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Latent learning

Latent learning is a form of associative learning in which an organism acquires knowledge about its environment or a task without immediate reinforcement or overt behavioral demonstration, only exhibiting the learned behavior when a suitable incentive or motivation is introduced. This process highlights that learning can occur independently of trial-and-error reinforcement, challenging traditional behaviorist models that emphasize observable responses tied directly to rewards or punishments.^[1] The concept was pioneered by American psychologist Edward C. Tolman, who conducted groundbreaking experiments with rats in complex mazes during the late 1920s and early 1930s to demonstrate this phenomenon. In a seminal 1930 study co-authored with Charles H. Honzik, three groups of hungry rats were placed in a 14-unit T maze: one group received food rewards at the goal box from the first day, improving performance gradually; a second group received no rewards throughout, showing consistently poor performance; and a third group explored without rewards for the first 10 days before rewards were introduced on day 11, at which point their error rates plummeted and traversal speeds surged dramatically, indicating that a mental representation of the maze had formed during the initial unrewarded trials.^[1] Tolman interpreted these results as evidence of "latent learning," and in 1948 he explained such findings using the concept of an internal cognitive map—a flexible, spatial understanding of the environment—rather than mere stimulus-response associations.^[2] Tolman's work on latent learning played a pivotal role in bridging behaviorism and cognitive psychology, underscoring the importance of purposive, goal-directed mental processes in learning. By the 1940s, he expanded this into the broader theory of cognitive maps, positing that animals and humans construct anticipatory schemata of their surroundings to guide behavior efficiently, even in novel situations like detours or shortcuts.^[3] This challenged dominant S-R (stimulus-response) theories from figures like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, influencing subsequent research in animal navigation, human spatial cognition, and educational practices where incidental or exploratory learning precedes formal application. Modern applications extend to fields like robotics and artificial intelligence, where latent learning models enable agents to acquire environmental knowledge passively before task-specific training.^[4]

Definition and Characteristics

Core Principles

Latent learning is defined as a type of cognitive learning where an organism acquires knowledge or skills without immediate external reinforcement or observable behavioral changes, with the learned information manifesting later when a relevant incentive or need arises. This process highlights how learning can occur passively through exposure to environmental stimuli, rather than through direct rewards or punishments. The term was first coined by psychologist Hugh Blodgett in 1929 to describe observations in animal studies where performance improved abruptly upon the introduction of motivation, despite no prior incentives during initial exposure.^[5] Key characteristics of latent learning include its incidental nature, whereby knowledge is gained unintentionally during exploration or interaction with the environment, without the need for explicit association between stimuli and responses. Unlike trial-and-error methods prevalent in behaviorist approaches, latent learning relies on internal cognitive mechanisms, such as the formation of mental representations that allow for flexible application of acquired information when circumstances demand it. This non-associative process underscores the role of cognition in storing and retrieving knowledge independently of immediate behavioral outcomes. Edward C. Tolman further elaborated on these principles in his 1948 work, emphasizing that such learning occurs without reinforcement and involves the development of cognitive structures to navigate complex situations. A notable distinction exists between latent learning and insight learning: while latent learning accumulates gradually through ongoing environmental interaction, insight learning entails a sudden reorganization of perceptual elements leading to an "aha" moment of realization. Tolman integrated this understanding by proposing that latent learning contributes to the construction of cognitive maps—internal spatial representations of the environment—though these maps emerge incrementally rather than instantaneously.

Key Examples

One prominent everyday example of latent learning involves navigating familiar routes in a city. Consider an individual who commutes daily by car or public transport, subconsciously absorbing details such as landmarks, turns, and distances along the way without any immediate need to apply this knowledge. This learning remains latent until a situation arises requiring independent navigation, such as finding a shortcut under time pressure; at that point, the person efficiently utilizes the previously acquired spatial information to reach the destination more quickly.^[6] Another illustration occurs when a child watches their parents drive a car multiple times without actively trying to learn the skill. This observation builds an underlying understanding of road rules, vehicle operation, and navigation, which remains latent until the child reaches driving age and receives formal instruction or motivation to apply it, at which point they demonstrate quicker mastery than novices without prior exposure.^[7] In both cases, the role of motivation is crucial: latent knowledge activates and becomes overt only when relevant incentives emerge, such as necessity in navigation or social reward in speaking, highlighting how the absence of immediate reinforcement during acquisition does not preclude later demonstration.^[8] A common misconception is that latent learning represents forgotten information; in reality, it is not erased but remains dormant, ready to be cued by appropriate motivational or contextual triggers, ensuring its availability when beneficial.^[7]

Theoretical Foundations

Tolman's Cognitive Map Theory

Edward C. Tolman's cognitive map theory, introduced in his seminal 1948 paper, posits that organisms, including rats and humans, form internal mental representations—or "cognitive maps"—of their spatial environments during periods of exploration without immediate rewards. These maps enable flexible, goal-directed navigation by integrating knowledge of environmental layouts, allowing organisms to select efficient paths based on expectancies rather than trial-and-error reinforcement. This core idea challenges strict stimulus-response (S-R) models by emphasizing purposive behaviorism, where learning manifests as an anticipatory understanding of outcomes rather than mere associative habits. Tolman drew on evidence from 1930s maze experiments conducted in his laboratory and by collaborators, such as those involving elevated alley mazes, to support the formation of these cognitive maps. In these studies, rats that freely explored complex mazes without food rewards later exhibited rapid adaptation, such as taking novel shortcuts, when goal boxes were relocated or rewards suddenly introduced off the original path. This demonstrated that spatial learning occurred latently during unrewarded phases, with rats utilizing internalized representations to achieve goals efficiently upon reward availability, rather than relying solely on reinforced paths. Theoretically, Tolman's framework marked a pivotal shift from mechanistic S-R associations dominant in behaviorism toward a cognitive-oriented purposive behaviorism, highlighting expectancy and goal-directed cognition as central to learning. By conceptualizing behavior as driven by inferred environmental relations and anticipated rewards, the theory underscored how organisms actively construct knowledge to guide actions, influencing subsequent developments in understanding flexible problem-solving beyond rote conditioning.^[9] Behaviorists like Clark L. Hull critiqued cognitive maps as unverifiable mental constructs, arguing instead for explanations rooted in observable drives, habits, and reinforcement gradients that could account for maze performance through S-R chains without invoking unobservable internals. Tolman addressed such criticisms by citing empirical patterns from non-reinforced learning trials, where rats' sudden proficiency in shortcuts defied pure drive-reduction accounts and necessitated cognitive mediation to explain the observed purposive flexibility.^[10]

Integration with Cognitive Psychology

Latent learning played a pivotal role in the post-1950s shift toward the cognitive revolution in psychology, providing empirical support for internal mental representations and challenging the dominance of strict behaviorism, which dismissed unobservable cognitive processes in favor of observable stimulus-response associations.^[1] Tolman's demonstrations of latent learning, involving knowledge acquisition without reinforcement, aligned with broader critiques like Noam Chomsky's 1959 review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, which highlighted the inadequacy of behaviorist models to explain complex phenomena such as language acquisition through innate cognitive mechanisms rather than conditioned responses.^[11]^[12] This convergence facilitated the emergence of information processing models in the 1960s, portraying the mind as a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information akin to a computer, where latent learning exemplifies the passive buildup of knowledge awaiting activation.^[13] Tolman's earlier concept of cognitive maps, as mental representations formed during exploration, further underscored this internal processing without direct behavioral output.^[14] Latent learning also bolsters cognitive theories of problem-solving by illustrating how prior incidental exposure to environmental cues enables efficient navigation of novel challenges without explicit practice or trial-and-error.^[8] In these frameworks, the latent knowledge serves as a latent scaffold, facilitating insight and adaptive responses when motivation aligns, thus emphasizing cognition's preparatory function over rote conditioning.^[1] The principles of latent learning contributed to the development of constructivist psychology by reinforcing the idea that internal cognitive structures form through active exploration and incidental experiences rather than solely through passive reinforcement.^[15]

Comparisons to Other Learning Types

Versus Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning, as developed by Ivan Pavlov, involves associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus through repeated pairings, eventually eliciting a conditioned reflexive response. In Pavlov's seminal experiments with dogs, the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) was paired with food (unconditioned stimulus) that naturally caused salivation (unconditioned response); over time, the bell alone triggered salivation (conditioned response), demonstrating automatic stimulus-response associations without conscious awareness or exploration.^[16]^[17] In contrast, latent learning, as conceptualized by Edward C. Tolman, occurs without such contiguity between stimuli or immediate reinforcement, relying instead on exploratory behavior that forms cognitive representations of the environment, which only become evident when motivation arises. Unlike classical conditioning's passive, automatic process driven by temporal pairings, latent learning is active and cognitive, involving no direct stimulus-response linkage or observable change during acquisition.^[7]^[3] A clear example of this distinction is seen in Tolman's maze experiments with rats, where animals explored a complex maze without food rewards for 10 days, showing no improvement in navigation speed; however, upon introducing food on day 11, the rats immediately took shortcuts, indicating they had formed a latent cognitive map beforehand, unlike Pavlov's dogs, which salivated reflexively to the bell only after explicit pairings and showed no delayed or exploratory component.^[3]^[7] These differences highlight broader implications: classical conditioning produces immediate, observable reflexive behaviors through passive association, suitable for understanding innate responses, whereas latent learning underscores delayed, purposeful manifestations from active environmental interaction, emphasizing cognitive processes over automaticity.^[1]^[16]

Versus Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning, formalized by B. F. Skinner in the 1930s, describes a learning process where voluntary behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences, such as positive reinforcement through rewards or negative reinforcement via punishment removal.^[18] In this model, behaviors are "emitted" by the organism rather than automatically elicited by stimuli, and they are shaped incrementally through trial-and-error, with reinforcement schedules determining the persistence of responses.^[19] This approach builds directly on Edward L. Thorndike's earlier law of effect, which asserts that actions followed by satisfying outcomes tend to be repeated, while those followed by annoying outcomes are stamped out.^[20] Latent learning differs fundamentally from operant conditioning in that it transpires without any immediate consequences or reinforcements to guide or shape the behavior during the learning phase.^[21] As shown in Edward C. Tolman's experiments, organisms acquire knowledge—such as spatial relationships—through exploration alone, with no rewards or punishments influencing the process; this knowledge remains unexpressed until an appropriate incentive motivates its demonstration, at which point the behavior emerges fully formed rather than developing gradually via reinforced trials.^[1] Thus, while operant conditioning relies on external feedback to modify emitted responses over time, latent learning emphasizes internal cognitive representation that persists independently of behavioral outcomes.^[21] A clear example illustrates this distinction: in Skinner's operant conditioning studies, pigeons are placed in a chamber where random movements are initially reinforced with food, progressively shaping the behavior until the bird reliably pecks a specific key to obtain the reward, demonstrating incremental learning driven by consequences.^[19] In contrast, Tolman and C. H. Honzik's 1930 rat maze experiments involved groups exploring a complex 14-unit maze without food for 10 days; upon reward introduction on day 11, the previously unreinforced rats suddenly reduced errors and navigated efficiently, evidencing latent acquisition of a cognitive map without any shaping through satisfaction or trial-and-error reinforcement.^[3] Tolman's demonstrations of latent learning posed a direct theoretical challenge to Thorndike's law of effect and the broader reinforcement-centric framework of operant conditioning, as they revealed that learning could occur and consolidate without the "satisfaction" of rewards, undermining the notion that consequences are essential for forming associations.^[1] Instead, these results supported Tolman's purposive behaviorism, highlighting cognition's role in knowledge storage and retrieval over purely associative strengthening.^[21]

Versus Observational Learning

Observational learning, also known as social learning, refers to the process by which individuals acquire new behaviors, skills, or knowledge by observing others without direct experience or reinforcement themselves.^[22] Developed by psychologist Albert Bandura, this theory posits that learning occurs through a sequence of stages: attention to the model's actions, retention of the observed information in memory, reproduction of the behavior when capable, and motivation influenced by vicarious reinforcement, where observers note the rewards or punishments received by the model.^[23] For instance, in Bandura's seminal Bobo doll experiments, children who watched adults aggressively interacting with a doll later imitated those behaviors, particularly when the model was rewarded, demonstrating how observation facilitates behavioral acquisition without personal trial-and-error.^[22] In contrast, latent learning involves the incidental acquisition of knowledge through individual exploration of an environment, without the need for social models, immediate reinforcement, or deliberate attention to specific actions.^[21] Pioneered by Edward C. Tolman, this form of learning emphasizes the formation of cognitive representations, such as mental maps, during unguided activity, which only become apparent when a relevant incentive arises.^[21] Unlike observational learning's structured phases of attention and retention tied to modeling, latent learning relies on passive environmental encoding, where the learner subconsciously integrates spatial or relational information without imitating others or anticipating consequences for observed actions.^[7] A representative example illustrates this distinction: in observational learning, a child might watch a peer receive praise for sharing toys and subsequently imitate that cooperative behavior to gain similar approval, driven by the modeled reinforcement.^[22] Conversely, in latent learning, the same child could explore a playground independently, subconsciously memorizing the layout of slides and paths while playing freely, only utilizing this spatial knowledge later to navigate quickly when motivated by a game starting on the far side.^[21] This highlights latent learning's solitary, non-social essence, free from reliance on external demonstrations. Both latent and observational learning share cognitive underpinnings, as they involve internal mental processes rather than purely reflexive responses, aligning with broader shifts toward cognitive psychology in understanding learning.^[7] However, key distinctions lie in their social dimensions: observational learning necessitates exposure to and processing of social cues from models, often in interpersonal contexts, whereas latent learning is purely incidental and self-directed, occurring without any observational or imitative elements.^[23] These differences underscore how latent learning supports autonomous environmental adaptation, while observational learning facilitates cultural and social transmission of behaviors.

Historical Development

Early Animal Experiments

One of the earliest demonstrations of latent learning came from Hugh C. Blodgett's 1929 experiment using white rats in a six-unit alley maze designed to measure exploratory behavior and path acquisition. Hungry rats were divided into three groups: one group received food rewards at the goal box from the first day; a second group explored without rewards for the first 7 days before rewards were introduced; and a third group never received rewards. When rewards were introduced to the delayed-reward group, their error rates—counted as entries into blind alleys—dropped abruptly, outperforming the continuously rewarded group in initial rewarded sessions and indicating that spatial knowledge had been acquired without reinforcement.^[5] Building on this, Edward C. Tolman and Charles H. Honzik conducted seminal rat maze studies in the 1930s, using a 14-unit multiple T alley maze to isolate the effects of reinforcement on learning. In their 1930 experiment, three groups of 9 rats each were trained daily: one group received food rewards at the goal box throughout 30 trials; a second group explored without rewards for the first 10 trials and then received rewards for the remaining 20; and a third group never received rewards. The no-reward group showed no performance improvement during exploration, maintaining high error rates around 160 total errors over 10 trials, but the delayed-reward group exhibited a sudden decrease in errors upon reward introduction, dropping to levels comparable to the continuously rewarded group (about 50-60 total errors by trial 20), demonstrating rapid mastery of the maze layout after latent acquisition. These studies employed standardized methodologies, including alley mazes with high walls to prevent visual cues, daily one-trial runs lasting 10-15 minutes, and quantitative measures such as total errors (blind alley entries) and running time to compare group performances and control for variables like hunger drive. Group comparisons revealed that unrewarded exploration alone sufficed for learning, as evidenced by the delayed groups' faster adaptation than expected under reinforcement-dependent theories. Tolman later extended this in spatial maze variants, where rats demonstrated latent knowledge by taking novel shortcuts to relocated goals, suggesting behavior was guided by internal expectations rather than immediate drives.^[3] In the 1950s, behaviorist theorists like Clark Hull and Edwin Guthrie sought to reconcile latent learning with stimulus-response (S-R) frameworks by incorporating concepts such as excitatory potential and contiguity-based associations. Hull proposed that apparent latent learning could be explained through the buildup of drive strength and incentive motivation during non-reinforced exposure, which becomes manifest when rewards are introduced, thus maintaining the S-R paradigm without invoking unobservable cognitive processes.^[24] Similarly, Guthrie argued that learning occurs via simple contiguity between stimuli and responses in a single trial, allowing for "latent" knowledge to emerge when situational cues align with prior associations during testing.^[24] Critiques of early latent learning experiments, particularly those by Edward Tolman, emerged prominently in the 1950s, highlighting methodological limitations and replication challenges. Donald Thistlethwaite's 1951 review pointed out inconsistencies in experimental designs, such as inadequate separation of exploratory behavior from true learning, leading to debates that remained unresolved by the mid-1960s.^[25] Subsequent attempts to replicate Tolman's 1946 sunburst maze study, where rats demonstrated spatial orientation by selecting correct paths from a central hub after non-reinforced exploration, failed to consistently reproduce the results, suggesting that performance might depend on uncontrolled variables rather than robust cognitive mapping.^[26]^[24] Responses to these critiques involved refined experimental controls, especially for sensory cues that could confound interpretations of latent spatial learning. Researchers in the 1960s and 1970s emphasized the role of visual, kinesthetic, and vestibular inputs in rats' navigation, demonstrating that blocking specific cues (e.g., via darkened mazes or vestibular disruption) diminished apparent latent effects, thereby attributing some outcomes to perceptual preprocessing rather than higher cognition. By the late 1950s and into the 1970s, latent learning research contributed to a broader shift toward cognitive explanations, aligning with the emerging "cognitive revolution" and computer-based metaphors for mental processes. Tolman's 1948 concept of cognitive maps, depicting internal spatial representations formed without immediate reinforcement, gained traction as analogous to computational simulations of environmental modeling, influencing paradigms that viewed animal minds as information processors rather than mere S-R machines.^[2] This transition addressed earlier limitations by integrating latent phenomena into theories of mental simulation, paving the way for interdisciplinary links between psychology and early artificial intelligence.^[24]

Modern Research and Applications

Studies in Human Development

Research from the 1990s onward has shown that human infants begin forming spatial maps through self-directed crawling exploration, demonstrating latent learning of environmental layouts without immediate reinforcement. In detour tasks, where infants must navigate around barriers to reach hidden objects or sounds, crawling infants as young as 8 months exhibit adaptive path choices, indicating they have internally represented obstacle configurations acquired incidentally during prior movement. For instance, Lockman and Adams (2001) observed that crawling infants reliably detoured around transparent and grid-like barriers to grasp toys, succeeding more often than non-crawlers, suggesting that locomotor experience facilitates the encoding of spatial relations into cognitive maps.^[27] Building on this, Newcombe's work in the 2000s highlighted how toddlers integrate crawling-derived spatial knowledge into more flexible representations, tested through reorientation tasks in varied rooms. Between 18 and 24 months, children use geometric features and landmarks to relocate hidden objects after disorientation, reflecting latent spatial learning from exploratory play rather than explicit training. This developmental shift underscores the role of incidental exposure in building cognitive maps during infancy, with early locomotor milestones enabling the transition from egocentric to allocentric navigation.^[28] In school-age children, incidental learning manifests in the absorption of geographic knowledge from maps without quizzes or directed study, as assessed in subsequent navigation tests. Children aged 7 to 12 who passively viewed layered maps during unrelated activities later demonstrated understanding of geospatial overlays, such as superimposing population data on terrain, performing comparably to peers who received explicit instruction. Battersby et al. (2006) found that this incidental acquisition of map-based concepts increased with grade level, with middle schoolers showing stronger integration of abstract geographic relations into practical route planning. These findings illustrate how everyday exposure to visual aids fosters latent spatial skills applicable to real-world orientation.^[29] Recent neuroimaging studies from the 2010s and 2020s have provided neural evidence for latent spatial learning in humans, revealing hippocampal activation during passive exposure to environments that later supports problem-solving. Functional MRI scans during virtual reality tasks show heightened hippocampal engagement when participants observe spatial layouts without active navigation, correlating with improved shortcut detection and route efficiency in follow-up tests. For example, Voss et al. (2011) reported that passive viewing elicited dynamic hippocampal signals predictive of subsequent spatial memory performance, manifesting as faster problem resolution in navigation challenges. This activation pattern aligns with the hippocampus's role in encoding cognitive maps incidentally, bridging passive input to active application.^[30] Developmentally, latent learning exhibits peak flexibility in the early years, with rapid gains in spatial adaptability during infancy and childhood, followed by declines linked to age-related cognitive rigidity. Cognitive flexibility, essential for updating latent spatial representations, follows an inverted U-shaped trajectory, surging from preschool through adolescence before diminishing in adulthood due to reduced hippocampal plasticity. Bohbot et al. (2017) provided evidence that older adults show impaired spatial encoding and retrieval, with smaller hippocampal volumes contributing to rigidity in adapting cognitive maps to new contexts, contrasting the malleability observed in young children. This trajectory highlights a critical window in early development for fostering latent learning through enriched exploration.^[31]

Neurobiological Mechanisms

The hippocampus is central to latent learning, particularly through its role in spatial encoding and the formation of episodic-like memories that underpin cognitive maps. Place cells in the hippocampal CA1 region, discovered by O'Keefe and Dostrovsky in 1971, exhibit location-specific firing during free exploration, enabling the representation of spatial relationships without immediate reinforcement. Subsequent research extending into the 2010s has demonstrated that these cells facilitate the integration of latent spatial knowledge for flexible navigation, as seen in tasks where animals form maps during non-rewarded exposure that guide later goal-directed behavior.^[32] Recent studies using in vivo recordings in mice further show that latent learning reorganizes CA1 neural activity into low-dimensional manifolds resembling spatial maps over several days of exploration, with strongly spatial place cells stabilizing rapidly while weakly spatial cells link discrete fields into coherent structures.^[32] The prefrontal cortex contributes to latent learning by supporting the integration of expectancies and goals with environmental cues, allowing for the anticipation of outcomes in the absence of direct reinforcement. Lesion studies in rodents have revealed that damage to the orbitofrontal cortex impairs the formation of latent associations, such as learning to ignore irrelevant stimuli during non-reinforced exposure, leading to deficits in subsequent adaptive behavior.^[33] Similarly, prefrontal lesions disrupt incidental encoding of contextual information in exploration tasks, highlighting the region's role in maintaining representations that bridge sensory input and future-oriented planning without explicit rewards.^[33] Advances in the 2020s, including optogenetic manipulations in mice, have elucidated how latent encoding occurs during exploration phases independent of dopaminergic reinforcement signals. For instance, optogenetic inhibition of ventral tegmental area dopamine projections to the hippocampus during novel environment exposure does not prevent the establishment of basic place cell activity or spatial representations, indicating that core encoding mechanisms rely on intrinsic hippocampal dynamics rather than reward prediction errors.^[34] This dopamine-independent process allows for the accumulation of structural knowledge about environments prior to any motivational drive. Neural plasticity mechanisms, such as long-term potentiation (LTP), underlie latent learning in non-reinforced contexts by strengthening synaptic connections through patterned activity during exploration. In the hippocampus, LTP induced by theta-burst-like firing patterns—mimicking natural exploratory rhythms—enhances connectivity between place cells without requiring external rewards, contrasting with reward-driven pathways that involve midbrain dopamine modulation.^[35] This form of plasticity supports the persistent storage of latent maps, enabling their rapid retrieval when incentives are introduced.

Implications for AI and Education

In artificial intelligence, latent learning principles have been integrated into reinforcement learning (RL) frameworks to enable agents to acquire knowledge through exploration without immediate rewards, mimicking the incidental acquisition of cognitive maps in biological systems. For instance, DeepMind's curiosity-driven approaches in the 2010s, such as those using intrinsic motivation to predict environmental dynamics, allow agents to build latent representations that improve performance in sparse-reward tasks like Atari games. More recent work, including a 2024 NeurIPS study, demonstrates that latent learning progress—estimated from an agent's inferred environmental knowledge and actions—drives autonomous goal selection in hierarchical RL, outperforming traditional progress metrics and enabling faster adaptation to novel objectives.^[36] In the 2020s, advancements in simulating cognitive maps have extended these ideas to robotics, where predictive coding models construct implicit spatial representations from sensory sequences, facilitating autonomous navigation without continuous training. One such model, trained on visual data, achieves low-error spatial embeddings (mean error of 5.04 units) and generates place fields for vector-based navigation, with direction errors as low as 30.6 degrees, even in visually ambiguous environments.^[37] This approach draws on curiosity as a driver for latent learning, allowing robots to form flexible world models that support efficient path planning and exploration in dynamic settings.^[38] Educational practices have leveraged latent learning through strategies emphasizing incidental exposure, where knowledge accumulates subconsciously before activation. Project-based learning (PBL) exemplifies this by fostering unplanned, or incidental, skill development during authentic tasks, such as analyzing real-world conflicts, which builds empathy and critical thinking without direct instruction.^[39] Montessori-inspired curricula further promote dormant skill acquisition via self-directed activities, as seen in college programs where students progress from individual to collaborative incidental learning, supported by a framework that transitions learners to autonomy.^[40] These applications offer benefits like enhanced adaptability—enabling AI agents to generalize across tasks and students to apply latent knowledge in varied contexts—but also present challenges, including the need for external cues to activate stored representations and potential ethical concerns in AI, where autonomous goal selection from latent progress may prioritize unintended objectives over human-aligned values.^[36]^[38] In education, assessing latent outcomes remains difficult, requiring innovative evaluations beyond traditional metrics to capture incidental gains.^[39]

Factors Affecting Latent Learning

Pharmacological Influences

Pharmacological agents have been shown to modulate latent learning, which involves the acquisition of knowledge without immediate reinforcement, by influencing key neurotransmitter systems such as dopamine and acetylcholine. Stimulants like amphetamines can enhance exploratory behaviors critical for forming cognitive maps during latent learning phases in rodents. For instance, d-amphetamine treatments in decorticate rats demonstrated latent avoidance learning by improving performance in unreinforced maze exploration, suggesting facilitation of spatial encoding through dopaminergic activation.^[41] Anticholinergic drugs, such as scopolamine, disrupt latent learning by blocking muscarinic acetylcholine receptors essential for hippocampal encoding of spatial information. In human trials from the 2000s, scopolamine administration impaired allocentric spatial memory during virtual reality tasks analogous to the Morris water maze, reducing hippocampal activity and preventing the formation of latent cognitive maps without affecting egocentric navigation.^[42] Rodent experiments further confirm this, showing scopolamine's negative impact on speed and accuracy in water maze latent learning protocols, where pre-exposure to the environment without reward fails to support subsequent goal-directed behavior.^[43] These effects highlight acetylcholine's role in reward-independent consolidation within the hippocampus.^[44] Recent pharmacological research has explored nootropics like modafinil for enhancing cognitive performance in populations with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), primarily through dopamine reuptake inhibition that boosts prefrontal function. Modafinil has shown efficacy in improving ADHD symptoms and overall clinical condition in children and adolescents aged 7–17 years.^[45] This contrasts with operant conditioning effects, where modafinil's influence is more reward-tied, underscoring its utility in promoting cognitive pathways in clinical settings.^[46] These pharmacological influences interact with reward-independent neural pathways, distinct from operant drug effects, by altering dopamine-acetylcholine balance to either facilitate or hinder the encoding and retrieval of latent knowledge, with the hippocampus serving as a critical integration site.^[47]

Environmental and Motivational Variables

Environmental complexity plays a pivotal role in modulating latent learning, with enriched settings fostering greater acquisition of spatial and contextual knowledge through heightened exploratory behavior. In animal studies from the 1980s and beyond, rats housed in complex environments, such as multi-room mazes or enriched cages with novel objects and social interactions, exhibited improved performance in spatial navigation tasks compared to those in standard housing. This enhancement is attributed to increased neuronal plasticity and faster processing of environmental cues, allowing for the incidental formation of cognitive maps without explicit reinforcement. For example, enriched rats demonstrated superior contextual conditioning in fear paradigms, freezing more readily to environmental contexts associated with shocks, indicating accelerated latent encoding of surroundings.^[48]^[49] Motivational variables significantly influence the expression of latent learning, where shifts in internal drives can either reveal or suppress acquired knowledge. Sudden introduction of a goal or reward activates dormant spatial representations, as seen in rodent maze experiments where pre-exposed animals navigate efficiently once incentives appear, unmasking incidental learning. In human studies from the 2010s, this manifests in reinforcement learning tasks, where model-based strategies—relying on latent cognitive maps—dominate initially and guide adaptive behavior upon goal specification. Conversely, chronic stress impairs latent learning by disrupting memory retrieval; elevated cortisol levels in stressed individuals hinder access to previously encoded information, with 2010s research showing reduced recall in cognitive tests under stress, particularly for neutral or emotional content. This impairment arises from glucocorticoid-mediated suppression in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, limiting the motivational activation of latent knowledge.^[50]^[51] Social context further shapes latent learning, with solitary versus group exploration yielding distinct outcomes based on environmental demands. In 2020s agent-based models of foraging, solitary individuals optimize exploration-exploitation trade-offs through focused, independent sampling, often enhancing latent acquisition in sparse or uncertain settings by minimizing social distractions and promoting deeper environmental encoding. Group contexts, however, facilitate selective social learning, where high individual exploration within collectives accelerates collective knowledge gain but can sometimes reduce personal latent flexibility due to conformity pressures. Isolation, in particular, has been linked to improved focus and retention in exploratory tasks, as recent findings suggest it allows uninterrupted processing of novel stimuli.^[52] Age and individual differences, particularly curiosity traits, moderate latent learning efficacy, with youth displaying greater adaptability. Adolescents and children exhibit enhanced memory for curiosity-evoking information, supported by developing hippocampal-prefrontal connectivity that boosts incidental encoding and retrieval flexibility. Studies from the 2010s to 2020s indicate that higher trait curiosity in younger individuals correlates with superior latent map formation in navigation and trivia tasks, whereas adults show more constrained but specialized curiosity responses. This age-related flexibility diminishes with maturity, moderated by traits like openness, underscoring youth's advantage in motivational-driven exploration.^[53]

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The Law of Exercise is that: Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with the situation in proportion to the ...
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COGNITIVE MAPS IN RATS AND MEN[1] Edward C. Tolman (1948)
(1) "Latent Learning" Experiments. The first of the latent learning experiments was performed at Berkeley by Blodgett. It was published in 1929. Blodgett not ...
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Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961) - Classics in the History of Psychology
First published in Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63, 575-582. A previous study, designed to account for the phenomenon of identification in terms ...
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Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory - Simply Psychology
Oct 16, 2025 · Social learning theory, developed by Albert Bandura, suggests that people learn by observing others. It emphasizes the importance of imitation, modeling, and ...Social Cognitive Theory · Bandura's Bobo Doll · Behaviorism In Psychology
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https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7687.00184
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329651294_Making_Space_The_Development_of_Spatial_Representation_and_Reasoning
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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225303167_Incidental_Learning_of_Geospatial_Concepts_Across_Grade_Levels_Map_Overlay
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Making Space: The Development of Spatial Representation and ...
Newcombe and Ratliff (2007) suggested that between 18 and 24 months toddlers have developed spatial reorientation abilities, and that a critical starting for ...
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Incidental Learning of Geospatial Concepts Across Grade Levels
Aug 6, 2025 · In this paper, we evaluate map overlay, a concept central to geospatial thinking, to determine how it is naively and technically understood, ...
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Increased Hippocampal Excitability and Altered Learning Dynamics ...
Apr 7, 2021 · Learning the spatial layout of a novel environment is associated with dynamic activity changes in the hippocampus and in medial parietal ...
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Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: neural mechanisms and ... - PMC
Feb 3, 2021 · Cognitive flexibility follows a protracted, inverted U-shaped developmental trajectory from early childhood through adolescence and adulthood, ...
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Latent Learning Drives Sleep-Dependent Plasticity in CA1
Dec 24, 2024 · In most studies of the hippocampus, neurons are first classified as place cells or “non-place cells” according to their spatial tuning ...
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The prefrontal cortex is required for incidental encoding but not ...
The prefrontal cortex is required for incidental encoding but not recollection of source information in rodents ... latent learning of source information. Other ...Research Report · Abstract · Introduction
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Dopamine-independent effect of rewards on choices through hidden ...
Jan 12, 2024 · We show that dopamine reports RPEs using value information inferred from task structure knowledge, alongside information about reward rate and movement.
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Natural patterns of activity and long-term synaptic plasticity - NIH
Long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmission is traditionally elicited by massively synchronous, high-frequency inputs, which rarely occur naturally.Neuronal Activity During... · Figure 1 · Computational Consequences
[38]
[PDF] Latent Learning Progress Drives Autonomous Goal Selection in ...
A striking aspect of human intrinsic motivation is autotelic exploration, wherein people self-generate goals, and reward themselves for achieving them [18–20].
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Automated construction of cognitive maps with visual predictive coding
Jul 18, 2024 · Here we demonstrate that predictive coding provides a natural and versatile neural network algorithm for constructing spatial maps using sensory data.
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Latent learning, cognitive maps, and curiosity - PMC
However, Tolman conceived of latent learning as a fundamentally passive process, one that took place during apparently purposeless exploration - almost as if ...Main Text · Figure 1 · Figure 3
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[PDF] Students' Perspectives with Project-based Learning - Purdue e-Pubs
Sep 27, 2011 · Project-based learning offers promise as an instructional method that affords authentic learning tasks grounded in the personal interests of ...Missing: latent | Show results with:latent
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A Qualitative Study of Incidental Learning in the Bailey Scholars ...
The authors propose a new Incidental Learning Framework to assist with fostering student transitions to a learner- and self-directed curriculum. The progression ...Missing: based | Show results with:based
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Residual capacity for avoidance learning in decorticate rats
Oct 7, 2013 · Residual capacity for avoidance learning in decorticate rats; Enhancement of performance and demonstration of latent learning with d-amphetamine ...
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Decreased Amphetamine-Induced Locomotion and Improved Latent ...
Jun 23, 2004 · Amphetamine-induced locomotion and latent inhibition reduction in rats are caused by high dopamine function in the nucleus accumbens. For ...
[45]
an fMRI study using a virtual reality analogue of the Morris Water Maze
Scopolamine disrupts hippocampal activity during allocentric spatial memory in humans: an fMRI study using a virtual reality analogue of the Morris Water Maze.
[46]
Validation and scopolamine-reversal of latent learning in the water ...
This experiment determined whether this would also be true for latent learning. ANOVA revealed significant negative effects of scopolamine on both speed and ...
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Scopolamine Impairs Spatial Information Recorded With “Miniscope ...
Mar 18, 2021 · We tested the effects of blocking mAChRs on hippocampal network activity and neural ensembles that had previously encoded spatial information.
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Effect of Modafinil on Learning and Task-Related Brain Activity in ...
Modafinil has been shown to improve cognitive performance in neuropsychiatric patients and healthy volunteers.Effect Of Modafinil On... · Research Participants And... · Fmri ResultsMissing: incidental 2020s
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Review Cognitive enhancement by drugs in health and disease
Modafinil, Unknown, but effects on dopamine, noradrenaline and orexin ... incidental learning and WM tests [45]. However, it is also important to ...
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Acetylcholine–Dopamine Interactions in the Pathophysiology and ...
In this review, we examine neurological and psychopathological conditions associated with dysfunctions in the interaction of acetylcholine and dopamine.
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[PDF] Effects of environmental enrichment on fundamental cognitive ...
example, Ivinskis and Homewood (1980) found that rats exposed to preweaning ... spatial learning ability in aged rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 48, 15-20 ...
[52]
Effects of Environmental Enrichment on Rate of Contextual ...
Enriched rats displayed more contextual conditioning than standard rats. That is, enriched rats appeared to process contextual information faster than their ...
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Review Goals and Habits in the Brain - ScienceDirect.com
Oct 16, 2013 · Latent learning is “unmasked” when the animal is subsequently tasked to navigate toward a rewarded goal state in this same environment.
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Learning and memory under stress: implications for the classroom
Jun 29, 2016 · Stress around the time of learning is thought to enhance memory formation, thus leading to robust memories, stress markedly impairs memory retrieval.
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Individual exploration and selective social learning - NIH
High levels of individual exploration helped groups sample the environment faster and created more opportunities for social learning. When individual ...Missing: latent 2020s
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Curiosity in childhood and adolescence — what can we learn ... - PMC
May 1, 2021 · Wang M.Z., Hayden B.Y. Latent learning, cognitive maps, and curiosity. ... Zelazo P.D., Carlson S.M. Hot and cool executive function in ...