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Kulning

Kulning is a traditional Scandinavian vocal technique characterized by high-pitched, melismatic calls used primarily by women to summon livestock, such as cows, goats, and sheep, over long distances in remote pastures.^[1] Originating in the Middle Ages within the Nordic fäbod system of seasonal summer farms, it served a practical purpose in herding and communication across vast, forested landscapes, often reaching animals several kilometers away.^[2] The technique features wordless, ornamented melodies on open vowels, with pitches typically ranging from approximately 800 to 1200 Hz—far higher than the average female speaking voice—and sound pressure levels up to 121 dB, enabling clear projection without amplification.^[3] Historically tied to female-led pastoral traditions in central Sweden, Norway, and eastern Finland, kulning reflects the independence and daily resilience of shepherdesses who managed herds during summer migrations, a practice documented as early as the 16th century in medieval sources.^[2] It combines functional signals with improvisational elements, sometimes accompanied by instruments like the vallhorn (cowhorn), and varies by animal—for instance, longer, flowing calls for cows and shorter, guttural ones for goats.^[1] The tradition declined in the early 20th century due to agricultural modernization and the reduction of fäbods from over 3,000 in the mid-19th century to about 200–250 today, but it persisted through oral transmission and folk music collections.^[2] In contemporary times, kulning has evolved from a utilitarian call into a recognized art form and cultural heritage element, taught at institutions like the Royal College of Music in Stockholm and performed in concerts, festivals, and media such as Disney's Frozen II.^[4] In 2024, the summer farming at fäbod and seter tradition, encompassing practices such as kulning, was inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.^[5] Modern practitioners emphasize its hypnotic, ethereal quality, blending historical authenticity with innovative interpretations to engage global audiences.^[1]

Introduction and History

Definition and Origins

Kulning is a traditional Scandinavian vocal technique consisting of high-pitched, non-lyrical calls primarily used by women in Sweden, with equivalents in Norwegian seter calls and historical practice in eastern Finland, to summon and communicate with livestock, such as cows, goats, and sheep, over long distances in rugged terrain. This wordless form of singing, often performed without vibrato, relies on extended vowels and melodic ornamentation to project the voice across mountains and forests, serving as an essential tool in the fäbod system of seasonal summer herding.^[2]^[6]^[1] The practice originated in early medieval Scandinavian herding cultures, particularly within Nordic pastoral traditions centered in central and northern Sweden, such as Dalarna, Jämtland, and Härjedalen, dating back to around the Middle Ages (circa 1000–1500 AD). It developed as part of the transhumance economy, where families relocated livestock to remote mountain pastures during summer months, with women responsible for daily management and animal welfare. While not directly tied to prehistoric practices, kulning reflects the adaptive vocal strategies of these early agrarian communities, evolving alongside the fäbod system's expansion in forested and alpine regions.^[2]^[1]^[7] Etymologically, "kulning" derives from the verb "kula" in Dalarna dialects, meaning "to call" or "summon," with the noun form denoting the act of herding calls; related variants include "kölning" in some locales and "kaukning" in Jämtland and Härjedalen, the latter tracing to the Norwegian "kauke," also signifying "to call." The term's roots lie in Old Swedish and regional Nordic languages, emphasizing its functional purpose in pastoral life, though precise linguistic evolution remains tied to oral rather than written records. First documented references appear in 18th-century Swedish folklore collections, capturing descriptions of these calls as integral to rural traditions.^[7]^[6] Historical evidence for kulning draws from oral histories preserved in fäbod communities and early written accounts, including 16th-century texts by Olaus Magnus that describe shepherds using horn signals in northern Sweden—methods later supplemented by vocal techniques—and late-17th-century observations by Johannes Columbus noting the "weird calls" of female herders. Archaeological sites of ancient fäbods, such as those in Dalarna dating to the medieval period, provide contextual support through remnants of summer farm structures, underscoring the practice's embedding in these pastoral landscapes, though no direct artifacts of the calls exist due to their ephemeral, vocal nature.^[2]^[1]

Historical Development and Decline

Kulning emerged as a vocal practice in the medieval period (c. 1000–1500 AD) within the transhumance systems of rural Sweden and Norway, where women herders managed livestock on seasonal summer pastures known as fäbods in Sweden and seters in Norway.^[8]^[9] Tied to agrarian economies reliant on outlying grazing lands, it allowed isolated shepherdesses to communicate with cattle over long distances in forested or mountainous terrain, evolving from practical signaling needs rather than artistic intent.^[2] By the late 17th century, early accounts, such as those by Johannes Columbus in the 1680s, described these "weird calls" used by female shepherds in Swedish mountains.^[2] Through the 18th and 19th centuries, kulning reached its peak as an essential tool in fäbod and seter communities, with over 3,000 active fäbods in mid-19th-century Sweden supporting dairy production and herding.^[2]^[9] Melodies varied regionally, influenced by local dialects, terrain, and transmission from elder to younger herders—for instance, "kölning" styles in Dalarna featured distinct pitches and ornamentations adapted to specific valleys.^[2] During this era of national romanticism, 19th-century Swedish folklorists began transcribing and collecting examples, elevating kulning from utilitarian labor song to a symbol of rural heritage through postcards, paintings, and scholarly notations preserved in archives like Dalarnas Museum.^[2] The practice declined sharply in the early 20th century due to agricultural reforms that consolidated farmland and reduced the necessity for distant summer pasturing.^[2] Industrialization and mechanized farming from the mid-1900s onward transformed milk production, while urbanization drew populations to cities, leading to the abandonment of most fäbods and seters—only about 250 fäbods and approximately 1,300 seters remained active as of the early 21st century.^[2]^[9] World War II disruptions further eroded rural communities, resulting in the loss of practitioners by the 1950s, though isolated recordings, such as those of herder Karin Saros (born 1887), captured surviving traditions.^[2]^[1]

Vocal Technique

Acoustic Characteristics

Kulning exhibits a high-pitched vocal quality, with fundamental frequencies typically ranging from 600 to 1300 Hz, corresponding to musical notes around F5 to C6. This range places it in the upper soprano or falsetto-like register, distinguishing it from modal voice production. Scientific analyses confirm that optimal kulning tones maintain fundamental frequencies above 1000 Hz for perceived authenticity, as lower pitches below 900 Hz are rated as less representative by experts.^[10] The technique emphasizes a strong, unbroken harmonic series, with overtones extending up to 15–18 kHz, creating a bright and penetrating timbre that enhances audibility in expansive environments.^[6]^[11] A key acoustic feature is the elevated sound pressure level (SPL), often exceeding 115 dB at 0.3 meters for high-quality examples, with maximum recorded values reaching 121 dB. This intensity, coupled with a spectral envelope that falls less steeply than in head register singing, allows for effective sound propagation. Measurements in outdoor settings demonstrate minimal attenuation, with only a 9.4 dB drop over 11 meters—far less than the 25 dB observed in comparable falsetto tones—enabling transmission over several kilometers in open landscapes.^[10]^[12] The absence of vibrato contributes to pitch stability, while the even distribution of energy across harmonics up to 4 kHz avoids spectral dips that could reduce clarity.^[11] Melodically, kulning consists of improvised, non-metrical phrases built from vowel-heavy syllables, often melismatic and extending into long, sustained calls without strict rhythmic structure. These phrases incorporate glissandi and occasional yodel-like register shifts, producing a fluid, undulating contour that aids in harmonic projection. Spectrographic studies highlight the uniqueness of this timbre through prominent first partials and formant tuning, where the first formant aligns closely with the fundamental frequency above 700 Hz, boosting higher harmonics via nonlinear source-filter interactions.^[6] Epilaryngeal narrowing in the vocal tract further clusters formants around 2–3 kHz, optimizing resonance for reduced absorption in varied terrains.^[12] Twenty-first-century research, including long-term average spectra (LTAS) and electroglottographic analyses, quantifies kulning's pitch stability and timbre distinctiveness, showing higher contact quotients (around 47%) and spectral energy in the 1–3 kHz range compared to other high registers. These properties not only define its acoustic profile but also stem from physiological adjustments like clear glottal closure and pharyngeal narrowing.^[6]^[12]

Physiological and Performance Aspects

Kulning relies on the head voice and falsetto registers to achieve its characteristic high pitches, typically ranging from 800 to 1400 Hz, allowing for sustained, strain-free projection over long distances.^[13] This production is supported by controlled diaphragmatic breath, generating subglottal pressures of 26 to 61 cm H₂O, which enables the maintenance of long phrases without excessive vocal effort.^[14] The technique involves complete glottal closure at higher frequencies, such as 880 Hz, contributing to efficient phonation and the style's overtone-rich timbre.^[14] Physiologically, kulning demands an elevated larynx, often raised up to 4 cm, paired with a narrowed hypopharynx and a posteriorly tilted epiglottis to facilitate high-pitch resonance and sound directionality.^[13] The pharynx constricts while the jaw and lips open widely, with retracted lip corners shortening the vocal tract for optimal projection; this configuration requires a relaxed yet trained laryngeal mechanism to avoid undue tension.^[12] Untrained singers risk vocal cord fatigue from the high subglottal pressures (up to 60 cm H₂O) and sustained intensity (105–125 dB at close range), potentially leading to strain on resilient folds if the technique is not mastered properly.^[13] In performance, kulning incorporates improvisation, with singers adapting short melodic phrases (4–5 seconds) based on livestock responses to effectively guide animals across varied terrains.^[1] Seasonal adaptations include louder, more resonant calls during summer herding in open pastures from June to September, leveraging environmental acoustics for greater reach.^[13] Traditionally, the technique is transmitted orally from mothers to daughters in herding communities, emphasizing endurance through prolonged daily practice during fäbod seasons to build vocal stamina over hours of use.^[2]

Traditional Uses and Cultural Significance

Herding Functions

Kulning primarily functioned as a long-distance vocal signal in traditional Scandinavian livestock management, enabling herders to locate, gather, and guide animals such as cattle, goats, and sheep from remote pastures without line of sight. In the fäbod system of summer grazing, practitioners used these high-pitched calls to summon herds back to the farm at dusk, often relying on a lead animal's response to direct the group. The technique's acoustic properties, including pitches from 784 to 1046 Hz and sound pressure levels exceeding 115 dB, allowed signals to travel several kilometers through forested terrain.^[10]^[2]^[15]^[1] Secondary applications included calming and luring animals during handling, such as milking, as well as deterring predators like wolves by issuing startling calls or warnings, and coordinating activities among herders through messages about dangers or herd status. These uses supported the overall efficiency of isolated pastoral operations, where kulning facilitated communication between shepherdesses across valleys.^[1]^[15]^[2]^[10] The practice was specific to female herders due to entrenched gender roles in fäbod culture, where women and girls managed dairy herds during extended summer absences from home farms, performing kulning as a solitary or communal duty to maintain animal welfare and productivity.^[2]^[1]^[10]^[15]

Role in Scandinavian Culture

Kulning holds profound symbolic value in Swedish and Norwegian traditions, embodying female autonomy as women shepherds managed herds independently during seasonal migrations to remote mountain pastures, free from patriarchal oversight in pre-industrial rural life. This practice fostered a deep connection to nature, serving as a survival tool in harsh, forested environments where lean soils necessitated transhumance herding systems.^[2]^[1] In Swedish mythology, kulning is linked to forest spirits known as skogsrå, or "sirens of the woods," from whom herdswomen learned the calls, reinforcing its mystical ties to the natural world.^[16] The tradition integrates into Scandinavian folklore as a motif of pastoral harmony, appearing in national romanticist art and literature from the late 18th to 19th centuries, where it symbolized idyllic rural existence through paintings, poems, and postcards depicting harmonious human-nature interactions. While not explicitly documented in ancient sagas, its evocative calls have been romanticized in cultural narratives evoking pre-modern Nordic landscapes. Efforts to revive kulning have occasionally aligned with Midsummer celebrations, highlighting its role in communal expressions of seasonal renewal and heritage.^[2] Socially, kulning was transmitted orally within family lines, primarily from mothers to daughters in isolated herding communities, where unique melodic signatures identified individual callers and strengthened bonds among women separated by vast distances. This oral passing preserved the practice amid the demands of communal herding, fostering a sense of shared identity in remote fäbod (summer farm) settings.^[2]^[1] In 2024, the fäbod and seter summer farming tradition—including kulning—was inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by Sweden and Norway, underscoring its importance in preserving Nordic identity and safeguarding cultural legacy against modernization's decline. These initiatives emphasize kulning as a vital link to Sweden's agrarian roots, promoting its transmission through educational programs and festivals to maintain communal ties to pre-industrial heritage.^[5]^[17]^[4]^[1]

Comparisons

With Other Scandinavian Traditions

Kulning shares notable similarities with Norwegian herding calls, such as lokk or kulokk, which are also high-pitched vocal techniques developed for communicating across vast mountain pastures in transhumance systems. Both practices emphasize non-verbal, extended-range signaling to gather livestock like cattle and goats, often performed by women in remote fäbod (seasonal mountain farms), though Norwegian variants tend to incorporate more repetitive, horn-like tonal patterns influenced by traditional instruments like the lur, contrasting kulning's fluid, improvised melodies.^[18]^[2] In Finland, kulning parallels the tradition of karjankutsu (cattle calling songs), rooted in similar pastoral herding practices where animals are summoned from distant grazing lands during summer transhumance. While both serve functional roles in livestock management, Finnish calls differ by integrating linguistic elements—such as rhythmic phrases like "Lehmät, tulukee" (Cows, come here)—drawing from Finnic languages, whereas kulning remains largely non-lexical and melodic, relying on pitch variation for emotional conveyance over long distances.^[19]^[20] Parallels in Denmark and Iceland are less prominent, as their pastoral practices differ from the transhumance systems of central Sweden and Norway. Regional variations within Scandinavia highlight contrasts with Sámi joik, a vocal tradition used among indigenous herders for reindeer management in northern Fennoscandia. While kulning features smooth glissandi and melismatic lines for practical animal calling, joik incorporates rhythmic pulses and narrative structures to evoke people, places, or emotions, often without livestock-specific intent, reflecting distinct cultural and ecological contexts despite shared high-pitch elements in Nordic vocal practices.^[18]^[13]

With International Herding Calls

Kulning shares notable acoustic parallels with Swiss jodel or Alpine yodeling, both employing high-laryngeal falsetto-like techniques optimized for long-distance propagation in pastoral landscapes. These vocalizations achieve audibility over kilometers through elevated larynx positions and fixed formants, such as kulning's prominent frequencies at 1700, 3000, and 4000 Hz, which minimize energy loss in open terrain. However, yodeling incorporates metrical structures and rapid pitch shifts derived from local phonological oppositions, often serving multifaceted signaling roles beyond herding, whereas kulning maintains a free-form, melismatic style with smooth, undulating contours and minimal vibrato to soothe livestock.^[21] In Mongolian pastoralism, khoomei (throat singing) exhibits overtone similarities to kulning for animal calling, producing diversified harmonies via subharmonics that raise perceived pitch and enhance resonance across vast steppes. Both traditions leverage utilitarian head-voice mechanisms rooted in Neolithic herding, with khoomei's complex overtones mimicking natural sounds to guide herds, akin to kulning's onomatopoeic decoys adapted from hunting signals. Key differences lie in production: khoomei relies on guttural constriction and circular breathing for sustained multiphonics, contrasting kulning's clear vowel-based, legato delivery without throat tension.^[21]^[22] African Maasai enkanyit calls, used in herding and milking rituals, function as rhythmic signals with social dimensions, praising cattle through polyphonic chants that imitate animal lowing to foster bonds and coordinate group activities. These calls emphasize repetitive, metered patterns and communal participation, differing from kulning's hypnotic, non-rhythmic solos designed for individual long-range calming in solitary shieling practices. Enkanyit often integrates whistling and vocal imitations for immediate herding cues, highlighting a more interactive style versus kulning's ethereal projection.^[23] Twentieth-century ethnographies reveal universal acoustic adaptations in pastoral signaling across cultures, such as elevated intensities (80–100 dB SPL) and tonal organizations tailored to environmental symbiosis, as seen in kulning's Indo-European "cow-language" parallels with yodeling and Finno-Ugric reindeer calls. Studies like Wallin (1991) and Moberg (1955) trace these to prehistoric herding transitions, underscoring shared ideological roots in pagan magic and human-animal communication, while Nielsen (1997) notes motherese-like care elements in African variants. Such cross-cultural analyses emphasize climate-driven divergences, with kulning's open-landscape optimization exemplifying broader pastoral vocal evolution.

Contemporary Revival and Applications

In Music and Performance

Kulning experienced a notable revival within Scandinavian folk music during the broader folk revival movements of the late 20th century, evolving into a performative vocal art form integrated into contemporary albums and live sets. Solo artist Jonna Jinton, inspired by traditional herding calls, has popularized the technique through her music since 2016, releasing albums such as Songs & Callings (2024), which features original compositions like "Kulning - Calling the Spring" and "The Frozen Call," blending high-pitched calls with nyckelharpa accompaniment for atmospheric effect.^[25]^[1] Her viral YouTube performances, amassing millions of views, have drawn international attention to kulning as a hypnotic, ethereal element in modern folk expression.^[1] In contemporary compositions, kulning has been fused with classical and experimental genres to create immersive soundscapes, particularly since the 2000s. Swedish composer Karin Rehnqvist, renowned for incorporating folk elements, employs kulning's piercing head tones in works like the clarinet concerto On a Distant Shore (2002), where it merges with orchestral textures to evoke vast landscapes, and earlier pieces such as In Heaven’s Hall (1998), which combines the calls with choral and instrumental layers for dramatic intensity.^[26]^[27] These integrations highlight kulning's non-vibrato, high-register projection, rooted in its traditional physiological demands for strong diaphragmatic support and forward resonance, to add raw, emotive power to symphonic and chamber music.^[26] Performance contexts for kulning today include specialized workshops, folk festivals, and international tours that emphasize its artistic potential. Ethnomusicologist and singer Jennie Tiderman-Österberg leads open-air concerts and demonstrations at fäbod sites during summer events, such as those tied to Midsummer celebrations, fostering communal experiences in natural settings across Sweden.^[1] Workshops, like those offered by vocal folk musician Agneta Stolpe at the Royal College of Music in Stockholm, teach the technique's nuances to global participants, while festivals such as the Falun Folk Music Festival showcase kulning in live sets.^[2] Internationally, Danish artist Myrkur (Amalie Bruun) has adopted kulning for world music scenes, opening concerts with herding calls on tours and incorporating them into her 2020 folk album Folkesange for transcendent, genre-blending effects.^[28] Notable modern practitioners, including Jinton, Rehnqvist, Tiderman-Österberg, and Myrkur, continue to expand kulning's reach through recordings, educational programs, and cross-cultural collaborations.^[2]^[1]

In Media and Education

Kulning has gained prominence in contemporary media through documentaries, films, and digital platforms, contributing to its transition from a regional tradition to a globally recognized cultural phenomenon. A notable example is the BBC Travel feature "'Kulning': A hypnotic Swedish singing tradition," published in January 2021, which explores the practice's historical roots and modern revival through interviews with practitioners at traditional summer farms like Skallskog.^[1] In film, kulning-inspired vocalizations appear in Disney's Frozen (2013), where Norwegian vocalist Christine Hals provided traditional kulning elements for Elsa's high-pitched expressions of power, influencing the sequel Frozen II (2019) and even the soundtrack of Ant-Man and the Wasp (2018).^[2]^[29] Additionally, the 2018 Swedish-Norwegian Viking horror film Draug incorporates authentic kulning recordings by practitioners Maja and Maria Skoglund to evoke ancient Nordic atmospheres.^[30] The practice's visibility surged in the 2010s via viral social media content, particularly YouTuber Jonna Jinton's 2016 video "Kulning - Ancient Swedish herdingcall," which has amassed over 13 million views as of November 2025 by demonstrating the calls in a forested setting to summon cows, sparking widespread interest and shares across platforms.^[1]^[31] Educational programs have integrated kulning into formal and informal learning to preserve its techniques and promote vocal skills. At the Royal College of Music in Stockholm (KMH), kulning is taught within the folk music bachelor's and master's programs, including the Nordic Performance Master in Folk Music (NoFo), where students explore it alongside other vocal styles like trallning through ensemble work and historical study.^[32]^[33] Online platforms have democratized access, with sites like Kularkraft offering structured English-language courses for beginners, comprising five progressive lessons on technique, cultural context, and practice, aimed at global learners interested in cultural preservation.^[34] Workshops by vocal coaches such as Karin Kolterud and Johanna Bölja further support learning, with free YouTube tutorials providing step-by-step guidance on breath control and pitch modulation for therapeutic vocal exploration. In 2025, kulning classes continue to be offered at international folk music events, such as the Nordic Fiddles and Feet festival.^[35]^[36]^[37] Preservation initiatives in the 21st century emphasize documentation and advocacy to safeguard kulning amid urbanization. EU-funded projects supporting Swedish cultural heritage, such as those under the Living Cultural Heritage program, have allocated resources since the 2010s to record elder practitioners and document fäbod (summer farm) traditions, including kulning as a core communicative element.^[38] In 2021, Sweden and Norway initiated a joint nomination of "fäbodbruk" – the seasonal farming system encompassing kulning – to UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, culminating in its inscription in 2024, which highlights collaborative efforts by NGOs, practitioners, and academics to transmit the practice intergenerationally.^[4]^[39] These developments have reshaped global perceptions of kulning, elevating it from relative obscurity to a cultural export symbolizing Nordic resilience and harmony with nature. Its hypnotic acoustic qualities have influenced wellness practices, with proponents incorporating the calls into sound healing sessions for emotional regulation and stress relief, as noted in therapeutic contexts where the extended high pitches promote a sense of well-being and connection.^[40]^[41]

References

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x
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