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Natural sounds

Natural sounds encompass the acoustic phenomena generated by non-human elements within the natural environment, including biological sources such as animal vocalizations and geophysical processes like wind, flowing water, and rainfall.^[1] These sounds form a core component of soundscapes, which represent the perceived acoustic environment influenced by context and human interpretation, as defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 12913-1:2014).^[2] In ecosystems, natural sounds facilitate essential wildlife communication, serve as indicators of biological health, and contribute to the overall dynamics of wilderness areas.^[1] Prominent examples of natural sounds include birdsong, which dominates biological acoustics and aids in territory defense and mating, and water-related noises from streams or waves, which provide a calming geophysical backdrop.^[3] Research demonstrates that exposure to these sounds yields significant health benefits for humans, such as reduced stress and annoyance (Hedges' g = −0.60) and enhanced positive affect and well-being (Hedges' g = 1.63), with water sounds showing particularly strong restorative effects (Hedges' g = 2.01).^[3] In national parks, where natural sounds are audible at varying levels—biological sounds at approximately 59% and geophysical at 19% in urban-adjacent sites—they foster a sense of place and immersion, supporting visitor experiences and conservation efforts under policies like the U.S. National Park Service's Organic Act of 1916.^[1]^[3] The study and preservation of natural sounds have gained prominence through initiatives like the National Park Service's Natural Sounds and Night Skies Division, established in 2000, which addresses threats from anthropogenic noise to maintain ecological integrity and human appreciation of these auditory resources.^[1] Despite their ubiquity, only about 11% of monitored sites in U.S. national parks exhibit high audibility of natural sounds with minimal human interference, underscoring the need for ongoing protection to counteract urbanization and noise pollution.^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Natural sounds refer to auditory phenomena generated by non-human processes in the environment, encompassing abiotic sources—such as wind, water flow, and geological events (collectively termed geophony)—and biotic sources from living organisms, including animal vocalizations and plant movements (termed biophony). This definition explicitly excludes anthropogenic sounds, or anthrophony, which arise from human activities like machinery or urban noise, thereby focusing on the intrinsic acoustic elements of unaltered ecosystems.^[4]^[5] The scope of natural sounds spans a broad spectrum of frequencies and intensities, extending beyond the human audible range of approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Infrasound, below 20 Hz, includes elephant rumbles that often fall in the 14–35 Hz range with components dipping under 20 Hz for long-distance communication, while ultrasound above 20 kHz encompasses bat echolocation pulses typically sweeping from 20 to 110 kHz. Amplitude variations are equally diverse, ranging from faint incidental noises like leaf rustles at around 20–40 dB to powerful events such as thunder reaching 120 dB or more, all modulated by propagation through natural media like air, water, or soil.^[6]^[7]^[8] Natural sounds are fundamentally classified into abiotic and biotic categories, with further distinctions within biotic sources between intentional productions—such as deliberate animal calls for mating or territory defense—and incidental ones, like unintentional scraping or movement sounds from organisms. Abiotic sounds, by contrast, are generally incidental outcomes of physical processes, exemplified by wind rustling leaves. This framework delineates inclusions like thunder (abiotic) and bird songs (biotic intentional) while excluding human-generated noises such as traffic hums or musical instruments, ensuring a clear boundary for studying ecological acoustics.^[5]^[9]

Historical Context

Human understanding of natural sounds traces back to ancient indigenous knowledge systems, which integrated observations of animal vocalizations for tracking, navigation, and cultural transmission. For instance, Aboriginal Australian traditions incorporate animal sounds into storytelling and environmental awareness, reflecting deep ecological insights passed down through generations.^[10] Similarly, early Western philosophers documented these phenomena; in his History of Animals (circa 350 BCE), Aristotle described bird songs, noting that young songbirds learn and refine their vocalizations by imitating adults around them.^[11] The 19th century marked a pivotal shift with the advent of sound recording technology, enabling the preservation of natural auditory phenomena. In 1857, French inventor Édouard-Léon Scott de Préfontaine developed the phonautograph, a device that transcribed airborne sound waves—potentially including natural sources like voices or environmental noises—onto soot-covered paper as visual waveforms for scientific study.^[12] This innovation facilitated early attempts at capturing wildlife sounds, culminating in the first known phonographic recording of a bird call in 1889, a captive Indian shama's song at the Frankfurt Zoo, which demonstrated the feasibility of documenting avian vocalizations.^[13] The 20th century formalized the scientific study of natural sounds through the emergence of bioacoustics, spurred by post-World War II technological adaptations. The sound spectrograph, originally devised during the war for voice identification, became widely available in the late 1940s and allowed researchers to visualize frequency and time patterns in animal calls, revolutionizing analysis of complex vocal behaviors.^[14] In the 1970s, ornithologist Luis Baptista advanced avian bioacoustics by investigating song learning and dialects in species like white-crowned sparrows, establishing key principles of vocal culture in birds.^[15] The field's institutionalization was furthered by the founding of the International Bioacoustics Council in 1969, which fostered global collaboration on animal sound research.^[16] Entering the 21st century, computational tools have transformed bioacoustics, with artificial intelligence enabling automated soundscape analysis for biodiversity assessment. Projects in the 2020s employ machine learning algorithms to process vast audio datasets from passive recorders, identifying species presence and ecological health in real time, such as through AI models trained on bird and insect calls.^[17] Concurrently, studies since 2010 have linked climate change to alterations in natural sound patterns, documenting shifts in animal vocal timings and frequencies due to warming temperatures and habitat disruption, offering acoustic indicators of broader environmental decline.^[18]

Abiotic Natural Sounds

Atmospheric Sounds

Atmospheric sounds encompass acoustic phenomena arising from weather-related processes and air movements in the atmosphere, distinct from seismic or aquatic sources. These sounds are primarily generated through rapid pressure changes, turbulence, and particle interactions with air or surfaces, propagating as pressure waves at speeds influenced by environmental conditions. In air at standard temperature and pressure (20°C), sound travels at approximately 343 meters per second, though this varies with temperature and humidity, affecting how distant events like storms are perceived.^[19] Thunder represents one of the most intense atmospheric sounds, produced when lightning heats surrounding air to temperatures up to 30,000°C, causing rapid expansion that generates a shock wave akin to a sonic boom. This explosive expansion creates the initial crack or peal, while the characteristic rumble results from the irregular path of the lightning channel and echoes from multiple return strokes within a single flash, as well as refraction by atmospheric layers. The sound's intensity can reach 120 decibels near the source, diminishing with distance due to geometric spreading and absorption.^[19]^[20]^[21] Wind-generated sounds arise from aerodynamic turbulence as air flows over irregular surfaces, such as terrain, vegetation, or structures, producing whooshes, whistles, or howls through vortex shedding and pressure fluctuations. The frequency content shifts with wind speed: gentle breezes yield higher-pitched whooshes from small-scale eddies, while high winds in storms like hurricanes generate dominant low-frequency components (below 100 Hz) due to large-scale turbulence and resonant interactions. Noise levels correlate with wind speed, following a power-law relationship where intensity increases nonlinearly above 10 m/s, often exceeding 80 dB in gale-force conditions.^[22]^[23] Precipitation sounds, such as those from rain, hail, or snow, stem from the impacts of falling particles on surfaces like ground, water, or foliage, exciting vibrations that radiate as acoustic energy. Rain produces a patter from larger droplets (over 2 mm diameter) creating discrete low-frequency impacts, transitioning to a continuous hiss from finer drizzle due to high-frequency collisions at rates exceeding thousands per second. Sound intensity scales with rainfall rate and drop size distribution, with heavier rain (over 25 mm/h) generating broadband noise up to 70 dB, modulated by surface material—hard surfaces amplify high frequencies, while soft ones dampen them.^[24] Tornadoes produce a distinctive roaring akin to a natural siren, originating from intense low-pressure dynamics and the entrainment of debris, which generates chaotic broadband noise through collisions and aerodynamic drag. Pressure drops within the vortex (as low as 100 hPa below ambient) drive radial inflows at speeds over 100 m/s, contributing to the low-frequency roar (20-200 Hz), while flying debris adds impulsive higher-frequency components. Close-range sound levels can exceed 100 dB, making it one of the loudest atmospheric phenomena, though infrasound below 20 Hz often precedes the audible roar, detectable kilometers away.^[25] Auroral sounds, though rarer and subtler, manifest as crackling or hissing during intense geomagnetic activity, linked to charged particles from solar wind precipitating into the upper atmosphere and inducing electromagnetic resonances. Confirmed by field recordings in 2016, these discrete pops and crackles occur at altitudes of 70-100 meters, synchronized with auroral movements and potentially amplified by atmospheric inversions or Schumann resonances—global electromagnetic cavity modes excited by lightning but modulated here by particle fluxes. The sounds are faint, typically under 40 dB, and audible only in quiet, cold conditions near the poles.^[26]

Geological and Hydrological Sounds

Geological and hydrological sounds encompass acoustic phenomena generated by physical processes within the Earth's solid crust, liquid water bodies, and ice formations. These sounds arise from mechanical disruptions, fluid dynamics, and pressure changes, often manifesting as low-frequency rumbles, booms, or continuous noise that can propagate over long distances. Unlike atmospheric sounds, which involve gaseous media, these are primarily transmitted through solids, liquids, or ice, providing insights into subsurface and surface dynamics.^[27] Earthquake sounds typically originate from the sudden release of energy along fault lines, producing low-frequency rumbles associated with the propagation of seismic waves. Primary (P) waves, which are compressional, travel at speeds of approximately 5-8 km/s in the Earth's crust, arriving first and generating initial infrasonic signals below 20 Hz that humans may perceive as distant thunder. Shear (S) waves follow at 3-4 km/s, contributing to more intense ground shaking and associated audible low-frequency noises, such as booms or rumbles reported during events. Foreshocks and aftershocks extend these acoustic signatures, with infrasound detection enabling early warning systems by identifying P-wave arrivals seconds to minutes before damaging S-waves reach populated areas.^[28]^[29]^[30] Volcanic eruptions generate explosive booms from rapid gas release during magma ascent and eruption, creating high-pressure acoustic pulses that can reach sound pressure levels up to 180 dB near the source, as exemplified by the 1883 Krakatoa event where pressures equivalent to 172 dB were recorded 160 km away. These infrasonic signals, often in the 0.01-20 Hz range, propagate globally and aid in monitoring eruption dynamics. Lava flows produce hissing sounds from interactions with air or water, resulting from degassing and thermal cracking, which contribute to a broader spectrum of continuous low-frequency noise during effusive activity.^[31]^[32] Ice cracks, particularly from glacial calving, produce booming sounds due to the sudden release of accumulated pressure as large ice masses detach and fall into water, generating seismic and acoustic waves from the mechanical stress of fracturing. These events, studied in the context of climate change, reveal increasing calving rates linked to warming temperatures, with sounds serving as indicators of ice shelf stability and mass loss in polar regions.^[33]^[34] Hydrological sounds stem from water movement, characterized by turbulence and impact. River rapids create white noise through chaotic fluid flow over obstacles, producing a broad-spectrum roar from turbulent eddies that spans audible frequencies. Waterfalls generate a powerful roar via air entrainment, where falling water traps and compresses air bubbles, resulting in low-frequency vibrations and infrasound around 2-3 Hz that dominate the acoustic profile. Ocean waves crashing exhibit frequency spectra peaking at 0.1-1 Hz, driven by wave breaking and air-water interactions, which produce rhythmic booms and contribute to ambient ocean noise levels.^[35]^[36]^[37] Tsunami infrasound propagation, as observed following the 2004 Indian Ocean event generated by the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, involves low-frequency atmospheric waves excited by the sea surface displacement, detectable thousands of kilometers away via global monitoring networks. These signals, captured at infrasound stations like Diego Garcia, highlight the coupling between ocean dynamics and atmospheric acoustics for disaster detection.^[38]^[39]

Biotic Natural Sounds

Animal Vocalizations

Animal vocalizations encompass a diverse array of sounds produced by vertebrates primarily for communication, including territory defense, mate attraction, social bonding, and predator deterrence. These sounds are generated through specialized anatomical structures and exhibit adaptations suited to various environments, from terrestrial habitats to aquatic realms. In mammals, vocalizations often involve low-frequency calls that travel long distances, while birds utilize complex songs for reproductive purposes. Amphibians and reptiles produce simpler calls, frequently tied to breeding or defense, highlighting the evolutionary divergence in vertebrate sound production mechanisms.^[40] Among mammals, howls serve as a key territorial signal in species like wolves (Canis lupus), where packs use them to maintain spacing and advertise presence over several kilometers, reinforcing social cohesion and deterring rivals. Elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) employ infrasound rumbles in the 1-20 Hz range for long-distance communication, detectable over distances exceeding 10 km under favorable atmospheric conditions, allowing coordination of group movements and family reunions. In contrast, lions (Panthera leo) produce powerful roars reaching up to 114 dB at 1 meter, functioning to claim territory and intimidate competitors, with these low-frequency bursts (around 36-81 Hz) propagating effectively across savanna landscapes. Aquatic mammals, such as humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae), generate intricate songs with fundamental frequencies starting as low as 20 Hz and extending to 24 kHz, featuring repetitive patterns of themes and phrases that evolve culturally within populations, primarily by males during breeding seasons; these songs can propagate thousands of kilometers but are increasingly disrupted by anthropogenic ocean noise, which masks low-frequency components and alters singing behavior.^[41]^[42]^[43]^[44]^[45] Bird vocalizations demonstrate remarkable complexity, particularly in songbirds, where males produce elaborate songs to attract mates and defend territories. For instance, the common nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) delivers songs comprising up to 200 distinct phrases, showcasing syntactic structure and improvisation that signal cognitive and physical fitness to potential partners. Alarm calls in birds, such as those from fairy-wrens (Malurus spp.), are typically short, high-pitched, and narrow-bandwidth signals peaking around 7-9 kHz, enabling rapid warning of aerial predators while minimizing location cues to the threat. These calls contrast with songs by prioritizing speed and urgency over duration.^[46]^[47] In amphibians, frogs (Anura) produce croaks primarily for mating advertisement, using vocal sacs to amplify sounds generated by laryngeal vibration; these sacs inflate with air from the lungs, resonating calls in a typical frequency range of 500-5000 Hz to attract females over short distances in wetland environments. Reptiles like snakes (Serpentes) lack true vocal cords but generate defensive hisses through forceful expulsion of air from the lungs via the glottis, creating a rasping noise that mimics more dangerous threats and deters predators without requiring specialized organs.^[48]^[49] The primary mechanisms of sound production in vertebrates involve vibration of anatomical structures driven by airflow. In mammals, including cetaceans, sounds arise from laryngeal vibration, where exhaled air passes over vocal folds to produce fundamental frequencies modulated by the vocal tract. Birds, however, possess a unique syrinx at the tracheobronchial junction, allowing independent control of two sound sources for dual-voice singing and precise frequency modulation independent of the larynx. Evolutionary adaptations, such as sexual dimorphism in vocal organs, further enhance these capabilities; for example, male songbirds often have larger syringes and associated muscles than females, correlating with more complex singing behaviors and enabling dimorphic repertoires for mate attraction.^[50]^[51]^[52]

Invertebrate and Plant Sounds

Invertebrates and plants produce a variety of sounds through mechanical means, distinct from the vocalizations of vertebrates, often serving roles in communication, defense, and reproduction. Among insects, crickets generate sounds via stridulation, where specialized structures on their wings are rubbed together to produce frequencies typically ranging from 3 to 4 kHz.^[53] This mechanism allows males to attract mates and establish territory, with the resulting chirps propagating through air and substrates. Bees, such as honeybees, create buzzing sounds primarily from rapid wingbeats at approximately 230 Hz during flight and foraging activities.^[54] These vibrations not only facilitate locomotion but also play a key role in buzz pollination, where the oscillations dislodge pollen from flowers, enhancing reproductive success for both the insect and the plant.^[55] Moths produce ultrasonic sounds in the range of 20 to 100 kHz for courtship and defense, often using specialized abdominal or wing structures to emit low-intensity clicks that deter bat predators or signal to potential mates.^[56] Beyond insects, other invertebrates employ percussion and vibration for acoustic signaling. Spiders generate substrate-borne vibrations through stridulation or body percussion, producing low-frequency signals between 1 and 300 Hz that travel through silk threads or surfaces to communicate during courtship or prey detection.^[57] Termites use head-banging, where soldiers rapidly strike their heads against tunnel walls or the ground at rates up to 11 times per second, creating vibrational knocks that propagate as alarm signals to alert the colony to threats.^[58] In marine environments, snapping shrimp (Alpheidae family) produce some of the loudest biological sounds through cavitation: a specialized claw snaps shut, releasing a bubble that collapses to generate brief pulses reaching up to 190 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m, primarily for territorial defense and communication on coral reefs.^[59] Plants contribute to natural soundscapes via passive and active mechanical processes, often triggered by environmental stresses or physical interactions. Wind-induced rustling arises from friction between leaves and branches, generating broadband audible sounds as air flows cause petioles and foliage to oscillate and shed vortices.^[60] Certain species, like acacias, exhibit explosive seed pod dehiscence, where drying pods split and curl to propel seeds with audible popping sounds, aiding dispersal in arid habitats. Recent research has revealed that stressed plants, such as tomatoes and tobacco, emit ultrasonic clicks in the 20–100 kHz range, with water-deprived individuals producing 30–50 such bursts per hour, potentially signaling distress to nearby animals or conspecifics.^[61] These sounds in invertebrates and plants are predominantly non-laryngeal, relying on friction (e.g., stridulation in crickets and spiders), percussion (e.g., termite head-banging and seed pod explosions), or aerodynamic vibration (e.g., bee wingbeats and leaf rustles).^[62] Ecologically, such mechanical acoustics fill specific niches, including pollination signaling where insect buzzes vibrate flowers to release pollen, thereby promoting cross-species interactions essential for plant reproduction.^[55] In coral reefs, snapping shrimp pulses contribute to the ambient soundscape, potentially aiding larval settlement and ecosystem monitoring.^[59]

Ecological Role

In Ecosystems and Communication

Natural sounds play a crucial role in facilitating communication among organisms, particularly in territorial defense and mating. In birds, song serves as an acoustic signal to deter intruders and maintain exclusive territories, with experimental playback studies demonstrating that simulated high-performance songs significantly reduce the likelihood of territorial intrusion by eliciting stronger avoidance responses from conspecific males. For instance, in territorial interactions, bird songs can minimize overlap in defended areas by signaling occupancy and aggressive intent, thereby reducing direct confrontations and energy expenditure. Similarly, in amphibians, frog choruses synchronize calling patterns to enhance mating success; male túngara frogs (Engystomops pustulosus) adjust their call timing to achieve near-synchronous emission within 100 ms of neighbors, which amplifies collective signal detectability for females while minimizing interference.^[63]^[64] Soundscapes in ecosystems act as indicators of biodiversity and habitat health, reflecting underlying trophic dynamics. The dawn chorus, a collective burst of avian vocalizations at sunrise, provides a measurable index of species richness and ecosystem integrity; metrics like the Bird Dawn Chorus Strength (BDCS), derived from acoustic recordings, correlate positively with bird diversity and vegetation quality in natural habitats, allowing non-invasive monitoring of environmental conditions. In trophic interactions, predator vocalizations trigger anti-predator responses in prey, suppressing their acoustic activity and altering community sound profiles; for example, mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) exhibit heightened vigilance and reduced vocalizations upon hearing predator calls, which can propagate through food webs to influence lower trophic levels in acoustic trophic cascades.^[65]^[66] Organisms partition acoustic niches to minimize interference in shared environments, optimizing signal transmission. Marine mammals exemplify this through frequency segregation: baleen whales produce low-frequency calls (typically 10–200 Hz) for long-distance communication across ocean basins, while odontocetes like dolphins emit high-frequency echolocation clicks (up to 130 kHz) for short-range foraging and navigation, reducing masking and enabling coexistence in dense populations. This partitioning enhances efficiency in noisy aquatic soundscapes, where overlapping frequencies could degrade signal clarity.^[67] Symbiotic interactions also leverage natural sounds, particularly in pollination mutualisms. Bat-pollinated plants have evolved acoustic adaptations, such as reflective floral structures that enhance echolocation signals; for example, certain columnar cacti like Espostoa frutescens feature ultrasound-absorbing zones around inflorescences that create distinct echo contrasts, guiding nectar-feeding bats (e.g., Anoura fistulata) precisely to flowers and increasing pollination rates. These passive acoustic cues complement olfactory and visual signals, fostering efficient plant-insect and plant-mammal symbioses.^[68] Recent 2020s research highlights emerging roles of sound in plant reproduction, including sound-mediated processes that influence seed dispersal. Studies have shown that specific sound vibrations stimulate secondary metabolite production in plants, enhancing seed viability and potentially aiding dispersal mechanisms by altering fruit dehiscence or attracting dispersers; for instance, sound vibrations at 250 Hz applied to alfalfa increase flavonoid levels by up to 200%, which may indirectly support dispersal through improved seed quality and animal attraction. This underscores sound's integrative function in ecosystem processes beyond animal communication.^[69]

Human Impacts and Conservation

Human activities profoundly disrupt natural soundscapes through noise pollution, which masks essential biotic signals and impairs ecological communication. In urban environments, traffic and industrial noise overlap with the frequency bands of bird vocalizations, requiring birds to achieve a signal-to-noise ratio of approximately 26 dB for detection—which is 6 dB higher than for humans—and effectively halving the communication distance for species like great tits.^[70] Similarly, in marine ecosystems, shipping generates low-frequency noise that interferes with whale navigation and migration, causing behavioral changes such as avoidance of noisy areas, altered dive and foraging patterns, and increased collision risks due to impaired detection of vessels, as observed in humpback whales.^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74] These disruptions extend to aquatic environments, where ocean vessel traffic elevates ambient noise levels, masking cetacean calls and complicating long-distance coordination during seasonal migrations.^[72] Climate change further alters natural sounds by shifting phenological timings and diminishing hydrological acoustics. Warmer temperatures have advanced frog breeding choruses, with ornate chorus frogs in South Carolina initiating calls 37.2 days earlier since 1979, potentially desynchronizing them from prey availability or mates.^[75] Drought exacerbates this by reducing water flows, leading to quieter stream and river soundscapes; for instance, in California's Sugarloaf Ridge State Park, diminished cascades and ripples have contributed to a fivefold drop in overall biophony since 2004.^[76] Indirectly, light pollution influences acoustic behaviors by advancing the seasonal onset of dawn and dusk singing in European songbirds like robins and blackbirds, disrupting natural circadian rhythms and potentially affecting reproductive success through altered territorial signaling.^[77] Conservation efforts aim to mitigate these impacts by establishing protected acoustic environments and implementing regulatory measures. The U.S. National Park Service's 2006 Management Policies (Section 4.9) mandate the preservation of natural soundscapes, including the creation of quiet zones through noise monitoring and restrictions on motorized activities to restore degraded areas.^[78] In marine contexts, the International Maritime Organization's 2014 Guidelines for the Reduction of Underwater Noise from Commercial Shipping, revised in 2023, provide voluntary standards for vessel design and operation to minimize radiated noise, with an ongoing experience-building phase through 2026 to inform potential mandatory regulations.^[79] Monitoring tools play a crucial role in assessing and safeguarding biodiversity via acoustic data. Passive acoustic sensors enable non-invasive, long-term recording of soundscapes, allowing researchers to quantify species diversity and detect anthropogenic intrusions through indices like acoustic complexity.^[80] Global initiatives, such as the Alberta Biodiversity Monitoring Institute's Bioacoustic Unit and its 2025 HawkEars AI project, deploy autonomous recording units to analyze bird and amphibian calls, supporting conservation by tracking climate-induced shifts and noise effects across Canadian ecosystems.^[81]

Human and Cultural Dimensions

Perception and Physiological Effects

Human hearing typically encompasses frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz, with the greatest sensitivity occurring between 2 and 5 kHz, a range that aligns closely with many natural sounds such as bird calls, which often fall between 1 and 8 kHz.^[82]^[83] This sensitivity peak enhances detection of environmental cues essential for survival, like predator warnings or foraging signals in ancestral habitats. Natural sounds elicit varied physiological responses, including relaxation from rain sounds, which are commonly featured in autonomous sensory meridian response (ASMR) content to promote calmness.^[84]^[85] Conversely, infrasound from storms, below 20 Hz, may induce unease or vertigo by stimulating the vestibular system, triggering symptoms akin to motion sickness.^[86] These reactions underscore the body's innate tuning to acoustic environments, where low frequencies signal potential threats. In therapeutic contexts, exposure to nature soundscapes has demonstrated stress-reducing effects, with studies from the 2010s showing significant reductions in cortisol levels in participants after listening sessions.^[87]^[88] A 2025 scoping review further confirmed the stress-reducing effects of natural sounds among various sound interventions.^[89] Such benefits may stem from evolutionary adaptations to savanna soundscapes, where early hominins developed enhanced mid-frequency hearing for short-range communication in open terrains, differing from forest-dwelling primates.^[90]^[91] Individual differences influence perception, as age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) progressively impairs high-frequency detection, often diminishing awareness of insect chirps or bird songs above 4 kHz.^[92]^[93] Recent 2024 meta-analyses support the biophilia hypothesis by linking natural sounds to improved mental health outcomes, including reduced anxiety and enhanced emotional recovery.^[94]^[95]

Cultural Representations

Natural sounds have long been represented in literature through onomatopoeic devices that mimic auditory phenomena, such as the "boom" or "crash" used to depict thunder in folklore and mythological narratives across cultures.^[96] These words evoke the explosive resonance of storms, often tied to divine or supernatural entities, as in European tales where thunder symbolizes the wrath of gods like Thor. In visual art, Romantic-era painters like J.M.W. Turner captured the implied auditory drama of natural tempests in seascapes, such as Seascape with Storm Coming On (c. 1840), where turbulent waves and skies suggest the roar of wind and crashing surf, blending visual tumult with sonic inference.^[97] In music and media, natural sounds are integrated via field recordings to create immersive atmospheres, notably in Brian Eno's ambient works like Ambient 4: On Land (1982), which incorporates environmental noises such as wind and water to evoke landscapes and blur the line between composition and nature.^[98] Film sound design similarly employs these elements for narrative depth; in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986), humpback whale songs—drawn from Roger Payne's 1970 recordings on the LP Songs of the Humpback Whale—form a central motif, symbolizing interstellar communication and highlighting cetacean vocalizations as a bridge between species and eras.^[99] Indigenous practices frequently feature imitations of natural sounds in rituals and oral traditions, as seen in Native American flute music where instruments like the courting flute, often adorned with bird motifs, replicate avian calls to invoke spiritual connections during ceremonies for healing, fertility, and rain invocation.^[100] Storytelling among these communities employs animal sound metaphors to convey moral and ecological lessons, portraying creatures as "the people" whose vocalizations—such as howls or chirps—embody relational wisdom and kinship with the environment in narratives passed orally across generations.^[101] In modern digital media, natural sounds drive experiential content like ASMR videos featuring rain, which have amassed billions of views collectively since 2010, tapping into their soothing qualities for relaxation and sensory triggers popular on platforms like YouTube and TikTok. Virtual reality applications further enhance immersion through spatialized natural soundscapes, where ambient elements like birdsong and rustling leaves significantly boost perceived presence and realism, as demonstrated in studies showing improved user involvement in simulated environments (e.g., effect sizes η² = 0.341–0.583).^[102] Global ethnomusicology research underscores the integration of natural sounds in non-Western traditions, examining how ritual wind instruments in Indigenous South American cultures, such as flutes and whistles, replicate environmental acoustics to mediate social and spiritual boundaries during ceremonies.^[103] These studies highlight sound healing practices worldwide, where sonic imitations of nature—via drums, chants, and aerophones—facilitate physical and emotional restoration in communal rituals.^[104]

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Natural and Anthropogenic Sources of Seismic, Hydroacoustic, and ...
Infrasound is sound below the human hearing threshold (< 20 Hz). Infrasonic waves are intense low-frequency compressional waves (Dahlman et al. 2011), which ...
[28]
Seismic Wave Demonstrations and Animations - Purdue University
Feb 26, 2010 · VP ~ 5 – 7 km/s in typical Earth's crust; >~ 8 km/s in Earth's mantle and core; ~1.5 km/s in water; ~0.3 km/s in air. P motion travels fastest ...
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Audible acoustics from low-magnitude fluid-induced earthquakes in ...
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earthquake warning systems: Topics by Science.gov
Earthquake early warning systems use earthquake science and the technology of monitoring systems to alert devices and people when shaking waves generated by an ...
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The Sound So Loud That It Circled the Earth Four Times - Nautilus
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[PDF] The Inaudible Rumble of Volcanic Eruptions - Robin Matoza
Mar 9, 2018 · Infrasound is atmospheric sound with frequencies between. ~0.01 and 20 Hz, that is, below the lower frequency limit of human hearing. The ...Missing: early | Show results with:early
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Sources of Sound in the Ocean and Long-Term Trends in ... - NCBI
The mechanical stresses involved in glacier calving and ice ridging also ... Air-guns release a volume of air under high pressure, creating a sound ...
[34]
[PDF] Untitled
At many of the largest glaciers and ice sheets on Earth, more than half of the annual ice loss occurs through iceberg calving into the ocean.
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The sound that rushing water makes - Physics Forums
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[PDF] Waterfall low-frequency vibrations and infrasound
infrasound for bird migration. continuous infrasound from the waterfall between 2 and 3 Hz.Missing: entrainment | Show results with:entrainment
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Gas transfer velocity in the presence of wave breaking - Tellus B
Since breaking waves induce turbulence near the sea surface by dissipating the wind–wave ... 2), where a spectral peak occurs in the frequency range of 0.1–1 Hz.<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Acoustics Today - Consortium for Verification Technology
Because the absorption of sound in the atmosphere decreases with fre- quency, the low-frequency infrasound band holds the promise of signal detec- tion over ...
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Multi-sensor investigation of the Sumatran Tsunami - NASA ADS
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We review the literature on rhythm in speech and animal vocalizations as a first step toward understanding similarities and differences across species.
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Wolf pack spacing: Howling as a territory-independent spacing ...
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Elephant infrasounds: long-range communication - ScienceDirect.com
Infrasound in the range of 1 to 20 Hz may be generated and/or detected by elephants over distances in excess of 10 km.
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Secrets of a Lion's Roar - Smithsonian Magazine
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[PDF] Analysis of Humpback Whale Songs: Applying the traditional method
A humpback whale lacks vocal cords and it is through the larynx that the sound travels from the whale to the ocean (Cholewiak et al., 2012). The frequency ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Singing humpback whales respond to wind noise, but not to vessel ...
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[PDF] Songs to syntax: the linguistics of birdsong | MIT
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[47]
Alarming features: birds use specific acoustic properties to identify ...
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The anuran vocal sac: a tool for multimodal signalling - ScienceDirect
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The mechanics of sound production in the puff adder Bitis arietans ...
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Mechanisms and Neuronal Control of Vocalization in Vertebrates
In this review, we focus on the anatomical, biomechanics and neuronal circuits underlying vocalization across vertebrate species.Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism<|separator|>
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Songs and Calls - Ornithology
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Sexual Dimorphism and Bilateral Asymmetry of Syrinx and Vocal ...
Sexually dimorphic vocal behavior is reflected in the morphology of the starling syrinx. Males have a larger syrinx with the size difference attributable to ...
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[PDF] Soundscape Ecology - MSU Today - Michigan State University
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[PDF] Short-Amplitude High-Frequency Wing Strokes Determine the ...
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Moths produce extremely quiet ultrasonic courtship songs by ... - NIH
Aug 19, 2008 · It turned out that all of the pyraloid, geometrid, and noctuid moths examined produce low-intensity (< 60 dB SPL at 1 cm) ultrasound during ...
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VIBRATIONS / SONIFYING - Arachnophilia.net -
VIBRATION: Tremulation Spider tremulation tends to produce substrate-borne vibrations in lower frequencies (in the range of 1-300 Hz, Hill & Wessel 2014).
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Termite Head-Banging: Sounding the Alarm
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[PDF] Snapping shrimp sound production patterns on Caribbean coral reefs
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Whispering trees | New Scientist
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A Review of Automated Bioacoustics and General Acoustics ... - NIH
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The deterrent effect of bird song in territory defense - PMC - NIH
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[PDF] Prey Responses to Predators Sounds: A Review and Empirical Study
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3. Effects of Noise on Marine Mammals
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An ultrasound-absorbing inflorescence zone enhances echo ...
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The role of sound stimulation in production of plant secondary ...
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[PDF] The Impact of Urban and Traffic Noise on Birds | Acoustics Today
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Avoidance, confusion or solitude? Modelling how noise pollution ...
Feb 19, 2024 · Here we develop a data-driven mathematical model to investigate how ambient noise levels may inhibit whale migration.
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How whales struggle to navigate in a sea of noise pollution - Pursuit
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[PDF] Conservation Action Plan - Ornate Chorus Frog (Pseudacris ornata)
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California's Drought Has a Distinct Sound
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Light pollution alters the phenology of dawn and dusk singing ... - PMC
We found that in four species dawn and dusk singing developed earlier in the year at sites exposed to light pollution.
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Soundscape Management Policy 4.9 - National Park Service
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Ship noise - International Maritime Organization
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Effective ecological monitoring using passive acoustic sensors
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Tuning in to the sounds of Canada's wildlife - University of Alberta
A new AI tool that picks out bird and amphibian sounds in audio recordings could improve how ecologists monitor and study Canada's wildlife.
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[PDF] The Human Ear - Hearing, Sound Intensity and Loudness Levels
f nv L n = ⇒ Boosts our hearing sensitivity in the f ~ 2-5 KHz frequency range!!! ... At birth, humans can hear over the frequency range 20 Hz – 20 KHz. As ...
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Do bird songs have frequencies higher than humans can hear?
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What Is Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR)? - WebMD
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Effects of Breathing-Relaxation Training Plus Autonomous Sensory ...
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On the biological plausibility of Wind Turbine Syndrome - PubMed
There have been numerous suggestions that the low-frequency acoustic components in wind turbine signals can cause symptoms associated with vestibular system ...
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[PDF] EFFECT OF NATURE SOUND THERAPY ON THE LEVEL OF ...
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Stress Recovery during Exposure to Nature Sound and ... - NIH
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Scientists Have Reconstructed The Hearing Abilities Of Our Ancestors
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Anthropologists Discover Hearing Abilities of Early Humans
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Presbycusis (Age-Related Hearing Loss) - Cleveland Clinic
Can't hear certain high-pitched sounds, like birds singing or alarms; Have tinnitus; Have trouble understanding what people are saying when you're in noisy ...
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High-Pitched Sounds Like Birdsong Are Fading | Hearing Aid UK
Rating 4.6 (658) Struggling to hear high-pitched sounds like birdsong may be an early sign of high-frequency hearing loss, especially if you can't hear birdsong clearly.<|separator|>
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Effects of natural sound exposure on health recovery
Apr 15, 2024 · Natural sound exposure (NSE) benefits in health recovery. NSE can greatly lower anxiety. NSE lowers HR, SBP, DBP, and RR. NSE may improve cognitive performance.
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The effect of exposure to natural sounds on stress reduction
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Onomatopoeic Words: Nature | EnglishClub
boom (of thunder) make a loud, deep resonant sound · : The thunder boomed in the background, getting louder as the storm approached. ; crash (of waves) make a ...
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'Seascape with Storm Coming On', Joseph Mallord William Turner, c ...
'Seascape with Storm Coming On', Joseph Mallord William Turner, c.1840 on display at Tate Britain.
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Brian Eno's 15 Essential Ambient Works - The New York Times
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Regarding Star Trek IV: A Very Brief Cultural History of Whale Song | In Media Res
### Summary of Whale Songs in Star Trek IV and Cultural Context
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The Flute and Flute Music of the North American Indians
The flute seems to represent particularly male fertility in North American Indian culture. Due to the limited scope of this study, a discussion of the ...
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[PDF] the power of storytelling among Native American cultures
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Audio in VR: Effects of a Soundscape and Movement-Triggered Step ...
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Burst of Breath: Indigenous Ritual Wind Instruments ... - Project MUSE
Some of the authors explore the ways ritual wind instruments are used to introduce natural sounds into social contexts and to cross boundaries between verbal ...
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[PDF] Indigenous Sound Healing
The Indigenous use of Music & Sound for healing around the World. ... these ceremonies are often used to successfully heal people of physical and mental.