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Kurmanjan Datka

Kurmanjan Datka (1811–1907) was a Kyrgyz stateswoman and tribal leader of the Alai region, who assumed the title of datka—equivalent to a general—in following the of her Alimbek Datka, and ruled for over four decades until her . Born into a nomadic family of the in the Alai Mountains near , she navigated arranged marriages, first to Kulseit in 1829 whom she later left, and then to Alimbek in 1832, bearing five sons and two daughters. Her leadership involved uniting over two dozen Kyrgyz tribes against regional threats from Chinese, , and other Central Asian powers, while maintaining internal peace through . Datka's most notable diplomatic achievement came during the Russian Empire's expansion into Central Asia in the 1870s, when she initially opposed the invasion but negotiated submission with General Mikhail Skobelev in 1876 to avert widespread bloodshed among her people, facilitating the Alai Kyrgyz's incorporation into Russia. This pragmatic decision, made under duress, earned her recognition from Tsar Nicholas II, including a gold medal and pension in 1895, though it was tested by personal tragedy, such as the execution of her son Kamchybek that year, which she accepted to preserve broader tribal autonomy. Known also as a poet under the pseudonym Zyinat, composing in Kyrgyz, Turkic, and Farsi, she was dubbed the "Tsarina of Alai" by Russians and neighbors for her rare status as a female Muslim ruler endorsed by the Emir of Bukhara, Khan of Kokand, and Russian authorities.

Early Life and Background

Birth and Family Origins

Kurmanjan Datka was born in 1811 in the region of southern , near present-day . She originated from a nomadic Kyrgyz family belonging to the Mongush clan, which engaged in herding and stockbreeding in the mountainous area. Her father, Mamatbay (also recorded as Mamatnay), was a tribesman from the same , raising her in the traditional nomadic lifestyle of the during a period of tribal under loose regional influences. Limited historical records exist on her mother or , reflecting the oral and patriarchal nature of 19th-century Kyrgyz documentation, though ties provided the foundational for her early upbringing. The Mongush clan's position within Kyrgyz tribal confederations emphasized mobility, horsemanship, and kinship networks, which shaped Datka's formative environment amid inter-tribal dynamics in the periphery.

Early Marriage and Influences

Kurmanjan Datka was betrothed at age 18, around 1829, to a man she had never met prior to the wedding ceremony, in accordance with prevailing Kyrgyz nomadic of arranged marriages to strengthen tribal alliances. Upon first seeing her husband, she deemed the union incompatible and promptly fled back to her family, an unprecedented defiance of tradition that risked social in a patriarchal society where such acts were rare and often punished. This early rebellion underscored her innate independence and resolve, qualities likely honed by her upbringing in a nomadic Muslim of the Alai region's Kyrgyz pastoralists, where demanded adaptability amid rugged terrain, inter-tribal rivalries, and seasonal migrations. Ethnographic accounts portray her 's modest yet resilient status within the Mungush lineage as providing a foundation of relative , enabling her to challenge norms without immediate destitution, though it exposed her to criticism for disrupting obligations. Her insistence on personal agency in matrimony, rather than subservience to familial dictates, foreshadowed a of assertive ; contemporaries and later oral histories attribute this to an unyielding character forged in the of mountain life, where individual cunning often outweighed collective conformity for leadership potential. By rejecting the initial match, Kurmanjan positioned herself to later wed on terms aligning with mutual affection, influencing her emergence as a figure who prioritized pragmatic alliances over rote .

Rise to Power

Marriage to Alimbek Datka and Political Entry

Kurmanjan married Alimbek Datka, the ruling datka of the Alai Kyrgyz tribes under the Khanate, in 1832 following her divorce from an arranged first marriage. This union defied Kyrgyz customs of arranged marriages, as Kurmanjan selected Alimbek—a decision reciprocated by his affection—and positioned her within the region's feudal power structure. The couple had two sons and two daughters, with Alimbek, born 1800, serving as a key administrator who unified Alai tribes and maintained ties to the Khanate's court in . Through her role as Alimbek's wife, Kurmanjan entered Alai's political sphere, acting as his advisor and administrator during his travels or absences to resolve tribal disputes and oversee local governance. She leveraged her influence to mediate conflicts among nomadic Kyrgyz clans, drawing on familial ties from her mother's side across Alai and Ferghana, which enhanced her credibility in a patriarchal tribal system reliant on oral agreements and . This advisory capacity marked her initial foray into leadership, establishing her as a stabilizing force amid the Khanate's weakening control and emerging pressures from the north.

Succession After Alimbek's Assassination in 1862

Alimbek Datka, ruler of the Alai Kyrgyz tribes under the , was assassinated in 1862 amid court intrigues and political upheaval following the death of Khan Mally Khan on February 24 of that year. The , attributed to conspirators including the Kyrgyz-Kipchak leader Alymkul and possibly broader unrest among the populace, eliminated Alimbek and other Kyrgyz feudal lords as Khudoyar Khan reclaimed the throne with Bukharan support. In the immediate aftermath, Kurmanjan, Alimbek's widow and aged 52 at the time, assumed leadership of the Alai Kyrgyz tribes to safeguard their autonomy amid regional instability involving the declining Khanate, , and emerging Russian influence. This transfer of power, unconventional for a woman in Kyrgyz nomadic society, was endorsed by key overlords: Khudoyar Khan of , who ruled over and Alai, and Muzaffar of , who had temporarily intervened in Kokand affairs and met Kurmanjan in to affirm her authority. By 1863, Kurmanjan formally received the title of datka—equivalent to a general in imperial hierarchies—from both Khudoyar Khan and Emir Muzaffar, marking her as the first female leader of the southern Kyrgyz tribes and solidifying her role as governor and military commander. Her succession relied on personal acumen, alliances with local leaders, and the absence of viable male heirs willing or able to consolidate power, enabling her to maintain stability and avert immediate bloodshed in Alai. This positioned her to navigate the tribes through subsequent threats, prioritizing pragmatic governance over resistance to superior forces.

Governance and Achievements

Unification of Alai Tribes and Dispute Resolution

Following the assassination of her husband Alimbek Datka in 1862, Kurmanjan succeeded him as leader of the Alai Kyrgyz tribes, receiving formal recognition as datka from Khudoyar Khan of the Khanate in 1863 and from the Emir of , marking her as the to hold this in Kyrgyz . This transition positioned her to address the chronic fragmentation among Alai clans, which had been exacerbated by internal rivalries and external pressures from neighboring powers. Kurmanjan advanced intertribal unity by consolidating authority over disparate Kyrgyz groups in the Alai and Pamir mountain regions, building on Alimbek's prior initiatives to forge cohesion amid nomadic pastoralist divisions. Her emphasized collective stability, enabling her to rule peacefully for approximately 50 years and integrate diverse ethnic elements under a centralized structure that reduced autonomy-driven conflicts. In , Kurmanjan earned acclaim for judiciously mediating tribal feuds, resolving issues through pragmatic rather than force, which preserved herds, rights, and ties essential to Kyrgyz nomadic . She prioritized compromise to safeguard communal interests, preventing escalations that could invite predation from or rulers, thereby sustaining regional order until Russian encroachment in the 1870s.

Administrative and Diplomatic Policies

Kurmanjan Datka implemented administrative policies centered on intertribal unity and stability in the Alai region, succeeding her husband Alimbek as datka in 1863 and ruling peacefully until her death in 1907. She advanced Alimbek's vision by integrating over two dozen nomadic Kyrgyz tribes, establishing Gulcha as the administrative center to coordinate amid ethnic and regional instability. Her approach emphasized customary mediation over coercion, fostering long-term harmony that preserved tribal autonomy during the decline of the . In , Datka prioritized equitable settlements to prevent feuds, earning recognition as a wise arbiter whose decisions were accepted by local khans and , which contributed to reduced internal conflicts and enhanced collective resilience against external threats. Her policies supported nomadic mobility as a strategic tool for and evasion of invasions, as demonstrated by the organized evacuation of Alai over 400 kilometers to in 1876. This administrative framework maintained order without formal taxation or centralized bureaucracy, relying instead on personal authority and loyalty. Diplomatically, Datka secured legitimacy by negotiating the datka title from Emir Muzaffar of and Khudoyar Khan of in 1863, which affirmed her leadership and facilitated trade and alliance networks in southern . These efforts balanced subordination to the Kokand Khanate with preservation of local influence, avoiding escalation of tribal rivalries into broader wars. Her strategy of peace-building extended to managing relations with neighboring powers, prioritizing and minimal concessions to sustain Alai's semi-autonomy.

Relations with Regional Powers

Subordination to Kokand Khanate

In the early to mid-19th century, the Alai region inhabited by Kyrgyz tribes maintained a relationship of nominal subordination to the , which exerted influence over southern Kyrgyz territories including and the surrounding mountains through the appointment of local rulers bearing the title of datka. This arrangement allowed for significant local in tribal governance and while acknowledging the khanate's , often manifested in the granting of titles and occasional demands for or military levies, though specific obligations for Alai remain sparsely documented in contemporary accounts. Kurmanjan's entry into this structure occurred through her 1832 marriage to Alimbek, a prominent feudal lord who received the datka title and authority to rule Alai-related domains directly from the , positioning him as an instrumental figure in the khanate's peripheral administration amid its internal decline. Following Alimbek's in 1862 during a palace coup in , Kurmanjan succeeded him as datka, a transition explicitly approved by the reigning , who oversaw lands encompassing Alai. Her assumption of power also garnered recognition from the of during a brief period of overlapping influence, underscoring Alai's strategic position as a requiring validation from multiple Central Asian polities to legitimize local rule. As datka, Kurmanjan governed Alai by unifying tribes, mediating conflicts, and managing relations with the , effectively serving as a proxy for 's authority until the Russian Empire's conquest of the in disrupted this hierarchy. Her role involved navigating the 's weakening grip, where local leaders like herself reported to while retaining control over nomadic affairs, a dynamic that preserved stability in the region prior to external annexation. This subordination ended with Alai's incorporation into Russian domains, shifting allegiances away from 's remnants.

Internal Kyrgyz Tribal Dynamics

Kurmanjan Datka assumed over the Alai Kyrgyz tribes following the 1862 of her , Alimbek Datka, amid rivalries for regional control that highlighted the fragmented nature of Kyrgyz tribal confederations. These groups, primarily nomadic such as the Mangush to which she belonged, operated with considerable internal under the loose of the , where manaps (local chiefs) and datkas mediated disputes over pastures, water, and herds essential to pastoralist survival. Her succession, confirmed by the Kokand , prevented escalation into broader warfare, as Kokand often exploited such divisions to install loyal intermediaries and extract tribute. Tribal dynamics in Alai were characterized by frequent blood feuds (kan kesi) and competition for datka authority, which Kurmanjan navigated through councils () that emphasized consensus among clan elders, drawing on her reputation for impartiality forged in early diplomatic roles. By resolving inter-clan conflicts—often rooted in migration routes and livestock raids—she unified disparate Alai subgroups, reducing vulnerabilities that Kokand governors periodically aggravated via arbitrary taxation or forced into campaigns against other powers. This cohesion allowed the tribes to maintain independence in daily affairs, with Kokand's influence limited to symbolic oaths and occasional military oversight rather than direct administration. Her model integrated norms of nomadic , where women held advisory influence in households and migrations, enabling her to broker marriages and alliances that tempered hostilities without alienating patriarchal structures. This internal proved critical during the 1860s–1870s, as escalating demands for resources strained tribal loyalties; Kurmanjan's strategies preserved unity until Russian forces dismantled the in 1876, after which tribal dynamics shifted toward centralized imperial oversight.

Interactions with the Russian Empire

Initial Resistance and Negotiations

In , as forces advanced through the Ferghana Valley during the conquest of the Khanate, Kyrgyz leader Shabdan Jantay uulu was dispatched by authorities to persuade tribal leaders in the Alai region, including Kurmanjan Datka, to surrender and accept subordination. Kurmanjan Datka, who held authority under Kokand but maintained control over Alai tribes, complied with this overture, influenced by Shabdan's diplomatic efforts amid the encroaching presence. By early 1876, following the of territories and penetration into Alai, Kurmanjan Datka and her sons mounted initial resistance against the "White " troops, viewing their arrival as a direct threat to local . In response, she and her supporters fled eastward approximately 400 kilometers toward , with intentions possibly extending to , to evade capture and regroup. Russian forces intercepted and captured her en route, after which she was escorted to meet General , the commander overseeing the campaign. During this encounter with Skobelev in 1876, Kurmanjan Datka shifted to negotiations, expressing formal obedience to authority and agreeing to a ceasefire to halt further hostilities. She pledged that neither she nor her sons would face and committed to preventing unrest among the Kyrgyz tribes, effectively bargaining for protections in exchange for non-resistance. This pragmatic dialogue underscored her assessment of military superiority, prioritizing tribal preservation over prolonged opposition.

Annexation Decision in 1876 and Rationale

In 1875–1876, Russian forces under General Mikhail Skobelev conducted a military expedition into the Alai region, encountering initial resistance from Kurmanjan Datka and her supporters, including her sons, who engaged in combat and briefly fled to Kashgar before returning. After defeats that demonstrated Russian military superiority, Kurmanjan met with Skobelev, expressing obedience and agreeing to a ceasefire while securing promises against persecution of her family. By July 1876, recognizing the impracticality of sustained opposition amid ongoing advances in , Kurmanjan persuaded Alai tribal leaders to accept subordination to the , formalizing the annexation through a peace agreement that integrated the region into imperial administration. Her decision prioritized averting further bloodshed and massacres, as articulated in accounts of her stating reluctance to lose her people despite personal losses, such as the execution of a resistant son. The rationale reflected pragmatic assessment of power imbalances: Alai's nomadic tribes lacked the resources and unity to counter Russia's disciplined armies and artillery, following the empire's conquests of and other khanates, while submission allowed retention of local governance and avoided the devastation seen in prior revolts. This approach preserved Kyrgyz social structures under nominal Russian oversight, enabling Kurmanjan to mediate subsequent relations rather than face total subjugation or .

Post-Annexation Cooperation and Benefits

Following the 1876 annexation of the Alai region by the , Kurmanjan Datka negotiated directly with General , commander of the expeditionary forces, pledging obedience on behalf of her people to secure a and avoid further conflict. This submission enabled a peaceful incorporation without widespread bloodshed, as Skobelev released captured Kyrgyz fighters under her assurance of loyalty. In recognition of her role in facilitating this transition, Russian authorities granted her a lifetime state of 300 rubles via imperial decree in 1881, a substantial sum equivalent to significant annual support for a tribal leader. Datka's cooperation extended into administrative continuity, where she retained influence as a local authority, meeting eleven successive governor-generals and aiding in regional stability. Further honors included a on a St. Andrew's ribbon and an annual pension confirmation in , alongside a ladies' watch encrusted with and roses as a gift from Emperor . Additional gifts, such as a ring with a precious stone and watches bearing the imperial emblem in 1902, underscored her status as a valued intermediary. The primary benefits of this arrangement for the Alai Kyrgyz stemmed from averted violence and ensuing stability, as Datka's pledge protected her tribes from persecution and reprisals during the turbulent conquest of the Kokand Khanate. Her sustained leadership allowed continuation of local initiatives, including , folk medicine, and aid to orphans and the impoverished, under oversight that ended immediate threats from neighboring powers. This pragmatic alignment preserved tribal to a degree while integrating the region into structures, though long-term economic transformations were gradual and not uniquely tied to her personal efforts.

Later Years and Death

Personal Life and Literacy

Kurmanjan Datka was born in 1811 in the village of Orok in the Alai Mountains near , into a nomadic Muslim of the Mungush ; her father was Mamatbay, a member of the Kyrgyz Mangush clan. She grew up in a traditional nomadic environment, developing skills such as horseback riding from an early age, which were essential for mobility and leadership in the mountainous terrain. At age 18 in 1829, she entered a arranged by her to a 21-year-old man, but she soon left him and returned to her parents, defying Kyrgyz customs that emphasized enduring marital obligations. In 1832, at age 21, Kurmanjan married Alymbek Datka, the feudal lord and military commander of the Alai district under the Kokand Khanate, in a union that lasted until his assassination in 1863. This marriage elevated her status and integrated her into regional politics, as she supported Alymbek in governance and dispute resolution for nearly three decades. The couple had five sons—Abdyldabek, Baatyrbek, Mamytbek, Asanbek, and Kamchybek—and two daughters; prior to their biological children, they adopted a son named Karabek. Some of her sons, including Abdyldabek, later participated in resistance against Russian expansion, reflecting familial tensions amid geopolitical shifts. Kurmanjan outlived Alymbek and most immediate family members, dying at over 96 with numerous descendants. No records indicate formal or training for Kurmanjan, consistent with the oral traditions and low literacy rates in 19th-century Kyrgyz nomadic , where knowledge transmission relied on verbal and recitation by akyns. Despite this, she demonstrated exceptional verbal acuity in diplomacy and reportedly composed poems in her later years, signing them under the name Zyinat, suggesting possible adaptation to basic written forms through exposure to regional elites or administrators. Her effectiveness as a leader stemmed from innate , pragmatic judgment, and cultural acumen rather than scholarly attainment. ![Portrait of Kurmanjan Datka by Mannerheim][float-right]

Death and Burial in 1907

Kurmanjan Datka spent her final years in retirement at her home in the village of Mady, near , after yielding active political involvement following the Russian annexation of Kyrgyz territories. In 1906, she hosted Finnish explorer and military officer Carl Gustaf Mannerheim during his expedition through ; Mannerheim, who would later serve as , documented her as a respected elder figure, and Russian officials accorded her honors recognizing her historical role. She died in 1907 at approximately 96 years of age, likely from natural causes associated with advanced age, as no contemporary accounts specify illness or other factors. Datka was buried in the Sary Mazar cemetery in , positioned with a view toward the sacred Sulayman-Too mountain, a site of longstanding spiritual significance for . Her tomb lies adjacent to that of her son Kamchibek, executed by authorities in 1895 amid regional unrest. The burial reflected traditional Kyrgyz practices, emphasizing proximity to kin and revered landscapes, and her grave became a point of local veneration even in her lifetime's aftermath. She was survived by two sons, two daughters, numerous grandsons, and great-grandsons, underscoring her extensive familial lineage.

Controversies and Assessments

Criticisms of Collaboration with Russia

Kurmanjan Datka's decision to submit Alai to rule in , following initial , has drawn from some Kyrgyz nationalists who view it as a capitulation that sacrificed long-term for immediate survival. Critics argue that her persuasion of tribal leaders to cease hostilities against the , despite military defeats, enabled the of Kyrgyz lands and subjected the population to colonial administration, taxation, and cultural policies that persisted into the Soviet era. This perspective frames her —often rationalized as from further incursions—as inherently self-defeating, entrenching on the very power it sought to mitigate. For example, contemporary analyses highlight how her submission in September 1876, after meetings with General , precluded unified Kyrgyz resistance akin to earlier tribal coalitions against the , leading to fragmented governance under oversight. Such critiques, though marginal in official Kyrgyz that emphasizes her role in averting bloodshed, underscore tensions in post-independence narratives where her actions are weighed against ideals of uncompromised national autonomy. Detractors point to subsequent events, including the 1893 execution of her son Kamchibek for anti-Russian activities, as evidence of the alliance's fragility and ultimate cost to Kyrgyz .

Pragmatic vs. Nationalist Interpretations

The pragmatic interpretation of Kurmanjan Datka's facilitation of Alai's annexation to the in 1876 emphasizes her strategic realism amid existential threats, including inter-tribal conflicts, raids from the , and the overwhelming military disparity with Russian forces advancing through since the 1860s. Proponents argue that outright resistance, as attempted by some Kyrgyz manaps earlier, resulted in heavy casualties and subjugation without altering outcomes, whereas Datka's negotiations with General preserved lives, averted total conquest by force, and secured her continued rule as a Russian-endorsed datka with authority over local affairs. Post-annexation evidence supports this view: under her oversight, the Alai region experienced reduced raiding, construction of caravan routes like the Osh-Alai road by , and administrative stability, allowing Kyrgyz pastoralists to maintain customary practices without immediate cultural erasure, as Datka mediated between imperial officials and tribes until 1907. Russian archival records from governors corroborate her active role in quelling unrest and promoting loyalty, which earned her rank equivalency to a and personal protections, framing her choices as adaptive governance rather than capitulation. Nationalist interpretations, more prominent in informal discourses and anti-imperial critiques, portray Datka's as a foundational that eroded Kyrgyz , inviting colonial and paving the way for Soviet incorporation after 1917, where tribal structures were dismantled. Critics contend that her deference to Skobelev—despite initial resistance costing hundreds of Kyrgyz lives in 1876 skirmishes—prioritized short-term survival over collective sovereignty, contrasting with figures like Alai manap Janybek, who fought to the end, and argue it normalized intrusion, leading to land reallocations and taxation burdens by the . This lens draws on pan-Turkic or independence-era sentiments, viewing her as emblematic of that weakened nomadic against empires, with some analysts citing her sons' subsequent exiles for as of suppressed within her own kin. Such assessments, while marginalized in state narratives, highlight causal risks of dependency, as echoed in reflections on "protection" turning coercive, undermining long-term . These interpretations reflect broader tensions in Kyrgyz : pragmatic analyses, dominant in official accounts and cultural productions like the 2014 film Kurmanjan Datka: Queen of the Mountains, align with by stressing her as a unifier who navigated power asymmetries effectively, evidenced by her literacy promotion and roles post-1876. Nationalist critiques, though less institutionalized, persist in academic and oppositional circles wary of great-power influence, cautioning that pragmatic concessions historically invited overreach, as seen in Russia's Fergana expansions beyond initial pacts. Empirical outcomes—Alai's avoidance of the 1916 uprising's full devastation under her successors—bolster the former, yet unresolved debates underscore how causal chains of collaboration shaped Kyrgyz statecraft's trade-offs between preservation and purity.

Legacy and Modern Views

Historical Role in Kyrgyz Statecraft

Kurmanjan Datka ascended to leadership in the Alai region after the assassination of her husband, Alimbek Datka, in 1862, assuming the military title of datka in as the first woman to govern southern Kyrgyz tribes. Her authority derived from recognition by Kyrgyz tribal councils, the , the —where she received formal investiture from Emir Muzaffar and Khudoyar Khan—and, subsequently, Russian imperial officials, marking a rare instance of cross-empire legitimacy for a nomadic female ruler. This multi-layered endorsement enabled her to centralize control over fragmented clans, adjudicate disputes, and enforce order in a terrain prone to raids and feuds. Datka's governance emphasized tribal unification and internal stability, ruling the Alai Kyrgyz for over 40 years amid the decline of Central Asian khanates and expansion. She mobilized clans for defense against external threats, including Kokand's exploitative taxation, while fostering alliances through marriages and councils that integrated diverse subtribes like the Mungush. Her administration balanced nomadic traditions with administrative , collecting tributes and organizing militias without a fixed , which sustained economic viability via routes and rights. In , Datka prioritized negotiated survival over futile resistance, exemplified by her 1876 parley with Russian General during the Kokand Khanate's conquest. Pledging loyalty to avert reprisals against her sons and subjects—who had initially resisted—she evacuated non-combatants to remote valleys, facilitating Alai's incorporation into the on terms that preserved local customs and reduced Kokand's yoke. This maneuver, though yielding partial autonomy under Russian oversight, averted wholesale devastation; Russian records later honored her with the epithet "Tsaritsa of Alai" and a plus in 1895 for stabilizing the frontier. Her statecraft thus exemplified causal trade-offs: conceding to secure kin and resources against superior military disparity.

Commemorations and Symbolism in Independent

In independent , Kurmanjan Datka symbolizes resilient leadership and diplomatic acumen, often invoked as a foundational figure in national statecraft. Her portrait adorns the obverse of the 50 som banknote across multiple series, including the 2023 issuance measuring 126 by 61 mm in orange hues, affirming her status as a enduring of Kyrgyz heritage. Monuments erected post-independence honor her contributions, including an equestrian statue in central at the Masalieva and Kara-Suu streets intersection, which serves as a key landmark, and a bronze figure in traditional attire installed in 's Oak Park in 2004. Streets in both and bear her name, integrating her legacy into urban nomenclature. The 2014 epic film Kurmanjan Datka: Queen of the Mountains, directed by Sadyk Sher-Niyaz, dramatizes her negotiations with imperial forces and premiered on August 31, Kyrgyzstan's Independence Day, reinforcing her role in narratives of and cultural preservation; it was selected as the nation's entry for the ' Best Foreign Language Film category. Annually in May, her descendants convene for commemorative gatherings involving Qur'anic recitations and prayers at her burial site in Osh's historic cemetery, where her husband's memorial was relocated beside hers in 2010 to underscore familial and historical continuity.

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    Kyrgyzstan's biggest ever blockbuster hits cinemas amid patriotism ...
    Aug 24, 2014 · Kurmanjan Datka: Queen of the Mountains, reportedly the most expensive Krygyz film ever produced, has been criticised for relying on taxpayers' money.Missing: debate | Show results with:debate