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Pasture

A pasture is a land use type consisting of vegetation cover primarily composed of introduced or enhanced native forage species, such as grasses and legumes, that is used for livestock grazing.^[1] These areas are typically managed to support the production of adapted, domesticated forage plants for animals including cattle, sheep, horses, and goats.^[2] Unlike rangelands, which rely on native vegetation and natural precipitation without irrigation, pastures often involve cultivated species and intentional practices like seeding and fertilization to maintain productivity.^[3] Globally, permanent meadows and pastures encompass approximately 3.2 billion hectares, representing the largest component of agricultural land and covering more than one-third of the Earth's total land area when combined with cropland.^[4] This extensive coverage underscores their critical role in supporting livestock production, which accounts for a significant portion of global agricultural output and contributes to food security by providing essential feed for ruminants.^[5] Beyond forage, well-managed pastures enhance environmental health by improving soil fertility, reducing erosion, capturing carbon, and serving as habitats for wildlife.^[1] Effective pasture management is essential for sustained productivity and ecological balance, involving strategies such as rotational grazing to prevent overgrazing and allow vegetation recovery.^[6] These practices typically include short grazing periods of 7-10 days followed by extended rest periods of 70-120 days, which maintain forage in a vegetative growth stage for higher nutritional quality.^[6] By integrating cover crops and adjusting stocking rates, producers can mitigate issues like soil compaction and nutrient runoff, promoting resilience against climate variability.^[7]

Definition and Overview

Definition

A pasture is defined as land primarily used for the production of adapted, domesticated forage plants, such as grasses and legumes, for livestock grazing.^[1] This vegetation supports fodder production through direct grazing, distinguishing pastures from areas intended for mechanical harvesting or crop rotation.^[2] Pastures differ from arable land, which involves periodic plowing and is dedicated to growing temporary crops such as cereals or vegetables, often including fallow periods of less than five years.^[8] In contrast to meadows, which are primarily mown for hay production and may be grazed only after cutting, pastures are managed specifically for continuous livestock grazing throughout the growing season.^[9] Rangelands, on the other hand, typically feature sparse, native vegetation in arid or semi-arid regions with minimal management, whereas pastures often involve introduced or improved species under more intensive oversight.^[2] Agriculturally, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) classifies permanent pastures as land used for five or more years to grow herbaceous forage crops, either through cultivation or natural regrowth, for the purpose of fodder production via grazing or cutting.^[10] This definition aligns with legal frameworks in various countries, emphasizing permanence and exclusion from arable cycles to support sustainable livestock systems.^[11]

Key Characteristics

Pastures exhibit a vegetation composition dominated by perennial grasses from the Poaceae family, such as fescue and ryegrass, which form the primary structural component of the sward, supplemented by legumes like clover (Trifolium spp.) and a variety of forbs that contribute to nutritional diversity.^[1]^[12] These herbaceous plants are typically non-woody and adapted for repeated grazing, with grasses providing bulk forage and legumes fixing atmospheric nitrogen to support ecosystem fertility.^[13] Forbs, including broadleaf herbs, add palatability and micronutrients, though their proportion varies by environmental conditions.^[13] Optimal soil conditions for pastures include fertile, well-drained loams, which balance sand, silt, and clay to ensure adequate aeration, water infiltration, and nutrient retention essential for root development and plant vigor.^[14] These soils typically have a neutral to slightly acidic pH (6.0-7.0) and high organic matter content, promoting microbial activity and preventing waterlogging or erosion.^[15] Functionally, pastures support a carrying capacity that varies widely by region, climate, and management; for example, 1-3 animal units (AU; equivalent to the forage needs of a 1000-lb mature cow) per hectare in many temperate improved pastures, representing the maximum sustainable livestock density without degradation.^[16] Productivity is measured by dry matter yield, often ranging from 5-15 tons per hectare per year in temperate zones under good management, reflecting the biomass available for consumption after accounting for inherent losses.^[17] Seasonal growth patterns are climatically driven, with peak accumulation in spring and summer due to warmer temperatures and rainfall, tapering in winter under cooler, drier conditions.^[18] Biodiversity in pastures encompasses both native and introduced species, where native plants enhance long-term health by fostering soil stability, pollinator support, and resilience to stressors, while introduced species like certain legumes can increase short-term productivity but may diminish overall species richness if they outcompete locals.^[19] A balanced mix sustains ecosystem functions, with native dominance linked to improved soil health and reduced vulnerability to pests.^[20]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Use

The origins of pasture use trace back to the Neolithic period in the Fertile Crescent, where the domestication of sheep and cattle around 10,000 BCE marked a pivotal shift from hunting and gathering to managed herding. Archaeological evidence from sites in northern Iraq, southeastern Turkey, and the Levant indicates that wild ancestors of sheep (Ovis orientalis) and goats were selectively bred for traits like docility and higher yields of milk and wool, with cattle (Bos primigenius) following suit by approximately 9,000 BCE.^[21]^[22] This development facilitated early pastoralism, where communities practiced local grazing within 20-30 km of settlements, supplemented by penning and fodder from agricultural byproducts, laying the foundation for more mobile herding strategies.^[23] By the third millennium BCE in Mesopotamia, pasture management had evolved into integrated agropastoral systems supporting urban centers like Uruk. Livestock, primarily sheep, goats, and cattle, were grazed on communal lands along riverine floodplains and adjacent steppes, with cuneiform records from around 3000 BCE documenting the allocation of grazing areas to sustain herds for wool, meat, and traction in plowing.^[23] These practices emphasized seasonal movement to exploit post-harvest stubble fields and uncultivated margins, preventing overgrazing while providing manure for soil fertility. In the Roman era, agronomist Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (c. 4–70 CE) detailed advanced techniques in De Re Rustica, advocating rotational grazing within convertible husbandry systems that alternated arable crops with leys for livestock recovery. He recommended dividing estates into sections for sequential pasturing of cattle and sheep, integrating fodder crops like legumes to restore soil nutrients and support year-round herding.^[24]^[25] Pastures held significant cultural roles in early European feudal systems from the 9th century CE onward, functioning as communal commons essential to manorial economies. Under feudalism, lords granted peasants access to open pastures for grazing livestock after harvest, fostering social cohesion while optimizing crop-livestock synergies through manure fertilization; this system, evident in charters from England and France, balanced private demesne lands with shared grazing rights to sustain serf households.^[26] Similarly, pre-Columbian Indigenous peoples in the Americas managed vast grasslands through controlled burning and selective clearing, creating open landscapes that supported wildlife grazing and hunting from the Great Plains to the eastern woodlands by at least 8,000 years ago. These practices, documented in paleoecological records, enhanced biodiversity and forage availability for species like bison and deer without domesticated herds, reflecting adaptive land stewardship integral to Indigenous cosmologies.^[27] In other regions, such as Central Asia, nomadic pastoralism on steppes dates back to around 3000 BCE, with groups like the Scythians managing vast grasslands for horse and sheep herding through seasonal migrations. In sub-Saharan Africa, pastoral systems involving cattle and zebu emerged by 2000 BCE in the Sahel, integrating grazing with transhumance to exploit savanna resources.^[28]

Modern Evolution

The modern evolution of pastures began with the agricultural revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries, which shifted communal land systems toward privatized, intensive farming practices. In Britain, the enclosure movement, peaking between 1760 and 1820, involved parliamentary acts that converted vast areas of common lands and open fields into privately owned pastures, enabling more efficient livestock rearing and crop rotation systems. This transformation enclosed approximately 7 million acres (over 10,000 square miles) of land, boosting agricultural productivity by consolidating fragmented holdings and facilitating improvements like drainage and fencing.^[29] In the 19th century, innovations such as the widespread adoption of chemical fertilizers, including guano and superphosphates from the 1840s, and Jethro Tull's seed drill (refined and popularized post-1800), revolutionized pasture establishment by allowing precise sowing of legume-rich mixes that enhanced soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. These advancements, part of the broader British Agricultural Revolution, increased forage yields and supported the expansion of dairy and meat production across Europe and North America.^[30] The 20th century saw further advancements through selective breeding and the influences of the Green Revolution, tailoring pastures for higher productivity and resilience. Starting in the early 1900s, plant breeders focused on forage crops, with significant progress in the 1960s and 1970s through the development of hybrid ryegrass varieties at institutions like the Welsh Plant Breeding Station, which combined perennial and Italian ryegrass traits for improved persistence, yield, and nutritional quality. These hybrids, such as early tetraploid forms, substantially increased dry matter production in temperate regions compared to traditional varieties.^[31] The Green Revolution, from the 1960s onward, extended its high-yield paradigm to forages via semi-dwarf and fertilizer-responsive varieties of crops like alfalfa and sorghum-sudangrass hybrids, which, when paired with synthetic fertilizers and irrigation, supported enhanced productivity in intensive pasture systems.^[32] Policy frameworks played a pivotal role in shaping modern pasture landscapes, promoting conversion and sustainable management. The European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), established in 1962, provided production subsidies and structural funds that incentivized the conversion of marginal arable lands to improved pastures, supporting over 100 million hectares of grassland by the 1970s through premiums for extensification and environmental schemes. In the United States, the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 regulated public rangelands by creating grazing districts across 170 million acres in the West, issuing permits to prevent overgrazing and enabling rotational systems that restored degraded pastures, thereby sustaining livestock industries amid the Dust Bowl era. These policies not only expanded pasture acreage but also integrated scientific management to balance economic output with land conservation.^[33]^[34]

Types and Classification

Natural Pastures

Natural pastures, often referred to as rangelands in standard terminology, are unmanaged or semi-natural grasslands that arise and endure through ecological processes without deliberate human modification for forage production. These ecosystems are characterized by their dependence on native vegetation and natural disturbances, distinguishing them from cultivated systems that involve seeding, fertilization, or irrigation. They encompass diverse formations such as prairies and savannas, where grasses dominate due to environmental conditions favoring herbaceous growth over woody plants.^[35] The formation of natural pastures typically occurs via ecological succession, beginning from bare soil, steppes, or even forested areas, where grasses establish following disturbances that clear competing vegetation. Wildfires and herbivory by native ungulates are pivotal in this process, as they inhibit tree and shrub regrowth, thereby perpetuating open grassland conditions. In North American prairies, for example, fire regimes with return intervals of 1 to 35 years recycle nutrients, promote tillering in perennial grasses, and suppress invasives like eastern redcedar, facilitating the transition to and maintenance of grass-dominated landscapes.^[36] Likewise, in savannas, synergistic fire-herbivory feedbacks create "grazing lawns"—short-grass patches where herbivores preferentially graze, reducing fire fuel and reinforcing grass persistence through a self-sustaining cycle. Vegetation in natural pastures is composed mainly of indigenous perennial grasses adapted to periodic stress, with species composition varying by climate and soil. A prominent example is Andropogon gerardii (big bluestem), a key constituent of tallgrass prairies, featuring robust culms up to 2 meters tall and extensive rhizomatous growth that stabilizes soil.^[37] These systems generally exhibit modest productivity, averaging 1-3 tons of dry matter per hectare per year under natural conditions, limited by nutrient-poor soils and irregular rainfall.^[38] Native grasses also confer drought resilience through deep root systems—often exceeding 2 meters—that enable water uptake from subsoil layers during dry spells, enhancing ecosystem stability.^[39] Unmanaged or native grasslands (rangelands) occupy approximately 40% of the global terrestrial surface (about 5.2 billion hectares), primarily in temperate regions like the Eurasian steppes and North American plains, as well as tropical zones such as African savannas and South American campos, where adequate but seasonal precipitation supports grass growth without supplemental water.^[35] In contrast to improved pastures, which achieve higher yields through human inputs, natural variants prioritize biodiversity and self-regulation over intensive production.^[40]

Improved and Managed Pastures

Improved and managed pastures represent human-modified grasslands optimized for livestock production through targeted interventions such as seeding, fertilization, and irrigation, contrasting with the self-sustaining nature of natural pastures. These systems prioritize cultivated species selected for superior growth rates, nutritional quality, and resilience, enabling significantly higher forage availability compared to unmodified vegetation. By introducing specific plant varieties and symbiotic species, farmers can enhance soil fertility and overall productivity while minimizing external inputs over time. Key enhancement techniques include the sowing of cultivated grass varieties tailored to regional climates. In temperate zones, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) is a predominant choice due to its adaptation to cool, moist conditions, rapid establishment, and high palatability for grazing animals.^[41] Complementing these grasses, legumes like white clover (Trifolium repens) are incorporated to promote biological nitrogen fixation, where rhizobial bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen into plant-usable forms, potentially supplying 100-200 kg N/ha annually and reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers by up to 50%.^[42] These practices, supported by periodic fertilization (e.g., 50-200 kg N/ha/year) and irrigation in drier periods, transform low-yield native swards into high-output systems.^[43] Productivity in improved pastures can reach 10-15 tons of dry matter (DM) per hectare per year under optimal management, far exceeding the 2-5 t DM/ha typical of natural grasslands, with gains attributed to nutrient enrichment and species selection.^[44] Grazing management further influences output; rotational systems, involving short grazing periods of 7-10 days followed by extended rest periods of 70-120 days, sustain higher yields and sward quality by preventing overgrazing and promoting even regrowth, often increasing animal liveweight gains by 50-100% over continuous grazing setups.^[43] In contrast, continuous grazing allows flexible animal access but risks selective foraging and reduced longevity without vigilant monitoring. Managed pastures also encompass hybrid systems balancing short-term and long-term use. Leys, or temporary pastures, are sown following arable crops as part of rotations, providing intensive forage for 2-5 years before reversion to tillage, which helps restore soil structure and fertility in between cash crops.^[45] Permanent swards, established for enduring use, typically last 5-20 years with maintenance like overseeding and fertility adjustments, offering stable production but requiring periodic renovation to combat weed invasion and productivity decline.^[42] These approaches allow adaptability to farm objectives, with leys favoring crop-livestock integration and permanent setups supporting dedicated grazing enterprises.

Establishment and Management

Establishment Methods

Establishing a pasture begins with thorough site preparation to ensure optimal soil conditions for seed germination and plant growth. Soil testing is essential to assess nutrient levels, pH, and other properties, with an ideal pH range of 6.0 to 7.0 for most grasses to support nutrient availability and root development.^[46] If the pH is below this range, liming is applied to neutralize acidity, typically incorporated into the top 4 to 6 inches of soil 6 to 12 months prior to seeding for effective reaction.^[47] Primary tillage, such as plowing or disking, breaks up compacted soil and buries crop residues, followed by secondary harrowing to create a fine, firm seedbed that promotes even seed distribution and reduces erosion.^[48] Seeding techniques vary based on equipment availability and site conditions, with the goal of achieving good seed-to-soil contact for uniform emergence. Broadcasting involves spreading seeds evenly over the surface at rates of 20 to 35 kg/ha for common pasture grasses such as orchardgrass and ryegrass, typically 20-50% higher than drilled rates to compensate for reduced contact, and is suitable for larger areas but requires rolling or cultipacking afterward to press seeds into the soil.^[49] Drilling, using a seed drill for precise placement at depths of ¼ to ½ inch, ensures better distribution and protection from birds or drying out, typically at rates such as 20 to 25 lb/acre (22 to 28 kg/ha) for cool-season grasses like tall fescue.^[50] Timing is critical, with cool-season grasses seeded in spring (mid-March to mid-May in warmer regions) to leverage moist soils and moderate temperatures before summer stress.^[51] Initial inputs during establishment focus on providing essential nutrients and managing competition to foster rapid stand development. Starter fertilizers, such as 50 kg N/ha for grass-only pastures, are applied prior to the final tillage to boost early growth without excessive leaching, while phosphorus is incorporated based on soil tests to enhance root establishment.^[52] Weed control is implemented through pre-emergence herbicides or cultural methods like clean tillage, targeting a first-year ground cover of 70 to 80% by desirable species to suppress invasives and build resilience.^[53]

Maintenance Practices

Maintenance practices for pastures emphasize sustainable strategies to preserve soil health, forage productivity, and ecosystem balance over time. These practices build on initial establishment by implementing routine interventions that adapt to seasonal changes, livestock demands, and environmental conditions. Key elements include controlled grazing to avoid degradation, targeted nutrient supplementation to support regrowth, and proactive management of pests and weeds to minimize competition with desirable species. Grazing management is central to pasture longevity, with rotational systems dividing land into paddocks to allow periods of rest and recovery for vegetation. In rotational grazing, livestock are moved between paddocks on cycles such as 21 days of occupation followed by equivalent rest periods, which promotes even forage utilization and reduces selective overgrazing.^[54] These systems can increase overall stocking rates by approximately 30% compared to continuous grazing by optimizing plant regrowth and minimizing soil compaction.^[55] Appropriate stocking rates, typically ranging from 1 to 3 livestock units per hectare depending on soil fertility and climate, prevent overgrazing while maximizing animal performance; for instance, in moderately productive temperate regions, rates around 400 pounds of liveweight per acre (equivalent to about 1 livestock unit per hectare) support balanced forage intake without depleting root reserves.^[56]^[57] Nutrient and soil care involve regular monitoring and amendments to counteract losses from grazing and harvesting. Annual applications of nitrogen fertilizer, often at 100-200 kg per hectare split across the growing season, enhance grass yields in non-legume pastures by replenishing depleted stores and stimulating tillering.^[58] Phosphorus and potassium are applied based on soil tests to maintain optimal levels, with typical removals of 15-20 lb (6.8-9.1 kg) P₂O₅ and 45-60 lb (20.4-27.2 kg) K₂O per ton of dry matter harvested guiding replacement rates.^[59] Soil pH is kept near 7.0 through periodic liming if tests indicate acidity below 6.5, ensuring nutrient availability.^[59] To address bare patches arising from uneven wear, overseeding with compatible forage species during favorable seasons restores cover and diversity without full re-establishment.^[7] Pest and weed control employs integrated approaches that combine cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical methods to suppress invasives while preserving beneficial organisms. Rotational grazing itself aids control by disrupting weed lifecycles through timed defoliation, complemented by mowing or clipping to prevent seed set.^[60] Herbicides, such as selective broadleaf killers applied at labeled rates for species like thistles, target persistent weeds without broadly harming grasses when used judiciously in rotation.^[60] Biological controls, including the introduction of host-specific insects or pathogens, offer long-term suppression for problematic weeds; for example, biocontrol agents have been effectively deployed against invasive thistles in managed pastures.^[61] These integrated tactics minimize reliance on chemicals, fostering resilient pastures that require less intensive intervention over time.^[62]

Ecological and Economic Importance

Ecological Roles

Pastures play a vital role in supporting biodiversity by providing habitats for a variety of pollinators, insects, and wildlife. Diverse sward compositions, which include multiple grass, legume, and forb species, create structural complexity that attracts and sustains these organisms. For instance, studies on livestock pastures have documented over 150 insect species, encompassing bees and other pollinators, highlighting how varied vegetation layers offer food sources, shelter, and breeding sites.^[63] This biodiversity extends to ground-nesting birds, small mammals, and beneficial arthropods, enhancing ecosystem resilience against pests and promoting natural pollination services essential for surrounding agricultural landscapes.^[64] In addition to biodiversity, pastures contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, with managed systems capable of storing 0.5 to 2 tons of carbon per hectare per year through root growth and organic matter accumulation in soils.^[65] Regarding soil and water functions, the extensive root systems of pasture plants anchor soil particles, effectively preventing erosion by reducing surface runoff and stabilizing slopes during heavy rainfall. Nutrient cycling is facilitated through the decomposition of plant litter and manure, where microbial communities break down organic matter to release essential elements like nitrogen and phosphorus back into the soil for plant uptake.^[66] In wetland pastures, these root networks and vegetative cover further aid flood mitigation by absorbing and slowing floodwaters, thereby reducing downstream flooding risks and maintaining hydrological balance.^[67] Despite these benefits, sustainability challenges arise from mismanaged monoculture pastures, which can lead to soil degradation through nutrient depletion, compaction, and reduced organic matter, ultimately diminishing long-term ecosystem services. Proper management practices, such as rotational grazing, can mitigate these risks by fostering diversity and soil health.^[14] Additionally, while pastures aid carbon sequestration, livestock grazing on them contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for about 14.5% of global anthropogenic GHGs as of 2019, primarily methane; recent IPCC assessments (2022) emphasize adaptive management to balance mitigation and productivity.^[68]

Economic and Agricultural Value

Pastures form the backbone of global livestock production, supplying the primary feed source for ruminants and contributing substantially to food systems. Forages from pastures and rangelands account for approximately 86% of livestock feed in dry matter terms, consisting largely of grasses and other materials inedible by humans, which supports efficient conversion into animal products.^[69] This reliance enables high output in key commodities; for instance, well-managed pasture-based dairy systems in temperate regions can yield up to 10,000-14,000 kg of milk solids per hectare annually, while beef production from grazing typically reaches 200-500 kg liveweight per hectare in optimized temperate setups.^[70]^[71] These contributions position pastures as essential for meeting global demand for milk, meat, and other livestock-derived foods, enhancing food security in regions where arable land for crops is limited. Economically, pastures drive a sector valued at $1.6 to $3.3 trillion annually in market terms for farmed animals, reflecting their role in generating income through livestock outputs and related industries.^[72] Worldwide, pastoral systems support the livelihoods of over 200 million people across 100 countries, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions where alternative employment is scarce.^[73] This scale underscores pastures' integration into broader agricultural economies, where they bolster rural development and poverty alleviation by providing low-input production models. In trade, pasture-based products exemplify competitive advantages in international markets; New Zealand, for example, exports predominantly grass-fed lamb, with sheepmeat shipments accounting for a significant portion of its approximately NZ$10 billion annual red meat trade as of 2024.^[74]^[75] Policy interventions further amplify this value, as agricultural subsidies in OECD countries—totaling around $818 billion in 2022 and equivalent to 0.89% of GDP—often target livestock and forage sectors, representing approximately 12% of gross farm receipts and influencing up to 40% of agricultural GDP in earlier periods through support for pasture maintenance and grazing operations.^[76]^[77] Recent policies, such as the European Union's Farm to Fork Strategy (as of 2023), promote sustainable pasture practices, aiming for 25% organic farming by 2030 to enhance long-term economic resilience.^[78]

Examples and Regional Variations

Temperate Pasture Examples

In temperate regions, such as Ireland, dairy pastures often rely on perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens) mixtures, which support high productivity under rotational grazing systems. These swards can achieve annual dry matter (DM) yields of up to 12 tons per hectare, enabling efficient milk production while fixing atmospheric nitrogen to reduce fertilizer needs.^[79] Red clover (Trifolium pratense) variants integrated with ryegrass further enhance yields to 12-16 tons DM/ha, contributing to sustainable intensification in humid, mild climates.^[80] On well-managed farms, average grass production reaches 13.5 tons DM/ha annually, underscoring the role of these mixes in Ireland's grass-based dairy sector.^[81] In the United Kingdom, hill farming in upland areas like the Lake District and Scottish Highlands utilizes native breeds adapted to marginal, cooler pastures dominated by rough grasses and heather. Breeds such as Herdwick and Swaledale sheep, along with Highland and Galloway cattle, graze extensively on these low-input systems, maintaining biodiversity while producing wool, meat, and lambs suited to challenging terrains. These practices, often supported by environmental schemes, emphasize light stocking rates to prevent overgrazing on native swards, with breeds like the North Country Cheviot contributing to resilient upland economies.^[82] North American temperate pastures exemplify diverse rotations in cooler climates. In the Midwestern United States, alfalfa (Medicago sativa)-grass mixtures, such as with orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), form key components of dairy and beef rotations, yielding 5-6 tons DM per acre (approximately 11-13 tons DM/ha) under irrigated or fertile conditions. These systems improve soil nitrogen and reduce erosion, with average alfalfa stands producing 6-7 tons DM/acre over multiple years in states like Michigan and Wisconsin.^[83] In Canadian prairies, post-plowing recovery of native or improved pastures involves reseeding with mixed grasses like western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii) and crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), restoring productivity after cultivation for crops.^[84] Restoration efforts, such as those in Grasslands National Park, have rehabilitated over 1,100 hectares since 1997, with full ecological recovery taking 5-10 years through controlled grazing and native seed mixes.^[85] Climate change poses emerging challenges to these systems, particularly through projected wetter winters in Europe and North America, which elevate soil moisture and compaction risks. Increased precipitation events heighten poaching—soil damage from livestock hooves in saturated conditions—potentially reducing pasture carrying capacity in affected areas. In regions like the UK and Midwest U.S., this exacerbates erosion and nutrient runoff, necessitating adaptive strategies such as improved drainage and timing of grazing to mitigate impacts on sward health.

Tropical and Arid Pasture Examples

In the African savannas, particularly the Maasai rangelands of East Africa, pastures form distinctive Acacia-grass mosaics that integrate scattered trees like Acacia tortilis with dominant grasses such as Themeda triandra and Cynodon dactylon, supporting traditional nomadic livestock herding of cattle, sheep, and goats. These ecosystems thrive in semi-arid conditions with bimodal rainfall, where trees enhance local grass quality by providing shade and nutrient enrichment, though dense tree cover can reduce overall grass biomass at landscape scales. Productivity varies by rainfall and management, classified as medium at 2.1–3.4 tons of dry matter (DM) per hectare annually, with peaks reaching 2–4 tons DM/ha during wet seasons due to rapid grass regrowth.^[86]^[87] In the Australian outback, arid Mitchell grass (Astrebla spp.) pastures, including species like A. lappacea and A. pectinata, cover vast cracking clay plains and serve as primary forage for extensive cattle grazing in regions like the Barkly Tablelands and Mitchell Grass Downs. These perennial tussock grasses are resilient to drought and heavy grazing, maintaining palatability even when mature, with biomass yields up to 2.5 tons DM/ha in dense stands under favorable conditions.^[88] Fire management is a key practice, with strategic cool-season burns every 3–5 years promoting regeneration by stimulating seed germination, reducing fuel loads, and preventing shrub invasion, thereby sustaining long-term pasture condition.^[89] In South America, tropical pastures in Brazil's Cerrado region exemplify adaptations through the widespread adoption of introduced Brachiaria species, such as B. brizantha and B. decumbens, which have transformed low-productivity native grasslands into high-yielding systems for beef cattle. These grasses tolerate acidic, low-fertility soils and seasonal dry periods, enabling rotational grazing and integration with crops in silvopastoral setups. The introductions have significantly boosted carrying capacity from under 1 head per hectare in native areas to approximately 1.5 heads per hectare in improved Brachiaria pastures, supporting increased beef output without proportional land expansion.^[90]^[91]

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Sep 2, 2023 · Motivated primarily by subsistence needs, Native practices included sophisticated habitat management strategies for both plants and wildlife, as ...
[28]
Enclosing the land - UK Parliament
There is little doubt that enclosure greatly improved the agricultural productivity of farms from the late 18th century by bringing more land into effective ...
[29]
British History in depth: Agricultural Revolution in England 1500 - 1850
Feb 17, 2011 · This new system of farming was remarkable because it was sustainable; the output of food was increased dramatically, without endangering the ...
[30]
Mangere to mainstream – the story of a perennial ryegrass ecotype ...
Jul 24, 2023 · Plant breeding and germplasm development of perennial ryegrass in New Zealand began in the 1930s by making selections from, and crosses with, ...
[31]
Two Blades of Grass: The Impact of the Green Revolution
We find that HYVs increased yields by 44% between 1965 and 2010, with further gains coming through reallocation of inputs. Higher yields increased income and ...
[32]
The common agricultural policy at a glance
Launched in 1962, the EU's common agricultural policy (CAP) is a partnership between agriculture and society, and between Europe and its farmers.Aims Of The Common... · Cap 2023-27 · Documents
[33]
About Livestock Grazing | Bureau of Land Management
... Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 (named after Rep. Edward Taylor of Colorado), which led to the creation of grazing districts. In these districts, grazing use was ...
[34]
Grasslands Explained - National Geographic Education
Oct 19, 2023 · Depending on how they're defined, grasslands account for between 20 and 40 percent of the world's land area. They are generally open and ...
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Fire regimes of plains grassland and prairie ecosystems
Typically grasslands can burn any time from March to November, although in mesic grasslands, fuels may be too moist to burn in summer during wet years [23].
[36]
https://www.fs.usda.gov/database/feis/fire_regimes/PlainsGrass_Prairie/all.html
[37]
[PDF] Productivity of natural grassland of the order Arrhenatheretalia ...
ha-1, and the surface area of pastures was 331 589 ha, with a total dry matter production of 561 527 t and an average dry matter yield of 1.7 t ha-1. The ...
[38]
Drought Stress Responses of Some Prairie Landscape C4 Grass ...
Overall, warm-season grasses of Andropogon gerardii, Schizachyrium scoparium, and Bouteloua curtipendula, had greater adaptability to drought stress, making ...
[39]
Grassland of the world
### Summary of Grasslands of the World (FAO, 2005)
[40]
Review: evolutionary drivers of agricultural adaptation in Lolium spp
L. perenne is adapted primarily to temperate climates, possesses greater cold tolerance compared to the other two species, 4 and is widely adopted around the ...
[41]
Nitrogen Fixation by Legumes | New Mexico State University
Some legumes are better at fixing nitrogen than others. Common beans are poor fixers (less than 50 lb N per acre) and fix less than their nitrogen needs.Missing: sowing | Show results with:sowing
[42]
5. PASTURE MANAGEMENT (contd.)
They found that rotational grazing (four weeks grazing followed by four weeks rest) gave higher milk yields than continuous grazing, both systems using the ...
[43]
Forage yields and nutritive values of oat and triticale pastures for ...
No differences in DMY were observed between pastures, with oats yielding 11.99 t ha−1 and triticale yielding 11.08 t ha−1. During the grazing period, the change ...
[44]
Animal board invited review: Grassland-based livestock farming and ...
Temporary grasslands are land on which vegetation consists of forage species kept for a short period of time; generally only a few years (Allen et al., 2011).
[45]
[PDF] pasture fertilization - Natural Resources Conservation Service
Pasture grasses can grow over a wider range of pH than legumes. As a general guide, soil pH for cool- season grass pastures should be 6.0 to 7.0 and 6.5 to 7.0 ...
[46]
Soil Fertility for Pasture or Hay Renovation or Establishment
Jan 21, 2025 · Grass forages have an optimal pH range of 6.0 to 6.5. If the pH is below optimum through the whole "plow layer," it is best to incorporate the ...
[47]
Guidelines for Pasture Establishment | Mississippi State University ...
For conventional seeding, prepare a fine and firm seedbed by disking. Roll the field with a cultipacker after the final disking. A firm seedbed will allow ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[48]
[PDF] Managing Dairy Grazing for More Milk and Profit - OSU Extension ...
grass pastures were shown to increase dry matter production by 2.5 tons/acre. (2.8 MT DM/ha) ... Tons/DM/acre. KG, Nitrogen per acre. 0. 4. 6. 8. 10. 8 ... stronger ...
[49]
[PDF] Forage Establishment in Mississippi Recommended Seeding Rates ...
Recommended seeding rates for native warm-season grasses are based on pure live seed (PLS) rates. PLS is determined by multiplying the percent seed purity by.
[50]
Pasture Seeding Timeline - Penn State Extension
Jun 28, 2023 · There are two common methods of seeding: broadcasting seed or using a planter or drill. The key to a successful seeding is seed-to-soil contact; ...
[51]
Maximizing the Value of Pasture for Horses - Purdue Extension
Realistic pasture yield goals are 2 tons of dry matter per acre for Kentucky bluegrass and 4 tons of dry matter per acre for tall-growing cool-season grass ...
[52]
Weed Management during Pasture Establishment
Nov 12, 2024 · In most cases, 3–4 qt/acre of glyphosate will kill all living plant material, except for woody species. For some species, such as palmetto, more ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[53]
Impact of Grazing Methods on Forage and Cattle Production
Jan 19, 2024 · Rotational grazing with 1, 3, 7, and 21 days of pasture occupation (21-day rest period between grazings) resulted in greater forage production ...Missing: cycle | Show results with:cycle
[54]
Determining the Grazing Intensity and Move Frequency ... - Ohioline
Feb 10, 2025 · Rotational grazing systems optimize the production of forages and livestock. They increase stocking rates by an average of 30% over continuous ...
[55]
Designing a Flexible and Efficient Rotational Grazing System
Aug 5, 2025 · A good starting point on moderately productive soils in much of Virginia would be a stocking rate of no more than 400 lbs. liveweight per acre.Missing: maintenance | Show results with:maintenance
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Stocking Rate: The Key to Successful Livestock Production
Carrying capacity is the stocking rate that is sustainable over time per unit of land area. A critical factor to evaluate is how well the stocking rate agrees ...
[57]
Full article: Nitrogen fertiliser use in grazed pasture-based systems ...
In a two-year farmlet study, Crush et al. (1982) found that in grass/clover pasture receiving 100–150 kg N ha−1 yr−1 as urea, overall N fertiliser use ...
[58]
Soil Fertility Management for Forage Crops: Maintenance
Aug 19, 2025 · The general recommendation is 50 pounds of nitrogen per ton of expected yield per acre. The best approach to nitrogen management for grasses is ...
[59]
Weed Management in Pastures - Penn State Extension
Dec 15, 2022 · Rotation is an excellent management practice to allow pastures to rest. Fertilize as needed, clip to reduce weed seeds. Use herbicides wisely.
[60]
Weed Management in Pastures and Rangeland—2025
Aug 7, 2025 · Biological control involves the use of biotic agents (e.g., plants, herbivores, insects, nematodes, and phytopathogens) to suppress weeds.
[61]
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Principles | US EPA
Sep 2, 2025 · As a first line of pest control, IPM programs work to manage the crop, lawn, or indoor space to prevent pests from becoming a threat.Missing: pasture | Show results with:pasture
[62]
Wild Herbivore Grazing Enhances Insect Diversity over Livestock ...
Oct 26, 2016 · In total, 27 121 individual adult insects were sampled here from 152 observed species. We sampled 23 219 dung beetle individuals from 63 species ...
[63]
Grazing and Biodiversity | New Mexico State University
Grasslands with more vegetation heterogeneity support a greater number of plant and animal species because they contain additional structural complexity and/or ...
[64]
[PDF] nutrient cycling in pastures - Natural Resources Conservation Service
be applied to the pasture since the nutrient will become available to the grass via legume root and nodule decomposition. Benefits of Management Grazing. A ...
[65]
Nutrient Cycling in Pastures - ATTRA – Sustainable Agriculture - NCAT
There are two ways organic matter can be added to the soil: through the roots as exudates, and through the decomposition of plant and animal residues. The ...Organic Matter · The Base of the Soil Food Web... · Herbivores' Role in Cycling...
[66]
Pasture management, grazing, and fire interact to determine wetland ...
Aug 11, 2020 · Agroecosystem wetlands also provide important regulating services such as nutrient sequestration, flood protection, and water and air ...
[67]
FAO sets the record straight–86% of livestock feed is inedible by ...
Jan 28, 2019 · FAO sets the record straight–86% of livestock feed is inedible by humans · What most livestock in the world mostly eat is grass and other forages ...
[68]
Life cycle assessment of pasture-based dairy production systems
... milk production per hectare (9,950 vs. 14,100 kg of FPCM/ha). This study demonstrates that the adoption of management practices that improve system ...<|separator|>
[69]
Review: An overview of beef production from pasture and feedlot ...
Productivity increased by 176% from 1990 to 2018. During this period, there was an increase in productivity per ha from 24.5 to 67.5 kg beef, and an ...
[70]
Approximating the global economic (market) value of farmed animals
Global market value of farmed animals lays within 1.61–3.3 trillion USD (2018). •. Market value of animals is likely similar to global crop output value (2.57 ...
[71]
Seven reasons why pastoralism supports a better future
Nov 12, 2021 · Pastoralism, a traditional and extensive form of raising livestock, employs more than 200 million people in 100 countries.Missing: dependent | Show results with:dependent
[72]
[PDF] Mid-Season Update 2024-25 - Beef + Lamb New Zealand
As a result of progress in the season to-date, exports of sheepmeat, beef and veal, and wool are forecast to increase by $1.2 billion (13%) to $10.2 billion1 in ...
[73]
[PDF] New Zealand - MLA
NZ lamb production is predominantly pasture based and the growing season is ... The EU remains the largest recipient of NZ lamb exports, accounting for 35% of ...
[74]
Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2025 | OECD
Oct 30, 2025 · ... agriculture as a percentage of GDP has also declined since 2000. It averaged 1.1% of GDP in 2000-02 but was only 0.89% of GDP in 2022-24.
[75]
Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2023 | OECD
Oct 30, 2023 · Aggregate total support to agriculture as a share of GDP decreased slightly to 1.2% in 2020-22, and is mainly driven by producer support, which represents 67% ...
[76]
[PDF] Moorepark 25 Open Day: Irish Dairying - Innovating for the Future
Jul 1, 2025 · As per Table 1, research has shown that it is possible to increase pasture growth to a level where 12 t DM/ha can be utilised. According to ...
[77]
[PDF] Red clover – agronomy and management | Teagasc
Benefits of red clover. •. Red clover is high yielding with yields of 12 to 16 t DM/ha achievable when grown with ryegrass. •. It converts atmospheric Nitrogen ...Missing: dairy tons
[78]
Irish Grassland Research — main achievements and advancements ...
More recent data from PastureBase Ireland indicate that average annual grass production (2020) on efficient dairy and dry stock farms is 13.5 and 10.0 t DM/ha, ...Missing: mixes tons
[79]
SPM2: Keep native breeds on grazed habitats supplement (50-80%)
May 21, 2024 · This supplemental action's aim is that at least 50% of the grazing livestock units ( GLU ) on low input grassland habitats are rare native breeds of livestock.Missing: pastures | Show results with:pastures
[80]
Sustainable Farming in the Uplands using Traditional Breeds - Daera
Jan 26, 2021 · Irwin has found the best grazing regime for the mountain is to graze the Galloway cattle first followed by the sheep. On hill and upland ...
[81]
Grazing horses on grass and legume mixed pastures | UMN Extension
There was no difference in yield between alfalfa and alfalfa-grass pastures. Adding grass to a clover pasture did increase the yield.Missing: productivity | Show results with:productivity
[82]
[PDF] 2021 Michigan Forage Variety Test Report
Apr 30, 2022 · Alfalfa varieties seeded in 2018 had an average total yield of 6.89 and ranged from 6.37 to 7.40 tons/acre. Twenty alfalfa varieties seeded in ...
[83]
[PDF] Restoring Mixed Grass Prairie in Southeastern Alberta, Canada
Jun 17, 2013 · 3 Conversion of abandoned cropland to native grass is a key area for restoration, with several efforts and successes throughout North America ...
[84]
Vegetation Restoration - Grasslands National Park
Nov 19, 2022 · Grasslands National Park has an extensive vegetation restoration program that began in 1997 and has restored, to varying degrees of success, 1133 hectares of ...Missing: pasture | Show results with:pasture
[85]
Do agricultural grasses bred for improved root systems provide ...
The increasing frequency of droughts and floods on grasslands, due to climate change, increases the risk of soil compaction, affecting both soil, and forage ...
[86]
The long-term productivity of the Maasai livestock production system
Very low = < 1 t DM/ha per year; low = 1.0-2.0 t; medium = 2.1 -3.4 t; high = > 3.4 t. The Maasai occasionally bring into their herds heifers, bulls and steers ...Missing: matter | Show results with:matter
[87]
[PDF] Local versus landscape-scale effects of savanna trees on grasses
We conclude that few, isolated trees may have positive local effects on savanna grasses and forage, but in areas of high tree density the negative landscape- ...Missing: pasture | Show results with:pasture
[88]
[PDF] MITCHELL GRASSLANDS Quality & Quantity GUIDE - FutureBeef
Dense Mitchell Grass – 4500kg/ha. Mitchell grasslands are a valuable pastoral resource that requires active management and constant monitoring. Appropriate ...
[89]
[PDF] Best-bet practices for managing the Mitchell grasslands of Queensland
Use fire to change the composition of the herbaceous layer by killing plants, influencing recruitment or altering grazing preferences. Most research concerns ...
[90]
[PDF] Could fertilizer BMPs for pastures help to mitigate deforestation in ...
Herd size (million heads). 189. 133. Output rate. 22%. 30%. Beef production (million ton). 9.1. 9.1. Stocking rate (head/ha). 1.0. 1.5. Required land (million ...
[91]
Brazil making efforts to reduce the carbon footprint of livestock
... head of cattle occupying each ha, while the average in non-IAL areas is 1.5 head per ha. Good nutrition in the dry season helps cattle in the IAL area reach ...