural revival. Building on ancient temple depictions as an early precursor, these developments ensured the kendang's enduring centrality in gamelan while adapting to modern contexts.^[8]

Construction

Materials

The body of a kendang drum is typically carved from a single block of dense, resonant wood to ensure optimal acoustic projection and structural integrity. Jackfruit wood (Artocarpus heterophyllus), known locally as nangka, is the most commonly used material due to its hardness, fine grain, and ability to produce a warm, sustained tone without excessive damping.^[2] Coconut wood (Cocos nucifera) and cempedak wood (Artocarpus integer) serve as alternatives in some traditions, valued for their similar density and availability in tropical regions, though jackfruit remains preferred in Javanese variants for its superior durability under repeated play.^[19] Regional preferences favor harder woods like jackfruit in Java to withstand the drum's asymmetrical, barrel-shaped form and the physical demands of performance.^[2] The drumheads, which determine the instrument's pitch and timbre, are made from animal hides selected for their thickness and elasticity. The larger, low-pitched head (often called the bam) is covered with tanned buffalo hide (Bubalus bubalis), chosen for its thickness and lower resonance that produces deep, booming tones essential for rhythmic foundation.^[2] In contrast, the smaller, high-pitched head (known as the chang) uses goatskin (Capra hircus), which is thinner and more responsive to tension, yielding sharp, articulate strikes suitable for melodic accents.^[20] Tuning elements consist of interlaced laces and rings that allow precise adjustment of head tension without disassembly. Traditional lacing employs rawhide thongs (janget) woven in a zigzag pattern around the body, often combined with rattan hoops (blengker) to secure the heads, enabling pitch modulation by sliding small rawhide rings (suh) along the shell.^[2] In some variants, Y-shaped rattan laces provide additional stability for the double-headed design.^[21] Sustainability practices emphasize local sourcing to preserve cultural authenticity, with woods harvested from managed tropical forests and hides obtained as byproducts of agriculture and livestock.^[19] However, deforestation and ethical concerns over animal use have prompted modern adaptations, such as recycled PVC multiflex for bodies and synthetic polyester heads, which offer weather resistance and reduce environmental impact while approximating traditional tones.^[19] These alternatives, including HDPE plastics, address scarcity issues but may produce a slightly muted resonance compared to natural materials.^[19]

Assembly and Tuning

The assembly of a kendang begins with the selection and preparation of the wooden body, known as the ploncon. Artisans hand-carve and hollow out a solid block of wood, typically jackfruit, to form an asymmetrical, bulging-conical or barrel-shaped shell that tapers toward one end. This process requires precise craftsmanship to achieve the desired resonance and durability, with the interior hollowed to a thickness that allows for clear, projecting tones when played by hand.^[2]^[22] Once the shell is shaped, the drumheads, or tebokan, made from tanned animal hides—typically buffalo for the larger head and goat for the smaller—are prepared and attached. Each head is stretched taut over a rattan hoop, called a blengker or wengku, with a diameter slightly larger than the corresponding shell opening, or rau. The hoops are then positioned over the ends of the shell, and connected using a long rawhide lace, or janget, threaded in a zigzag pattern that makes approximately 10 passes between the two hoops. This lacing forms a characteristic repeating "Y" pattern, securing the heads without the use of glue in traditional constructions, and incorporates small rawhide rings known as suh positioned along the laces near the smaller head.^[2]^[1] Tuning the kendang involves adjusting the tension of the heads to produce distinct pitches and timbres, essential for its role in guiding ensemble rhythms. The primary method is mechanical: the suh rings are slid up or down the length of the shell, which tightens or loosens the lacing system, thereby altering the overall tension and pitch of the heads—the larger head typically tuned lower for bass tones and the smaller one higher for sharper accents. This indirect lacing allows performers or makers to fine-tune the drum on the fly, ensuring balanced resonance between the heads and harmony with the gamelan ensemble. Artisans in workshops test the assembled drum through hand-playing to verify even response and durability, with lacing techniques often transmitted orally across generations to maintain consistent quality.^[2]^[23]

Playing Techniques

Basic Methods

The kendang is played by seated performers who adopt a cross-legged posture known as sila to ensure stability and comfort during extended sessions. In the Javanese tradition, the asymmetrical drum is positioned horizontally on a low wooden stand, with the larger head oriented to the right and the smaller head to the left, allowing access by both hands without excessive reaching. In contrast, Balinese players hold the drum vertically on their lap, facilitating a more upright striking motion that suits the interlocking rhythms of their ensembles. While bare hands are the primary striking tools across traditions, padded sticks called panggul may be used in certain Balinese or Sundanese contexts for varied articulation, though hand techniques predominate to achieve nuanced tones.^[24]^[1]^[25]^[26] Basic strokes emphasize differentiation between the heads to produce core sounds: the low bass tone, often rendered as "thung" or "dhah," results from open palm or finger strikes on the center or edge of the larger head using the right hand, creating a resonant boom. The higher treble tone, such as "tong" or "tak," is generated by finger slaps or closed palm hits on the smaller head with the left hand, producing sharper, muted accents; edge strikes with fingertips add crisp emphasis for rhythmic punctuation. These techniques rely on precise hand positioning—fingers slightly curved and wrists relaxed—to generate sounds without damping unintended vibrations, while volume is modulated by strike force, from soft touches for subtle cues to forceful slaps for dynamic peaks.^[24]^[1] For beginners, ergonomic considerations are essential to prevent strain: hands should strike perpendicular to the head surface with even pressure, avoiding locked elbows or overextended wrists, and the cross-legged sila posture promotes balanced weight distribution on the stand or lap. Maintaining basic tempo involves steady, alternating strokes between heads to establish irama (temporal flow), starting slow to build coordination before integrating into ensemble timing.^[24]

Specialized Patterns

Specialized patterns in kendang performance extend beyond foundational strikes to incorporate complex rhythmic structures that enhance the ensemble's texture and drive. Interlocking rhythms, often executed between paired kendang drums, create intricate polyrhythmic layers by weaving complementary motifs that fit precisely together, such as in the combinatorial use of formulas across irama levels. These patterns are modulated through irama cycles, where the kendang player adjusts rhythmic density—ranging from fast (irama I) to slower subdivisions (irama II and beyond)—to propel the music's temporal framework while maintaining proportional relationships like 2:1 ratios in gong cycles. Additionally, rolls involve rapid successive strikes on the drumheads to build tension, while mutes—achieved by pressing the skin to dampen resonance—allow for sharp accents and dynamic contrasts, enabling expressive variations in volume and timbre.^[27] Improvisational elements form a core of advanced kendang technique, emphasizing interaction and adaptability within the performance. Call-and-response exchanges occur between the lead and supporting kendang, where one drum initiates a motif and the other replies with interlocking or syncopated counters, fostering a dialogic flow that mirrors ensemble cohesion. Tempo modulation, known as laya, is controlled by the kendang through subtle accelerations or decelerations, often cued by melodic phrases or performer signals, to heighten emotional intensity without disrupting the overall pulse. These improvisations draw from pre-composed patterns but allow spontaneous elaboration, requiring keen listening to balance innovation with structural fidelity.^[7] Kendang patterns are primarily transmitted orally rather than through written scores, relying on mnemonic syllables to encode and recall strokes. Common syllables include "dhung" for a deep bass hit on the large head, "plat" for a sharp slap on the small head, "pak" for a muted press, and variations like "tung" or "dong" for open tones, which vocalize the drum's timbres and rhythms during teaching. This system facilitates precise replication and variation, as players internalize sequences through repetition and auditory memory, adapting them fluidly in performance.^[28] Training for specialized kendang patterns typically occurs through apprenticeship in gamelan schools or under master teachers, emphasizing endurance for sustained playing and precision in timing. Students progress from basic coordination to mastering improvisational interplay, often in institutional programs that blend traditional mentorship with structured practice on ensemble cues. This hands-on approach cultivates the physical stamina and musical intuition needed for dynamic expression in live settings.^[29]

Regional Variations

Javanese Kendang

The Javanese kendang, central to the gamelan ensembles of Central Java, features a barrel-shaped body carved from a single piece of jackfruit wood, with two heads of unequal size covered in goat or buffalo skin, allowing for distinct pitches on each side.^[8] The larger head produces a deeper tone, while the smaller head yields a higher pitch, and both are tuned to specific notes within the slendro (five-tone) or pelog (seven-tone) scales of the gamelan, enabling subtle pitch variations through hand pressure during play.^[1] These drums are often used in sets of two or three, with the primary kendang directing the ensemble's rhythm and the secondary providing complementary patterns.^[1] Javanese kendang vary in size and function to suit different performance contexts, emphasizing the meditative and refined qualities of courtly music. The largest type, kendhang ageng (or gendhing), is employed in full gamelan orchestras for majestic pieces with expansive cycles.^[1] The medium-sized kendhang wayangan is specialized for wayang kulit shadow puppetry, providing rhythmic cues that align with narrative pacing.^[1] For dance accompaniments, the batangan or ciblon delivers lively yet controlled rhythms to mirror performers' movements.^[1] The smallest, ketipung, pairs with larger drums to articulate shorter cycles, enhancing textural depth without overpowering the ensemble.^[1] In performance, the Javanese kendang is positioned horizontally on a cushioned stand, played solely with the hands—the right hand striking the larger head for bass tones and the left handling the smaller for treble accents—to produce soft, nuanced dynamics that foster the introspective atmosphere of gamelan music.^[1] This hand-only technique allows for precise control over volume and timbre, from gentle taps to restrained slaps, supporting the ensemble's irama (temporal density) and signaling shifts between soft (lancaran) and more animated sections.^[30] Unlike more forceful regional variants, the Javanese style prioritizes subtlety, integrating seamlessly with the colotomic framework where gongs and metallophones mark cycles, and the kendang subtly reinforces these structures to maintain harmonic equilibrium in slendro or pelog tunings.^[30]

Sundanese Kendang

The Sundanese kendang serves as a vital rhythmic foundation in West Java's traditional music, particularly within ensembles supporting vibrant dance traditions such as jaipongan and ketuk tilu. Unlike more restrained styles in other Indonesian regions, the Sundanese variant emphasizes energetic propulsion, with drummers employing dynamic patterns to drive performances that encourage audience participation and improvisation. These drums regulate tempo and rhythm, allowing for fluid adaptation to dancers' movements and fostering a lively, interactive atmosphere characteristic of Sundanese performing arts.^[31]^[32] In terms of types, the ensemble typically features the indung, the largest drum known as the "mother," which provides the foundational bass tones, paired with one or more kulanter, smaller "child" drums that deliver higher-pitched accents. Sets for jaipongan and ketuk tilu require at least three drums, often expanding to four or five in fuller configurations to layer rhythmic complexity, with the indung anchoring the group while kulanter add agility. This multi-drum setup distinguishes Sundanese practices from simpler pairings elsewhere, enabling richer polyrhythms essential to dance accompaniment.^[31]^[33]^[32] The design of the Sundanese kendang reflects its role in high-energy settings, featuring a cylindrical wooden body—often crafted from jackfruit or kananga wood—for optimal resonance, topped and bottomed with animal skin heads, predominantly goatskin or buffalo calfskin, stretched and tuned using ropes and bamboo laces. These heads are tensioned to produce louder, brighter tones aligned with pentatonic scales, such as la and da, which project clearly in open performance spaces and support the faster tempos of jaipongan music. The perforated middle of the wooden shell enhances projection, making the instrument well-suited to the percussive demands of communal dances.^[31] Playing techniques prioritize expressiveness, with the drums positioned horizontally, lying straight from left to right for balanced access by the performer seated on the floor. Drummers primarily use open palms and middle fingers for tapping and slapping to generate a range of tones, though sticks may assist on the indung and right-side kulanter for sharper attacks in certain styles, while the left kulanter relies on hand slaps for nuanced variation. Central to the style is an emphasis on syncopation—through patterns like tepak cycles that offbeat accents build tension—and improvisation, where the pengendang (drummer) responds in real-time to dancers, incorporating spontaneous elements to heighten engagement and maintain the music's pulsating drive in jaipongan performances.^[31]^[32]^[34]

Balinese Kendang

In Balinese gamelan traditions, the kendang consists of two paired drums known as the wadon (female), which is larger and produces a lower pitch, and the lanang (male), which is smaller and higher-pitched, creating a contrasting timbral and rhythmic interplay essential to the ensemble's sound.^[35]^[36] These double-headed barrel-shaped drums are constructed to support explosive dynamic shifts, with the lanang often leading transitions in tempo and intensity.^[36] The pairing embodies a symbolic gender duality, reflecting broader Balinese cultural concepts of balance and complementarity in performance.^[37] The wadon and lanang are typically held horizontally across the player's lap while seated, allowing for intricate hand and stick techniques that drive the music's momentum. The right hand strikes the larger head with a wooden mallet called a panggul for resonant tones, while the left hand uses the palm or fingers on the smaller head to produce slaps and mutes, enabling a wide range of timbres and syncopated accents.^[35] In the dynamic style of gong kebyar, players execute rapid interlocking patterns between the two drums, emphasizing acceleration (kokar) to build tension and abrupt stops to punctuate phrases, which heighten the ensemble's dramatic expression.^[36] This rhythmic leadership from the kendang pair not only structures the gamelan but also cues dancers and other musicians in ceremonial contexts.^[35]

Other Traditions

In Makassarese traditions of South Sulawesi, the ganrang represents a key variant of the kendang, characterized by its conical or cylindrical body, double-headed construction with goat hide membranes (thicker on the larger ulu end and thinner on the smaller paja end), and tuning via metal strips or rattan ligatures inserted between the heads. These drums are struck with a buffalo-horn beater (bakbalak) on the ulu head and fingers or palm on the paja for varied tones, and their spiritual potency is enhanced by ritually charged woods like cempaka and accompanying objects (syarak-syarak). Three primary types exist: the largest ganrang mangkasarak (also called ganrang lompo, with lengths exceeding 80 cm), used in ceremonial contexts such as royal regalia blessings and staged events like the "Bunting Mangkasara" wedding representation; the medium-sized ganrang pakarena (diameter approximately 30-40 cm), which accompanies the pakarena court dance with complex patterns like tunrung pappadang; and the smallest ganrang pamancak (diameter approximately 20-25 cm), employed for martial arts (akmancak) and war depictions, including performances evoking historical battles against the Dutch. Sacred ganrang, particularly the mangkasarak type, carry ritual taboos, such as prohibitions against stepping on the drum or allowing impurity during handling, underscoring their role in invoking spiritual power. Among the Bugis of South Sulawesi, the gendrang (a local kendang form) features a cylindrical wooden body (60-70 cm long, often from sandalwood or jackfruit) with goat or deer skin heads and a resonance hole, played using a wooden striker (patette) made from guava or similar.^[38] Two main techniques prevail: mappalece, where the player sits with the drum on their lap and strokes the membranes to "unify" body and instrument in a dialogic manner before striking; and maggendrang tettong, performed standing with the drum slung over the shoulder via a strap, common in dynamic settings.^[38] Characteristic patterns include pammulang (a slow introductory motif, notated as sequences like TTTTDT or TDTDTDT where T denotes a high tone and D a low); bali sumange (medium-tempo and energizing, e.g., TDTTDTD); and kanjara (fast and climactic, repeating TDTDTDT).^[38] Both Makassarese ganrang and Bugis gendrang feature prominently in shared Sulawesi rituals, such as bissu ceremonies led by transvestite shamans for life-cycle events like weddings, circumcisions, and healings, where multiple drums create polyrhythms to induce trance or invoke protection. They also accompany ship-launching rites, linking to maritime traditions akin to boat races in the region. In contrast to the hourglass-shaped central Javanese kendang, these Sulawesi forms emphasize conical designs and ensemble roles in ritual potency. Further afield in the Philippines, underdeveloped traditions among the Tausug and Maranao incorporate the gandang—a two-headed cylindrical drum resembling the kendang—into kulintang gong ensembles for rhythmic foundation in melodic and ceremonial music.

Role in Performances

In Gamelan Ensembles

In gamelan ensembles, the kendang serves as the primary rhythmic leader, coordinating the overall temporal structure and ensuring cohesive performance among the instruments. It regulates tempo, known as laya, through variations in stroke density, typically divided into slow (andeg), medium (madu), and fast (cepat) settings, which guide the ensemble's pace without rigid metronomic precision. This control allows the kendang player to adapt the music's flow dynamically, influencing the speed at which other instruments, such as metallophones and gongs, articulate their parts.^[39]^[40] Beyond tempo, the kendang adjusts musical density, or irama, by layering rhythmic patterns that either thicken or thin the ensemble's texture. In slower laya settings, sparser strokes create a more expansive feel, while denser patterns in faster tempos intensify the sonic layering, allowing the ensemble to shift between sparse and intricate sections seamlessly. This manipulation of irama interacts closely with the cyclical framework of gamelan, where the kendang's rhythms interlock with the pulsating beats of instruments like the kempul and kenong to maintain structural integrity.^[39]^[1] The kendang also fulfills essential signaling functions, providing cues for section changes, instrument entrances, and the progression of gong cycles within the slendro or pelog tuning systems. These cues, often delivered through distinctive stroke combinations on the drumheads, alert players to transitions, such as the arrival of the large gong (gong ageng) that marks the end of a gongan cycle, ensuring synchronized phrasing across the ensemble.^[30]^[41] Interaction between the kendang and other instruments is bidirectional and integral to gamelan's improvisational nature. The kendang leads the metallophones—such as saron and bonang—by setting rhythmic foundations that these instruments elaborate upon, while responding to melodic cues from the gender (a smaller metallophone) or the rebab (a spiked fiddle), which provide elaborative lines influencing density shifts. This dialogue allows the kendang to anticipate and reinforce melodic developments, fostering a responsive ensemble dynamic where rhythmic leadership supports harmonic and melodic progression. Regional variations, such as in Javanese versus Balinese gamelan, may alter cue styles, but the core coordinative role remains consistent.^[40]^[42]

In Dance and Theater

In wayang kulit performances, the kendang provides subtle rhythmic accompaniment that mirrors the actions of the shadow puppets, with the drummer observing the screen to synchronize beats with movements such as battles or processions using specific patterns like those in gending Srepegan or Sampak.^[43] Pauses in the drumming occur when the dalang signals a diminuendo through percussive cues on the kotak, reducing the ensemble's volume to allow dialogue and narration to take precedence during key narrative moments.^[43] This integration supports the dramatic flow while maintaining coordination within the gamelan ensemble. The kendang synchronizes closely with dancers' footwork in forms like jaipongan and legong, delivering rhythmic cues that align with steps and transitions; for instance, in jaipongan, patterns such as Bongbang or Oray Welang match the intricate foot movements, while accents from tepak like Mincid Keureup emphasize turns and poses to heighten the performance's dynamic energy.^[31] In legong, the kendang follows the dancers' graceful gestures and poses, using varied stroke intensities to underscore expressive turns and maintain precise timing.^[7] In Balinese theater such as arja opera, the kendang drives the plot's tempo through interlocking patterns that shape the narrative pacing, accelerating or decelerating to reflect scene developments.^[44] Specific drumming signals cue character entrances, ensuring seamless transitions that advance the story and engage the audience with the unfolding drama.^[44] Expressive techniques on the kendang include dynamic swells achieved through varying stroke volumes and speeds, building intensity to mark emotional peaks in dance-drama sequences, as seen in irama changes that heighten dramatic tension.^[43] Muted hand placements on the drumheads create subdued tones for moments of suspense, particularly in ritual-infused theater where they evoke underlying tension before climactic releases.^[43]

Modern Developments

Contemporary Uses

In contemporary Indonesian music, the kendang has been integrated into fusion genres that blend traditional rhythms with modern styles, particularly since the late 20th century. In dangdut, a popular genre combining Malay, Indian, and Arabic influences with Indonesian elements, the kendang provides driving percussion patterns essential to its energetic beats, as seen in numerous recordings and live performances.^[45] Similarly, experimental composers like Slamet Abdul Sjukur, active from the 1980s, explored concepts like "minimax" to maximize minimal traditional motifs in avant-garde works.^[46] Groups like Krakatau have further fused kendang with jazz and Western instruments, creating hybrid ensembles that highlight its rhythmic versatility in pop gamelan contexts.^[47] Preservation efforts for the kendang are supported through education and institutional recognition, ensuring its transmission to younger generations. The 2021 UNESCO inscription of gamelan—encompassing the kendang as a core instrument—on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity has emphasized its role in Indonesian identity, promoting formal and informal education programs that pass down playing techniques and construction methods.^[48] In schools across Indonesia, such as Jakarta Intercultural School, gamelan ensembles including kendang instruction are integrated into music curricula to foster cultural awareness and skill development.^[49] Artisan workshops, often family-run in regions like Yogyakarta and West Java, provide hands-on training for crafting kendang, combining traditional woodworking and skinning with modern business skills to sustain the craft.^[50] Technological adaptations have enabled the kendang's use in urban settings, where amplification enhances its projection during large-scale performances in cities like Jakarta and Surabaya.^[51] Synthetic drum heads, made from materials like polyester, are increasingly employed on kendang to improve durability against humidity and frequent play, offering consistent tension without the maintenance issues of traditional animal skins.^[52] Urbanization presents challenges to traditional kendang makers, including raw material shortages and economic pressures from competing modern industries, which have reduced the number of full-time artisans in rural areas.^[53] Countering this, cultural festivals and national events, such as performances during Independence Day celebrations and regional arts gatherings like those for Reyog Kendang in Tulungagung, showcase the instrument and attract tourism, helping to revitalize interest and support local craftsmen.^[54]

Global Influence

The kendang has been integral to Indonesian diaspora communities abroad, particularly within gamelan ensembles formed by migrant groups and academic institutions in the United States and Europe since the 1960s. In the US, university programs played a pioneering role, with early efforts at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in the late 1950s evolving into broader initiatives by the 1960s that incorporated kendang as a core rhythmic element in Javanese and Balinese gamelan performances.^[55] Groups like Gamelan Sekar Jaya, established in 1978 in the San Francisco Bay Area by Indonesian expatriates and local enthusiasts, continue to feature kendang in public concerts and cultural preservation efforts, blending traditional techniques with community outreach. In Europe, similar ensembles emerged through university ties, such as at Wesleyan University, where kendang instruction supports intercultural music studies involving diaspora musicians. Beyond diaspora settings, the kendang has influenced world music fusions, appearing in collaborations between Indonesian traditions and Western artists. The Kronos Quartet, for instance, partnered with the Balinese-American ensemble Gamelan Galak Tika in 2010 for a premiere at Lincoln Center, integrating kendang rhythms into experimental compositions that combined string quartet textures with gamelan percussion, including electronic adaptations via the Gamelan Elektrika project.^[56] This collaboration highlighted the kendang's adaptability, with its interlocking beats providing a rhythmic foundation for hybrid pieces performed globally. Electronic remixes have further extended its reach, as seen in projects like house-infused tracks sampling kendang patterns, such as "House Remix Kendang Kempul," which merge Southeast Asian drumming with contemporary dance music genres.^[57] Academic study of the kendang has grown within ethnomusicology, focusing on its technical and cultural roles in global contexts. Researchers at institutions like UCLA's Ethnomusicology Archive have documented kendang variants through photographic and audio collections, analyzing their construction and performance practices in transplanted gamelan traditions.^[58] Museum collections worldwide preserve examples, such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Gendang—a close Bornean relative of the kendang—crafted from wood and snakeskin in the late 19th century, which illustrates regional adaptations now studied for cross-cultural influences.^[59] These efforts underscore the instrument's migration and evolution outside Indonesia. Despite these developments, gaps persist in documentation, particularly for Philippine variants like the Tausug gandang, a double-headed drum used in kulintangan ensembles among the Tausug people of Sulu, where detailed ethnomusicological records remain sparse compared to Indonesian traditions.^[60] This limited coverage points to untapped potential for further research into the kendang's broader Austronesian dispersal.^[61]

References

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None
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[49]
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[PDF] Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)
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The gandang is a double-headed drum about 60 to 80 cm. long, with the heads usually made of goatskin fastened to the drum with nylon or rataan lashings.
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