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Kuli-kuli

Kuli-kuli is a traditional West African snack originating from Northern Nigeria, primarily made from roasted peanuts (groundnuts) that are ground into a paste, seasoned with spices such as ginger, hot pepper, and salt, pressed to extract excess oil, shaped into forms like sticks, balls, or cakes, and then deep-fried to create a crunchy texture.^[1] This snack, first developed by the Nupe people and widely associated with Hausa communities, reflects the region's historical reliance on groundnut agriculture, which peaked in the mid-20th century with iconic groundnut pyramids in areas like Kano and Kaduna serving as symbols of economic prosperity before Nigeria's shift away from being a major exporter.^[2]^[3] Today, kuli-kuli is enjoyed across Nigeria, Benin, northern Cameroon, and Ghana, often consumed on its own as a portable, protein-rich treat for farmers and travelers, or incorporated into dishes like garri (cassava flakes), soups, salads, yogurt, or smoothies for added crunch and flavor.^[1]^[3] Nutritionally, kuli-kuli provides a good source of plant-based protein, healthy fats, and essential nutrients like calcium and potassium, derived from its peanut base, though the oil-extraction process makes it a lower-fat option compared to raw peanuts.^[4] Its labor-intensive preparation underscores resourcefulness in utilizing groundnut byproducts, contributing to its status as an affordable, versatile staple in West African markets and cuisine.^[1]

Overview

Description

Kuli-kuli is a crunchy West African snack primarily made from roasted and ground peanuts (groundnuts), which are blended with spices and molded into shapes such as sticks, balls, or flat cakes before deep-frying in peanut oil.^[5]^[6] The result is a golden-brown exterior with a firm, crispy texture that provides a satisfying crunch.^[7] Its flavor profile is distinctly nutty, often enhanced with spicy elements like chili or ginger, making it a versatile treat enjoyed on its own or paired with other foods.^[8] Typically portioned into small, bite-sized pieces, kuli-kuli is highly portable and commonly available as street food or in packaged form across markets in West Africa.^[9] As a nutrient-dense option rich in protein from its peanut base, kuli-kuli functions as a sustaining staple snack for daily consumption in the region.^[10] While variations exist by country, the core form remains consistent.^[11]

Etymology

The term "kuli-kuli" derives from the Hausa language spoken in northern Nigeria, where it refers to a traditional peanut-based snack formed into cakes or bars.^[12] In Hausa linguistic contexts, the name directly translates to "peanut cake" or "groundnut cake," reflecting the primary ingredient and preparation method of pressing ground peanuts into solid forms after oil extraction.^[6] Although the snack itself originated among the Nupe people of central Nigeria's Niger State, the Hausa name gained prominence due to the widespread use of Hausa as a regional lingua franca in West Africa, facilitating its adoption across ethnic groups.^[2] Nupe communities, known for their traditional production techniques, may have contributed to early naming conventions, but no distinct pre-Hausa term from Nupe languages has been documented in available sources. Naming variations appear in neighboring countries where the snack is popular. In Ghana, it is commonly spelled and pronounced as "kulikuli," maintaining close similarity to the Hausa form while integrating into local Akan and other dialects.^[13] English translations often render it as "groundnut cakes" or "peanut cakes," emphasizing the ingredient over the indigenous name. In Benin and northern Cameroon, the term "kuli-kuli" persists without significant alteration, underscoring shared Hausa cultural influences in the region.^[1] In diaspora communities, particularly among West African immigrants in Europe and North America, the term has evolved through commercial branding and cultural export. For instance, Kuli Kuli Foods, a U.S.-based company founded in 2013, adopted the name directly from the West African snack to market nutrient-dense bars incorporating moringa, drawing on the founder's experiences in Niger to promote the term globally.^[14] This branding has helped preserve and popularize the original Hausa nomenclature in international contexts, linking it to broader narratives of African superfoods and nutrition.

History and Origins

Traditional Beginnings

Kuli-kuli originated with the Nupe people of central Nigeria, where it was developed as a method to preserve peanuts by grinding them, extracting their oil, and forming the dry residue into compact cakes that could be fried for longer shelf life.^[15] This innovation likely emerged in the 19th century or earlier, following the establishment of peanut cultivation in West Africa after the crop's introduction by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, which provided communities with an abundant, nutrient-dense legume suited to local agriculture.^[16] The early preparation of kuli-kuli was closely tied to peanut farming practices among the Nupe, who ground the nuts using traditional stone mortars to separate the oil—often collected for cooking—leaving a protein-rich paste that was seasoned simply and shaped into balls or sticks.^[1] This process not only extended the usability of harvested peanuts in a region with limited preservation techniques but also transformed surplus crops into a versatile staple. From its inception, kuli-kuli served primarily as a non-perishable travel food for nomads, herders, and laborers traversing the savannas of northern Nigeria, offering portable sustenance that resisted spoilage in harsh climates and provided essential energy during long journeys.^[3] Its durability made it ideal for Fulani pastoralists and itinerant workers, who valued the snack's high protein content derived from the peanut base without the need for refrigeration or frequent preparation.^[1]

Cultural Spread

Kuli-kuli, a snack originating from central Nigeria, disseminated to neighboring countries like Benin and northern Cameroon through regional trade networks since the late 19th century, making it a staple in these regions by the mid-20th century.^[1] In Ghana, kuli-kuli—locally known as kulikulizum among the Mole Dagbani people of the northern regions—was adopted into traditional practices and market economies, with its preparation methods passed down orally through generations during the colonial era. Post-independence, it integrated into Ghana's vibrant street food culture, particularly in northern markets like Wa and Bolgatanga, where women produce it for daily sales, reflecting its role in local commerce and sustenance.^[17]^[18]^[19] The West African diaspora has further propelled kuli-kuli's global reach, with migrants introducing it to Europe and North America, where demand among expatriate communities has driven exports and commercialization since the 2010s. In North America, companies like Kuli Kuli Foods, founded in 2011 by Lisa Curtis after her Peace Corps service in Niger, have adapted the concept into moringa-infused nutrition bars sold in over 11,000 stores as of 2025, sourcing ingredients from West African cooperatives to support local economies. Similarly, in Europe, African diaspora networks in countries like the UK, Germany, and France have fueled imports, positioning kuli-kuli as a nostalgic snack in ethnic markets.^[20]^[14]^[21] Kuli-kuli holds a prominent place in national identities across West Africa, notably as Benin's recognized national dish, symbolizing resilience and nutritional accessibility for communities facing food insecurity. This status underscores its evolution from a regional trade item to a cultural emblem of sustenance and heritage in Benin.^[5]^[22]

Regional Variations

Nigerian Kuli-kuli

In Nigeria, kuli-kuli is predominantly a savory snack characterized by its spicy and robust flavors derived from chili, ginger, and salt, which enhance the nutty essence of roasted peanuts. This version stands out in Hausa and Nupe cuisines for its crunchy texture and versatility in shapes, commonly molded into long sticks or compact balls, making it a portable and enduring treat.^[1] The snack holds a prominent place in northern Nigerian culture, particularly within Hausa and Nupe communities, where it is closely associated with bustling markets and vibrant festivals. Women vendors play a central role in its production and sale, often preparing it as a key economic activity that supports local livelihoods in these regions.^[1]^[23]^[24] Nigerian kuli-kuli integrates seamlessly into traditional Hausa meals, frequently served alongside staples like tuwo—a dense millet or corn porridge—or as a complementary side to fufu, adding a spicy crunch that balances milder dishes. Production scales vary geographically: in rural areas, it remains largely artisanal, relying on manual techniques passed down through generations, while urban centers like Kano feature semi-industrial operations that meet growing demand through larger-scale processing.^[1]^[25]

Ghanaian Kuli-kuli

In Ghana, kuli-kuli is commonly referred to as "kulikuli" and is adapted into thin, crispy chips formed from ground peanut paste, enhanced with added sugar and spices for a distinctive sweet-spicy balance. This version draws from the peanut grinding base used in traditional preparation, where roasted peanuts are processed into a paste before shaping and frying. The flavor profile reflects the abundance of peanut farming in northern Ghana, such as the Northern Region, one of Ghana's key groundnut-producing areas, which supports local production and influences the snack's nutty sweetness tempered by spices like chili and ginger. Kulikuli enjoys widespread popularity in southern Ghanaian street markets, where vendors produce and sell it fresh, often wrapping portions in paper or plastic for convenient on-the-go consumption. As a versatile street food, it is frequently paired with roasted corn to complement its crunch, or enjoyed as a standalone treat, particularly among children seeking an affordable, protein-rich snack during school breaks or market visits.

Variations in Other Regions

In Benin, kuli-kuli is recognized as the national dish, consisting of dense cakes or balls formed from ground peanuts after the extraction of peanut oil, which is then used to deep-fry the mixture for a crunchy texture.^[5]^[22] This preparation emphasizes the oil-extraction process, where roasted peanuts are pounded into a paste, pressed to release oil, and seasoned before shaping and frying, resulting in a protein-rich snack that provides sustenance in resource-limited settings.^[26] It is commonly served as a standalone street food or accompanied by porridges such as koko (a millet-based staple) or garri mixed with water and sugar.^[5] In northern Cameroon, kuli-kuli reflects strong Hausa cultural influences from neighboring Nigeria, featuring versions closely resembling Nigerian styles but adapted with local spices to suit regional tastes.^[13] These snacks are typically made from roasted peanuts ground into a spiced paste, shaped into sticks or balls, and fried, serving as a popular accompaniment to meals in Hausa communities.^[13] Among diaspora communities in the United States and United Kingdom, kuli-kuli has been commercialized as a vegan, portable snack, often baked rather than fried to align with modern health preferences and reduce oil content.^[27] Brands produce ready-to-eat versions using roasted peanuts and minimal spices since around 2011, making it accessible in ethnic grocery stores and online markets as a nostalgic, plant-based treat.^[28]^[29] In some rural West African areas, the traditional production of kuli-kuli doubles as a method for extracting peanut oil, which serves as a byproduct used in cooking or soap-making, while the compressed peanut residue forms the snack itself.^[30] This dual-purpose approach highlights its role in local economies and resource utilization.^[31]

Preparation

Key Ingredients

The primary ingredient in kuli-kuli is roasted groundnuts (peanuts), which are peeled, roasted, and ground into a fine paste known as labu, serving as the foundational base after excess oil is extracted during processing.^[32]^[13] These groundnuts are predominantly sourced from farms across West Africa, where countries like Nigeria, Senegal, and Ghana are major producers, cultivating the crop in sandy, well-drained soils suited to the region's semi-arid climate.^[33]^[34] Variations in sourcing include both conventional farming methods, which may use synthetic inputs for higher yields, and organic practices that emphasize natural pest control and soil health to meet growing demand for chemical-free products.^[35] Key spices enhance the flavor profile of kuli-kuli, with chili pepper providing essential heat and pungency, fresh or powdered ginger contributing aromatic depth, and salt balancing the overall seasoning.^[13]^[32] These spices are typically obtained from bustling local markets in West African urban centers, such as Lagos or Accra, where vendors supply freshly harvested or dried varieties from regional farms; for instance, Nigeria is a leading African producer of ginger and chili, supporting both domestic use and exports.^[36]^[37]^[38] Binders and additional components help achieve the desired texture, primarily peanut oil extracted from the groundnuts themselves during the grinding process, which is reused for frying to intensify the nutty flavor.^[39] Occasionally, a bit of water or flour is incorporated to form a pliable dough consistency, facilitating shaping without altering the core peanut essence.^[13]

Cooking Methods

The preparation of kuli-kuli begins with roasting peanuts to enhance their flavor and facilitate processing. Traditionally, raw peanuts are roasted in a hot pan with clean sand for about 5-8 minutes to evenly distribute heat, then cooled and deshelled by hand; in modern settings, oven roasting or pre-roasted peanuts may be used for efficiency.^[40] Following roasting, the peanuts are ground into a fine paste using a mortar and pestle, blender, or mechanical grinder, after which the oil is extracted by hand-kneading the paste and squeezing it through a cloth to remove excess liquid fat, yielding both the defatted dough and usable peanut oil.^[13] Once the peanut paste is defatted, it is mixed with spices to form a cohesive dough, which is then kneaded vigorously for 5-10 minutes to further expel any remaining oil and achieve a firm, moldable consistency; water may be added sparingly if the mixture is too dry. This step ensures the dough holds its shape during cooking without crumbling. The dough is then portioned and shaped by hand into common forms such as sticks, balls, or thin chips, depending on preference, though specific regional variations in shaping are not detailed here.^[40]^[13] The shaped pieces are fried in peanut oil over medium heat until golden brown and crisp, typically taking 1-8 minutes per batch depending on size, with the oil heated slowly to prevent burning; excess oil is drained on absorbent paper afterward. In contemporary adaptations, baking the shapes in an oven at moderate temperatures offers a healthier, oil-free alternative that still yields a crunchy texture after 15-20 minutes. The entire process for a small batch usually takes 30-60 minutes, producing a high-calorie snack suitable for 1-3 servings.^[40]^[13]

Nutritional Profile

Composition

Kuli-kuli, a traditional West African snack derived from ground peanuts, exhibits a macronutrient profile dominated by proteins and carbohydrates, with variable fat content depending on processing. Proximate analyses of traditional Nigerian samples indicate protein levels ranging from 13% to 46% per 100g, reflecting the nutrient-dense nature of the peanut residue after oil extraction; for instance, one study reported 46.18% protein in a market-sourced groundnut kuli-kuli.^[41] Fat content typically falls between 9% and 44% per 100g, primarily unsaturated fats from residual peanut oils and frying, as seen in a blend study where 100% groundnut kuli-kuli contained 23.21% fat and a 2025 study reporting 41.6–44.5%.^[42]^[43] Carbohydrates constitute 26% to 58% per 100g, largely from peanut starches, with crude fiber at 0.3% to 8.5% contributing to its texture.^[44]^[43] Micronutrient content in kuli-kuli is notable for magnesium, with levels of 180 to 290 mg per 100g across prepared and commercial samples, supporting its role as a mineral-rich food.^[44] Kuli-kuli contains vitamin E derived from the peanut base, with quantities varying with processing methods, alongside phosphorus. Folate content is present due to the peanut origin. Iron levels range from 2.3 to 31.9 mg per 100g, and zinc from 1.9 to 2.4 mg per 100g, with variations influenced by added spices like ginger or chili.^[44]^[41] The caloric density of kuli-kuli is approximately 350-500 kcal per 100g, primarily derived from its fat and protein components, as calculated from proximate data in multiple analyses.^[42]^[44]

Health Aspects

Kuli-kuli serves as an important source of plant-based protein, offering an affordable alternative to animal proteins for vegetarians and those in sub-Saharan Africa seeking to address protein-energy malnutrition.^[45] Its high protein content, derived primarily from groundnuts, contributes to muscle maintenance and overall nutritional adequacy in regions with limited access to diverse protein sources.^[43] Additionally, the snack's composition of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats supports heart health by helping to lower LDL cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases when consumed in moderation.^[46] These healthy fats, along with its low glycemic index (typically 24-33 in fortified variants), promote satiety and stable blood sugar levels, making it a beneficial low-glycemic option for managing hunger and supporting metabolic health.^[47] Despite these advantages, kuli-kuli's high calorie and fat density can contribute to weight gain if overconsumed, particularly in sedentary individuals, as its energy content exceeds that of many other snacks.^[41] Furthermore, as a peanut-based product, it poses a significant risk for individuals with peanut allergies, which can trigger severe reactions including anaphylaxis.^[48] In dietary contexts, kuli-kuli aligns well with low-carbohydrate regimens such as the ketogenic diet due to its favorable fat-to-carb ratio, providing sustained energy without spiking blood glucose.^[47] Modern fortified versions, enhanced with elements like essential oils or starches, incorporate additional antioxidants and nutrients to boost their functional benefits, though compatibility with strict paleo diets may vary given peanuts' classification as legumes.^[45] West African research since the early 2000s has highlighted kuli-kuli's potential in combating malnutrition, with studies emphasizing its role in delivering accessible proteins and fats to vulnerable populations, including children and pregnant women, thereby improving dietary diversity and nutritional outcomes.^[43] These investigations, often focused on proximate analysis and fortification, underscore its value as a culturally relevant tool for addressing protein deficiencies in resource-limited settings.^[41]

Culinary and Cultural Role

Uses in Meals

Kuli-kuli serves as a versatile standalone snack in West Africa, often consumed plain during travel or work due to its portability and long shelf life. It provides a crunchy, protein-rich bite that sustains energy.^[1] In everyday dishes, kuli-kuli is frequently crumbled and stirred into soups such as groundnut stew to add nutty depth and texture, transforming the creamy base into a more complex meal. It is also mixed with staples like garri or fufu, where its spiciness and crunch contrast the softness, enhancing flavor without dominating the primary ingredients.^[49]^[13] Beyond traditional uses, kuli-kuli pairs well with beverages like fura de nunu, providing a satisfying crunch against the liquid refreshment. As a topping, it elevates porridges such as koko, sprinkling nutty bits for added texture and taste. In modern adaptations, it appears in fusions like salads for a protein boost.^[50]^[13]^[1]

Significance in West African Culture

Kuli-kuli plays a vital economic role in West African societies, particularly by empowering women vendors in bustling markets of Nigeria and Ghana. In regions like Kwara State, Nigeria, women engaged in groundnut value addition produce kuli-kuli, transforming peanut residues into a marketable snack that generates significant income—averaging ₦50,000 per production cycle for many processors. This activity not only bolsters local peanut economies but also enhances food security and rural livelihoods, as women leverage traditional processing techniques to create employment opportunities amid challenges like limited credit access.^[51] In Hausa-dominated communities of northern Nigeria, kuli-kuli contributes to the groundnut value chain by supporting women's agro-processing businesses, where manual production of items like kuli-kuli demands substantial time—up to two hours per batch—yet fosters economic independence through market sales. Initiatives such as the Nigeria WAY project provide labor-saving technologies, like grinding machines, to reduce women's time burdens and improve productivity, enabling greater participation in regional trade networks.^[52] Socially, kuli-kuli embodies hospitality in Hausa culture, often shared during festivals, weddings, and naming ceremonies as a gesture of goodwill and community bonding. In northern markets, women's collectives produce and distribute the snack, reinforcing social ties while symbolizing affordable, accessible nutrition in everyday and celebratory contexts. In the diaspora, kuli-kuli helps preserve West African culinary traditions.^[53]

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