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Leukotriene B4

Leukotriene B4 (LTB₄) is a potent pro-inflammatory eicosanoid lipid mediator derived from the metabolism of arachidonic acid through the 5-lipoxygenase pathway, serving primarily as a chemoattractant for neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils during acute and chronic inflammatory responses.^[1] It is biosynthesized in leukocytes such as neutrophils and macrophages via sequential enzymatic actions: arachidonic acid is first converted to 5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE) by 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) in conjunction with the 5-lipoxygenase-activating protein (FLAP), then to the unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA₄), and finally hydrolyzed to LTB₄ by LTA₄ hydrolase (LTA₄H).^[1] Chemically, LTB₄ is (6Z,8E,10E,14Z)-5S,12R-dihydroxyeicosa-6,8,10,14-tetraenoic acid, featuring two hydroxyl groups at positions 5 and 12 that contribute to its biological activity.^[2] LTB₄ exerts its effects by binding to two G protein-coupled receptors: BLT1, a high-affinity receptor predominantly expressed on leukocytes that couples to G_i/o proteins to mediate chemotaxis, adhesion, and activation of immune cells; and BLT2, a low-affinity receptor with broader tissue distribution that couples to G_q, G₁₁, and G₁₄ proteins and recognizes additional ligands like 12-HETE.^[3] Upon receptor activation, LTB₄ promotes key leukocyte functions, including migration to inflammation sites, enhanced adhesion to endothelium via upregulation of integrins, degranulation, superoxide anion generation, and cytokine production, thereby amplifying innate immune responses.^[2] It also contributes to host defense against infections but can drive pathological inflammation when dysregulated.^[1] In disease contexts, elevated LTB₄ levels are implicated in conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiovascular disorders, and certain cancers, where it sustains neutrophil infiltration and tissue damage.^[1] Therapeutic strategies targeting the LTB₄ pathway, including inhibitors of 5-LOX or LTA₄H and BLT1 antagonists, are under investigation to mitigate these inflammatory processes.^[1] Structural studies of BLT1 have revealed critical ligand-binding residues, aiding drug design efforts.^[3]

Discovery and Chemical Properties

Discovery and Historical Context

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) was first identified in 1979 by Pierre Borgeat and Bengt Samuelsson during investigations into the metabolism of arachidonic acid in polymorphonuclear leukocytes.^[4] Their work revealed LTB4 as a novel dihydroxy derivative formed when rabbit polymorphonuclear leukocytes, isolated from peritoneal exudates, were stimulated with the calcium ionophore A23187 in the presence of arachidonic acid. This metabolite was detected through thin-layer chromatography and characterized as a potent polar lipid distinct from previously known hydroxy acids like 5-HETE.^[4] Shortly thereafter, the same group extended these findings to human polymorphonuclear leukocytes, confirming LTB4 production under similar conditions and highlighting an unstable epoxide intermediate in its formation.^[5] The structural elucidation of LTB4 was completed by Samuelsson's team in 1980 using advanced techniques such as mass spectrometry, ultraviolet spectroscopy, and isotopic oxygen-18 labeling to trace the incorporation of molecular oxygen.^[6] This confirmed LTB4 as 5(S),12(R)-dihydroxy-6Z,8E,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid, derived from the precursor arachidonic acid via the 5-lipoxygenase pathway.^[6] These late-1970s isolations from leukocytes marked a pivotal advancement in understanding inflammatory mediators beyond prostaglandins. Initial biological characterization in 1980 by A.W. Ford-Hutchinson and colleagues demonstrated LTB4's potency as a chemoattractant, eliciting directed migration and aggregation of neutrophils at nanomolar concentrations in assays using rabbit peritoneal exudates and human peripheral blood neutrophils.^[7] Early experimental methods relied on bioassays, including contractions of isolated guinea pig ileum strips to assess smooth muscle-stimulating activity and under-agarose or Boyden chamber tests to quantify neutrophil chemotaxis.^[6] These findings underscored LTB4's role in leukocyte recruitment during inflammation. The broader leukotriene research, including LTB4, contributed to Bengt Samuelsson sharing the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Sune Bergström and John Vane for discoveries on prostaglandins and related substances.^[8]

Chemical Structure and Physical Properties

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is a dihydroxy derivative of arachidonic acid, characterized by a 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acid chain with the molecular formula C₂₀H₃₂O₄ and a molecular weight of 336.47 g/mol. Its structure features a carboxylic acid group at carbon 1, hydroxyl groups at carbons 5 and 12, and four double bonds positioned at 6-7 (Z configuration), 8-9 (E), 10-11 (E), and 14-15 (Z), forming a conjugated triene system between positions 6 and 10 that contributes to its biological reactivity.^[9] The biologically active form of LTB4 exhibits specific stereochemistry, with the all-trans configuration in the triene moiety and chiral centers at C5 (S) and C12 (R), designated as (5S,12R)-6Z,8E,10E,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid.^[9]^[10] This stereoisomeric configuration is essential for its potent pro-inflammatory activity, distinguishing it from less active isomers such as 5S,12S-LTB4 or 6-trans-LTB4.^[11] LTB4 is a lipophilic molecule, appearing as a clear, colorless solution, and exhibits low solubility in water but high solubility in organic solvents such as ethanol and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO).^[12] The conjugated triene system imparts characteristic UV absorption with a maximum at approximately 270 nm and shoulders at 261 nm and 281 nm, enabling its detection in analytical assays.46220-X/pdf) In comparison to cysteinyl leukotrienes such as LTC4, LTD4, and LTE4, LTB4 lacks the polar glutathione or cysteine conjugate at C6, resulting in greater lipophilicity and distinct membrane permeability properties that influence their respective roles in inflammation.^[13]

Biosynthesis and Metabolism

Biosynthetic Pathway

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is synthesized through the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) branch of the arachidonic acid eicosanoid pathway, which diverges from the cyclooxygenase (COX) pathway responsible for prostaglandin production. Arachidonic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid stored in cell membrane phospholipids, serves as the common precursor for both pathways. Upon cellular activation, arachidonic acid is mobilized and directed toward leukotriene biosynthesis primarily in immune cells, where it undergoes oxidative metabolism to generate potent inflammatory mediators like LTB4.^[14] The biosynthetic pathway begins with the release of arachidonic acid from membrane phospholipids by cytosolic phospholipase A2α (cPLA2α), which is activated by increased intracellular calcium levels. Subsequently, 5-LOX, in conjunction with its activating protein FLAP, catalyzes the oxygenation of arachidonic acid at the C-5 position to form 5(S)-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE). This intermediate is rapidly dehydrated by 5-LOX to yield the unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA4). Finally, LTA4 is hydrolyzed by LTA4 hydrolase (LTA4H) to produce LTB4, completing the core synthetic sequence. This multistep process, first elucidated in polymorphonuclear leukocytes, ensures efficient production of LTB4 in response to physiological demands.^[14]^[15]^[16] Biosynthesis of LTB4 occurs predominantly in leukocytes, including neutrophils and macrophages, where the key enzymes localize to the nuclear and perinuclear membranes. The 5-LOX enzyme translocates from the cytosol to these membranes upon stimulation, facilitated by FLAP, an integral membrane protein that presents arachidonic acid to 5-LOX and stabilizes the complex for optimal catalysis. This spatial organization enhances the efficiency of leukotriene formation in inflammatory microenvironments.^[14]^[17] The pathway is tightly regulated by inflammatory stimuli such as cytokines, lipopolysaccharide, calcium ionophores, and cellular stressors like ATP, which trigger calcium influx and phosphorylation events. For instance, phosphorylation of 5-LOX at specific serine residues by kinases like MAPK can modulate its activity, while dephosphorylation promotes translocation and synthesis. These regulatory mechanisms ensure that LTB4 production is inducible and context-specific, aligning with host defense needs.^[14]^[15]

Key Enzymes and Regulation

The biosynthesis of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) relies on three principal enzymes: 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX or ALOX5), 5-LOX-activating protein (FLAP), and leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H). These proteins form a coordinated complex at the nuclear membrane, where 5-LOX initiates the oxygenation of arachidonic acid, FLAP facilitates substrate presentation, and LTA4H completes the conversion to the bioactive dihydroxy acid LTB4. 5-Lipoxygenase is an iron-containing dioxygenase that catalyzes the initial steps in LTB4 production, converting arachidonic acid to 5-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid (5-HPETE) and subsequently to the unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA4).^[18] Its crystal structure, resolved at 2.4 Å resolution, reveals a conserved lipoxygenase fold comprising a β-sheet-rich N-terminal domain and an α-helical catalytic domain, with the iron cofactor coordinated by histidine and cysteine residues at the active site.^[18] This architecture positions the enzyme for stereospecific oxygen insertion at the 5-position of arachidonic acid, a rate-limiting step tightly controlled by cellular stimuli such as calcium influx and phosphorylation. FLAP serves as a membrane-bound chaperone essential for 5-LOX function, anchoring the enzyme to the nuclear envelope and enabling access to arachidonic acid substrates sequestered in phospholipid bilayers.^[19] By forming a scaffold-like complex with 5-LOX, FLAP promotes the transfer of arachidonic acid to the enzyme's active site, which is otherwise occluded by a structural "cork" involving aromatic residues like Phe-177 and Tyr-181; mutations alleviating this barrier enhance catalysis in vitro.^[19] Although direct inhibitors of FLAP (e.g., MK-886) block leukotriene synthesis by disrupting this interaction, drugs like zileuton primarily target 5-LOX itself, indirectly highlighting FLAP's indispensability in vivo.^[19] Leukotriene A4 hydrolase is a bifunctional zinc metalloprotease that hydrolyzes the epoxide LTA4 to yield LTB4, the committed step in its formation.^[20] Its crystal structure demonstrates a deep active-site cleft housing the Zn²⁺ ion, coordinated by two histidines, a glutamate, and a water molecule, facilitating nucleophilic attack on the LTA4 epoxide ring to produce the conjugated triene diol.^[20] LTA4H also possesses aminopeptidase activity, cleaving N-terminal residues from peptides like proline-glycine-proline, which generates pro-inflammatory signals independent of LTB4; this dual functionality allows selective modulation, as some inhibitors block epoxide hydrolysis while sparing peptidase action to promote resolution of inflammation.^[20] Regulation of these enzymes occurs at multiple levels to fine-tune LTB4 production in response to inflammatory cues. Transcriptionally, the ALOX5 gene is upregulated by NF-κB signaling, with 5-LOX physically interacting with NF-κB subunits (e.g., RelA and c-Rel) to enhance expression of target genes like kynureninase while repressing others such as COX-2.^[21] Post-translationally, phosphorylation modulates 5-LOX localization and activity; for instance, PKA-mediated phosphorylation at Ser523 inhibits catalysis and sequesters the enzyme in the cytosol, whereas MAPKAPK-2/3 or ERK phosphorylation at Ser271 promotes nuclear retention and leukotriene synthesis.^[21] Genetic polymorphisms in the ALOX5 promoter, particularly Sp1 tandem repeat variants (e.g., rs59439148), reduce basal expression and correlate with lower urinary leukotriene E4 levels, while homozygous minor alleles are associated with elevated cysteinyl leukotriene production, diminished lung function, and poorer asthma control in children.^[22] Pharmacological inhibition of 5-LOX represents a key therapeutic strategy to curb LTB4-mediated inflammation. Zileuton, the only clinically approved 5-LOX inhibitor, reversibly binds the enzyme to block leukotriene biosynthesis, including LTB4, thereby attenuating bronchoconstriction, mucus secretion, and eosinophil recruitment in asthma.^[23] Administered orally at 600 mg four times daily or as extended-release tablets twice daily, it is indicated for prophylaxis in chronic asthma patients aged 12 and older, often as an add-on to inhaled corticosteroids, though its short half-life limits broader use.^[23]

Metabolism and Inactivation

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is primarily inactivated through oxidative metabolism, ensuring its rapid clearance to limit pro-inflammatory effects. The dominant pathway involves ω-oxidation mediated by cytochrome P450 enzymes of the CYP4F subfamily, which hydroxylate LTB4 at the terminal carbon (C-20) to form 20-hydroxy-LTB4 (20-OH-LTB4).^[24] This initial step is catalyzed by CYP4F3 in granulocytes and CYP4F2 in hepatocytes, with further oxidation yielding 20-carboxy-LTB4 (20-COOH-LTB4) and ultimately 20-dicarboxy-LTB4, rendering the molecule biologically inactive.^[25] In mouse models, CYP4F18 specifically drives this ω-oxidation in neutrophils, and its deficiency abolishes detectable ω-hydroxylated LTB4 products without compensation by other CYP4F isoforms.^[26] Following ω-oxidation, the dicarboxylic acid metabolites undergo chain shortening via β-oxidation in peroxisomes, producing shorter-chain compounds akin to 12-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) derivatives that are further degraded to carbon dioxide in mitochondria.^[27] This peroxisomal process, involving enzymes such as alcohol dehydrogenase and fatty acyl-CoA ligase, represents a major catabolic route for hydroxylated eicosanoids like LTB4, facilitating their excretion.^[27] Minor inactivation routes include glutathione conjugation, which forms polar conjugates for enhanced solubility and elimination, though this is less prominent than oxidative pathways.^[27] Metabolites are exported from cells via ATP-binding cassette transporters, notably multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4/ABCC4), which effluxes LTB4 conjugates across membranes to support systemic clearance.^[27] The plasma half-life of LTB4 is extremely short, approximately 0.5 minutes in experimental models, reflecting rapid enzymatic degradation and contributing to its transient signaling.^[28] In tissues, clearance may be somewhat prolonged due to localized enzyme expression, but overall, this brevity confines LTB4's action to seconds to minutes. Inflammation upregulates CYP4F enzymes, accelerating inactivation to resolve responses, while genetic polymorphisms in CYP4F2 and CYP4F3 can impair ω-oxidation efficiency, potentially altering LTB4 levels in disease states.^[24]

Receptors and Molecular Signaling

Receptor Subtypes

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) primarily signals through two distinct G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), BLT1 and BLT2, which differ in affinity, expression, and ligand specificity.^[29] BLT1, encoded by the LTB4R gene, functions as the high-affinity receptor for LTB4, with a dissociation constant (K_d) of approximately 1 nM. It is predominantly expressed on leukocytes, including neutrophils and eosinophils. BLT1 couples to Gα_i/o proteins, facilitating pertussis toxin-sensitive signaling.^[29]^[30]^[31] Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of LTB4-bound human BLT1 in complex with G_i protein, resolved at 2.91 Å in 2022, reveal a binding pocket formed by transmembrane helices with a hydrophobic tunnel and polar residues. Key interactions include Arg267^7.35 forming a hydrogen bond network via water molecules to the C5 hydroxyl group of LTB4, and Asn268^7.36 directly contacting the C1 carboxyl group.^[31] BLT2, encoded by the LTB4R2 gene, serves as the low-affinity receptor for LTB4, exhibiting a K_d of approximately 23 nM. It displays broader tissue expression, including on mast cells and epithelial cells, and couples primarily to Gα_q proteins. Unlike BLT1, BLT2 also binds other eicosanoids, such as 12(S)-hydroxy-5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE).^[29]^[30]^[31] Expression of both BLT1 and BLT2 is upregulated during inflammatory conditions through NF-κB-dependent mechanisms, as demonstrated in vascular smooth muscle cells and macrophages exposed to cytokines like IL-1β.^[32]^[33] Gene-targeted knockout mice studies confirm non-redundant functions for each receptor in immune responses.^[34] Species variations exist between human and rodent orthologs; for instance, BLT2 exhibits greater amino acid sequence identity (78.6%) across humans and mice compared to BLT1, potentially influencing ligand binding and expression patterns.^[30]

Downstream Signaling Mechanisms

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) exerts its effects primarily through two G protein-coupled receptors, BLT1 and BLT2, which activate distinct yet overlapping intracellular signaling cascades. BLT1, the high-affinity receptor, couples predominantly to Gαi proteins, inhibiting adenylyl cyclase and thereby reducing cyclic AMP (cAMP) levels to modulate cellular responses in leukocytes.^[35] This Gαi-mediated pathway is pertussis toxin-sensitive and essential for downstream events in inflammatory cells. Concurrently, BLT1 engages the phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) pathway, hydrolyzing phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) to produce inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). IP3 triggers the release of Ca²⁺ from endoplasmic reticulum stores, elevating cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentrations, while DAG activates PKC isoforms. Calcium imaging studies in human monocytes have confirmed Ca²⁺ mobilization upon LTB4 binding to BLT1.^[36] Furthermore, BLT1 stimulates phosphorylation of the MAPK/ERK cascade, as evidenced by Western blot assays in HEK293 cells transiently transfected with BLT1, where LTB4 induces dose-dependent ERK activation within minutes.^[37] BLT2, the low-affinity receptor with broader tissue expression, couples mainly to Gαq proteins, directly activating PLC to generate IP3 and DAG, thereby increasing intracellular Ca²⁺ and stimulating PKC activity.^[31] This Gαq-PLC axis results in Ca²⁺ responses. BLT2 signaling also activates the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway, which enhances cell survival by phosphorylating Akt at Ser473, as observed in neutrophil lysates following LTB4 exposure.^[38] Both BLT1 and BLT2 share activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt pathway, which enhances cell survival by phosphorylating Akt at Ser473, as observed in neutrophil lysates following LTB4 exposure.^[38] β-Arrestin recruitment to phosphorylated receptors occurs for both subtypes, mediating desensitization by uncoupling G proteins and promoting clathrin-dependent internalization, confirmed by confocal microscopy in BLT1- and BLT2-expressing cells.

Physiological Roles

Chemotaxis and Leukocyte Activation

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) serves as a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils and eosinophils, primarily through high-affinity binding to the BLT1 receptor, which enables gradient sensing and directed migration at picomolar to nanomolar concentrations.^[39] In neutrophils, LTB4 facilitates chemotaxis by amplifying polarization and actin polymerization, often acting as a secondary signal relay to extend the range of primary chemoattractants like formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP).^[40] This process is particularly effective in transendothelial migration, where LTB4 promotes neutrophil adherence and traversal of the vascular barrier to reach inflammatory sites.^[40] In vitro studies using Boyden chamber assays demonstrate that LTB4 induces maximal neutrophil migration with an EC50 of approximately 1 nM, highlighting its sensitivity and potency in controlled gradient environments.^[11] Beyond chemotaxis, LTB4 activates key functional responses in leukocytes, particularly neutrophils and monocytes, while exerting weaker effects on T cells and B cells due to lower receptor expression and affinity.^[39] In neutrophils, LTB4 triggers degranulation by promoting BLT1 endocytosis and activation of the Yes kinase, leading to the release of lysosomal enzymes essential for pathogen clearance.^[38] It also stimulates NADPH oxidase assembly, resulting in robust reactive oxygen species (ROS) production via Rac-ERK signaling pathways, which enhances microbial killing but can contribute to tissue damage if dysregulated.^[38]^[41] Additionally, LTB4 activates integrins, notably LFA-1 (CD11a/CD18), by inducing conformational changes that increase neutrophil adhesion to endothelium, as evidenced by enhanced homotypic aggregation and antibody binding to activation epitopes at 10 nM concentrations.^[42] LTB4 further modulates leukocyte activation by promoting cytokine release, with potent effects on neutrophils and monocytes. In neutrophils, it directly induces interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion and potentiates tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production in response to Toll-like receptor ligands, amplifying inflammatory signaling.^[38] Monocytes exhibit strong chemotactic responses to LTB4 via BLT1, with activation leading to increased production of IL-6, IL-1, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (CCL2), which reinforce recruitment loops.^[43]^[38] In contrast, T and B lymphocytes show minimal migration to LTB4, reflecting its specialized role in innate immune cells over adaptive ones.^[39] Although primarily targeting leukocytes, LTB4 indirectly influences non-immune cells by activating endothelial permeability through neutrophil-dependent mechanisms, such as granule protein release that disrupts barrier integrity.^[44]

Role in Host Defense and Inflammation

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) plays a pivotal role in host defense by recruiting phagocytes, such as neutrophils and macrophages, to sites of infection, thereby facilitating the containment and elimination of pathogens. In bacterial abscess formation, macrophage-derived LTB4 promotes the organized accumulation of immune cells, enhancing abscess architecture and bacterial clearance during skin infections like those caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Furthermore, LTB4 augments microbial killing mechanisms, including the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in neutrophils and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) through signaling pathways involving its receptors, which trap and kill bacteria effectively.^[45]^[46]^[47] In acute inflammation, occurring within the initial 0-24 hours, LTB4 amplifies the response through synergy with complement component C5a, where C5a-induced LTB4 release from immune cells enhances neutrophil recruitment and activation at inflammatory sites. This coordination promotes vascular permeability, particularly when LTB4 acts in concert with vasodilators like prostaglandin E2, allowing plasma proteins and leukocytes to extravasate and initiate the inflammatory cascade.^[48]^[49]^[50] LTB4 contributes indirectly to the resolution of inflammation by supporting macrophage recruitment, which facilitates efferocytosis of apoptotic cells and pro-resolving functions in macrophages. This process is counterbalanced by omega-3-derived specialized pro-resolving mediators, such as protectin D1, which restore the balance between pro-inflammatory LTB4 and anti-inflammatory signals to facilitate timely resolution.^[51]^[52] Animal models underscore LTB4's protective functions; for instance, mice deficient in 5-lipoxygenase (the enzyme upstream of LTB4 synthesis) exhibit impaired bacterial clearance in the lungs, associated with reduced phagocytic activity of alveolar macrophages during infections. Similarly, LTB4 receptor BLT1 knockout mice show diminished neutrophil recruitment and increased susceptibility to pulmonary pathogens, highlighting LTB4's essential role in innate immunity. Evolutionarily, the LTB4 biosynthetic and signaling pathways are highly conserved across mammals, underscoring their fundamental contribution to innate immune responses against infections.^[38]^[53]^[54] Recent studies (as of 2025) have further elucidated LTB4's roles, including platelet-derived LTB4 in amplifying neutrophil recruitment and LTB4-mediated regulation of T cell recognition in controlling cytomegalovirus infections.^[55]^[56]

Pathological Implications

Involvement in Inflammatory Diseases

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of various chronic inflammatory diseases by promoting leukocyte recruitment and sustaining inflammatory cascades through its receptors, particularly BLT1. In these conditions, elevated LTB4 levels amplify immune cell infiltration and tissue damage, contributing to disease progression beyond its physiological functions in host defense.^[57] In asthma and allergic diseases, LTB4 drives eosinophil recruitment to the airways, exacerbating airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness. Levels of LTB4 are elevated in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from patients with nocturnal and severe persistent asthma, correlating with eosinophilic infiltration and disease severity. The LTB4/BLT1 pathway is implicated in severe asthma variants, including aspirin- and exercise-induced forms, where it enhances eosinophil and neutrophil activation. Antagonists targeting BLT1, such as those explored in early clinical trials, have shown potential but faced challenges; for instance, compounds like those in the LTB4 pathway were tested in Phase II studies for asthma but did not advance due to limited efficacy.^[58]^[59]^[57]^[60] In rheumatoid arthritis (RA), synovial LTB4 levels are markedly increased and correlate with joint destruction and disease activity. LTB4 promotes osteoclast activation by engaging BLT1 and BLT2 receptors on precursors, leading to intracellular calcium mobilization and enhanced osteoclastogenesis, which contributes to bone erosion in affected joints. This mechanism underscores LTB4's role in the destructive synovial inflammation characteristic of RA.^[61]^[62]^[63] Psoriasis involves keratinocyte-derived LTB4, which sustains plaque formation through autocrine and paracrine signaling via BLT2. LTB4 stimulates keratinocyte proliferation and migration, amplifying epidermal hyperplasia in psoriatic lesions, while also recruiting neutrophils to perpetuate inflammation. Topical inhibitors targeting LTB4 pathways have been investigated as potential therapies to disrupt this cycle and improve barrier function in psoriatic skin.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] In inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), particularly ulcerative colitis, LTB4 concentrations are elevated in the colonic mucosa, driving mucosal inflammation and epithelial damage. The LTB4/BLT1 axis is critical in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis models, where BLT1 signaling promotes Th1/Th17 differentiation and neutrophil influx, worsening tissue injury. Blocking this pathway in preclinical models ameliorates colitis severity, highlighting its therapeutic potential.^[68]^[69]^[70] Recent studies post-2020 have linked LTB4 to hyperinflammation in severe COVID-19, where elevated systemic LTB4 levels correlate with disease severity, especially in patients with comorbidities like diabetes, by enhancing cytokine storms and immune cell dysregulation. In long COVID, persistent LTB4 elevation has been observed, potentially contributing to ongoing inflammation via BLT1-mediated pathways, as suggested in 2023 analyses of lipid mediators in post-acute sequelae.^[71]^[72]^[73]

Associations with Metabolic and Other Disorders

Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) contributes to metabolic dysregulation in diabetes by promoting insulin resistance through enhanced macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue, where it exacerbates chronic low-grade inflammation and impairs insulin signaling via the LTB4/BLT1 axis.^[74] Elevated LTB4 levels have been observed in the serum of patients with type 2 diabetes, correlating with disease severity and complications.^[75] In diabetic nephropathy, LTB4 drives BLT1-mediated glomerular inflammation, leading to podocyte injury and proteinuria progression, as demonstrated in preclinical models where BLT1 blockade ameliorates renal damage.^[76] In atherosclerosis, LTB4 facilitates the chemotaxis of monocytes to vascular plaques, promoting their recruitment and differentiation into foam cells via BLT1 signaling, which accelerates lesion formation and instability.^[77] A seminal 2002 study from the American Heart Association highlighted how LTB4/BLT1 interactions drive foam cell accumulation in hypercholesterolemic models, with antagonism reducing plaque progression by up to 60%.^[77] Defects in LTB4 omega-oxidation further exacerbate atherosclerosis by prolonging its inflammatory effects and enhancing lesion development in susceptible models.^[24] LTB4 exhibits dual roles in cancer, acting as pro-tumorigenic in skin and colon malignancies by stimulating angiogenesis and tumor microenvironment inflammation through BLT1 and BLT2 receptors, which support vascular endothelial growth factor expression and metastatic spread.^[78] Conversely, in certain contexts, LTB4 enhances anti-tumor immunity by activating natural killer cells and CD8+ T cells via BLT1, promoting tumor infiltration and cytotoxicity, as evidenced in syngeneic tumor models.^[24] A 2021 review in Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy underscores these context-dependent BLT1/BLT2 functions, noting LTB4's potential to either suppress or accelerate tumor progression based on immune cell involvement.^[24] Beyond metabolic and neoplastic disorders, LTB4 worsens sepsis by amplifying systemic inflammation and vascular leakage, contributing to septic shock through excessive neutrophil activation and cytokine release.^[79] In gout, LTB4 mediates crystal-induced neutrophil recruitment and inflammasome activation in synovial fluid, perpetuating acute flares via BLT1-dependent chemotaxis.^[80] For pulmonary fibrosis, LTB4 stimulates adventitial fibroblast proliferation, migration, and collagen deposition in a dose-dependent manner, driving extracellular matrix remodeling in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis models.^[81] Therapeutically, BLT1 antagonists like CP-105696 have shown promise in preclinical metabolic models, reducing insulin resistance in diet-induced obesity by limiting adipose macrophage accumulation and improving glucose homeostasis.^[75] Similar antagonism attenuates atherosclerosis progression in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice by inhibiting foam cell formation.^[77] Dietary interventions that reduce arachidonic acid precursors, such as omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, lower LTB4 production and mitigate associated metabolic inflammation in obesity and diabetes models.^[24]

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Feb 1, 2024 · Zileuton, a 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor, is a primary intervention for the prophylaxis and treatment of chronic asthma in patients aged 12 and older.Continuing Education Activity · Indications · Mechanism of Action · Adverse Effects
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Metabolism pathways of arachidonic acids: mechanisms ... - Nature
Feb 26, 2021 · Two major pathways of LTB4 inactivation are known, and responsible enzymes have been identified. Granulocytes and hepatocytes inactivate LTB4 ...
[25]
20-Hydroxylation is the CYP-dependent and retinoid-inducible ... - NIH
Metabolic inactivation of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is an innate mechanism to resolve tissue inflammation. We studied the nine Cyp4f genes in the mouse genome, ...
[26]
Altered Leukotriene B4 metabolism in CYP4F18-deficient mice does ...
It is concluded that CYP4F18 is necessary for omega oxidation of leukotriene B4 in neutrophils, and is not compensated by other CYP enzymes, but loss of this ...
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Icosanoid Metabolism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The major pathway for the inactivation and catabolism of hydroxyl eicosanoids is through peroxisome β-oxidation and conjugation with glucuronic acid. CYP4 ω ...
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Metabolic disposition of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and oxidation ... - NIH
Leukotriene B4 and 20-OH-LTB4 in purulent peritoneal exudates demonstrated by GC-MS. ... In vivo desensitization to leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in the rabbit.Missing: initial | Show results with:initial
[29]
BLT1 and BLT2: the leukotriene B(4) receptors - PubMed
The two receptors differ in their affinity and specificity for LTB(4): BLT1 is a high-affinity receptor specific for LTB(4), whereas BLT2 is a low-affinity ...
[30]
A Second Leukotriene B4 Receptor, Blt2 - Rockefeller University Press
Here, we report the molecular cloning of a novel GPCR for LTB4, designated BLT2, which binds LTB4 with a Kd value of 23 nM compared with 1.1 nM for BLT1, but ...
[31]
Structural basis of leukotriene B4 receptor 1 activation - Nature
Mar 3, 2022 · BLT1 expresses exclusively in the immune system while BLT2 has a broad spectrum of expression profile. In general, BLT1 has a higher affinity ...
[32]
Leukotriene B4 signaling through NF-κB-dependent BLT1 receptors ...
Also, we demonstrate that an up-regulation of BLT1 receptors in intimal SMC and in medial SMC by proinflammatory cytokines occurs through the NF-κB pathway.Materials And Methods · Results · DiscussionMissing: knockout | Show results with:knockout
[33]
Leukotriene B 4 amplifies NF-κB activation in mouse macrophages ...
Jan 4, 2011 · These results uncover a pivotal role in macrophages for the GPCR BLT1 in regulating activation of NF-κB through Stat1-dependent expression of ...
[34]
The leukotriene B4 receptors BLT1 and BLT2 as potential ... - PubMed
We cloned the high- and low-affinity LTB4 receptors, BLT1 and BLT2, respectively, and examined their functions by generating and studying gene-targeted mice.
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Frontiers | Mast Cell Chemotaxis – Chemoattractants and Signaling Pathways
Summary of each segment:
[36]
Mechanisms of Leukotriene B4–Triggered Monocyte Adhesion
LTB4 binds to its high-affinity receptor BLT1, which is present on neutrophils, eosinophils, and monocytes. In the multistep paradigm of leukocyte recruitment, ...
[37]
Modulation of leukotriene B4 receptor 1 signaling by ... - PubMed
Jan 26, 2016 · Our results demonstrate that RAGE interacts with BLT1 and modulates LTB4-BLT1 signaling through potentiation of the MEK-ERK pathway.Missing: G adenylyl cyclase cAMP IP3 MAPK
[38]
Leukotriene B4 receptor 2 governs macrophage migration during ...
Dec 12, 2023 · Our results demonstrate that BLT2 mediates macrophage migration during inflammation, which implicates it as a potential therapeutic target for inflammatory ...
[39]
Leukotriene B4, an Endogenous Stimulator of the Innate Immune ...
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is an endogenous lipid mediator of inflammation derived from arachidonic acid by the sequential action of cytosolic phospholipase A2 ...
[40]
Agonist-induced internalization of leukotriene B(4) receptor 1 ...
The leukotriene B(4) (LTB(4)) receptor (BLT1) becomes desensitized upon repeated agonist stimulation. Little is known, however, about BLT1 internalization, ...
[41]
Bltr Mediates Leukotriene B 4 –Induced Chemotaxis and Adhesion ...
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is a potent chemoattractant active on multiple leukocytes, including neutrophils, macrophages, and eosinophils, and is implicated in.
[42]
LTB4 IS A SIGNAL RELAY MOLECULE DURING NEUTROPHIL ...
Neutrophil recruitment to inflammation sites purportedly depends on sequential waves of chemoattractants. Current models propose that leukotriene B4 (LTB4), ...
[43]
NADPH oxidase controls pulmonary neutrophil infiltration in the ...
Mar 19, 2020 · LTB4 is a potent neutrophil chemoattractant, enhances neutrophil-endothelial interactions, and activates neutrophil degranulation and ROS ...
[44]
Activation of human neutrophil LFA-1 (CD11a) by leukotriene B4
The involvement of LFA-1 in LTB4-induced HA of neutrophils was suggested initially by the inhibitory effect of monoclonal anti-CD18 and anti-CD11a antibodies.
[45]
Leukotriene B4 strongly increases monocyte ... - PubMed
LTB4 strongly induces MCP-1 production in primary human monocytes. This induction is mediated through the BLT1 pathway increasing MCP-1 transcription.Missing: release | Show results with:release
[46]
Increase in vascular permeability induced by leukotriene b4 and the ...
These results suggest that neutrophil granulocytes play a role in LTB4-mediated permeability increase. LTB4 may be of importance both for the leukocyte ...
[47]
Macrophage-derived LTB4 promotes abscess formation and ...
Aug 13, 2018 · An ointment containing LTB4 and antibiotics improved skin host defense and abscess formation and also enhanced bacterial clearance. These ...
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Transcellular biosynthesis of leukotriene B4 orchestrates neutrophil ...
Oct 21, 2022 · Consistent with the essential roles of LTB4 in stimulating neutrophil phagocytosis and ROS production, we found significant differences in ...
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Complement component 5a receptor 1 and leukotriene B4 ... - PubMed
Sep 19, 2024 · Complement component 5a receptor 1 and leukotriene B4 receptor 1 regulate neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation through Rap1a/B-Raf/ERK ...
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Complement Receptors and Their Role in Leukocyte Recruitment ...
Indeed, C5a production due to complement opsonization on immune complexes in the joints, results in release of the chemotactic lipid leukotriene B4 (LTB4) from ...
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Leukotriene B4: An Inflammatory Mediator With Vascular Actions in ...
In vivo LTB4 is a potent stimulator of vascular permeability in rats, rabbits, guinea-pigs and man particularly in the presence of a vasodilator such as PGE2.Missing: promotes | Show results with:promotes
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Specific inhibition of leukotriene B4 (LTB4)-induced neutrophil ... - NIH
Björk J., Hedqvist P., Arfors K. E. Increase in vascular permeability induced by leukotriene B4 and the role of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Inflammation.
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LTB4 causes macrophage–mediated inflammation and directly ...
Sep 1, 2015 · Indeed, the ratio of M1/M2 ATMs decreases from 9 to 2, indicative of improved adipose tissue homeostasis induced by Ltb4r1 inhibitor treatment.
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An imbalance between specialized pro-resolving lipid mediators ...
Sep 23, 2016 · Administration of RvD1 to these mice during plaque progression restores the RvD1:LTB4 ratio to that of less advanced lesions and promotes plaque ...
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Leukotriene B4 is essential for lung host defence and alpha ... - Nature
Dec 15, 2017 · Leukotriene B 4 (LTB 4 ) is essential for host immune defence. It increases neutrophil recruitment, phagocytosis and pathogen clearance, and decreases oedema ...
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Host-Derived Leukotriene B4 Is Critical for Resistance against ...
Jan 11, 2018 · This study reveals an essential role for host-derived LTB4 in the recruitment of both neutrophils and eosinophils through its high-affinity ...
[57]
Importance of the Leukotriene B4-BLT1 and LTB4-BLT2 Pathways in ...
The importance of the LTB4-BLT1 pathway in asthma pathogenesis has extensive experimental support and findings, albeit limited, from clinical samples.
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Leukotrienes, LTC4 and LTB4, in bronchoalveolar lavage ... - PubMed
This study provides evidence for a role for LTs in the airways of subjects with day-to-day asthma and suggests that LTB4 may also be involved in the recruitment ...
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American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology
May 17, 2018 · LTB4 contributes to asthma severity through its ability to recruit and activate PMNs, eosinophils, and CD8+ cytotoxic lymphocytes (16–22).
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Recent advances in clinical development of leukotriene B4 pathway ...
In the 60 mg cohort of 12 participants, plasma half-life averaged 81.3 h and in blood the half-life was determined on average as 377 h. ... Leukotriene B4 ...
[61]
Leukotriene B4 activates intracellular calcium and augments human ...
In this article, we describe a new role of IL-23 in activating the synthesis and production of leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in innate immune cells.Ltb4 Biosynthetic Enzymes... · Ltb4 Activates Intracellular... · Ltb4 Initiates...
[62]
[PDF] Pain and bone damage in rheumatoid arthritis: role of leukotriene B4
LTB4 activates intracellular calcium and augments human osteoclastogen- esis via its two receptors to participate in bone and cartilage destruction (55). To ...
[63]
Leukotriene B4 activates intracellular calcium and augments human ...
Dec 2, 2014 · Our data show that LTB4 engagement of BLT1 and BLT2 receptors on osteoclast precursors leads to activation of phospholipase C and calcium ...
[64]
Current knowledge of the implication of lipid mediators in psoriasis
This review summarizes current findings on lipid mediators playing a role in the skin and their potential as therapeutic targets for psoriatic patients.
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The leukotriene B4 receptors BLT1 and BLT2 as potential ...
Mar 13, 2023 · Leukotriene B 4 (LTB 4 ) was recognized as an arachidonate-derived chemotactic factor for inflammatory cells and an important drug target
[66]
Significance of leukotriene-A4 hydrolase in the pathogenesis of ...
In vitro LTB4 is a potent chemoattractant for leukocytes, and it increases DNA synthesis in human cultured keratinocytes. Intradermal injection of LTB4 into ...Missing: BLT2 plaques
[67]
Leukotriene receptors as potential therapeutic targets - JCI
May 14, 2018 · Numerous studies using cloned leukotriene receptors and genetically engineered mice have unveiled new pathophysiological roles for leukotrienes.
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BLT1 in dendritic cells promotes Th1/Th17 differentiation and its ...
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) synthesis is enhanced in the colonic mucosa in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). BLT1, a high-affinity receptor for LTB4, ...
[69]
Protective role of the leukotriene B 4 receptor BLT2 in murine ...
Jul 28, 2010 · Several lines of evidence suggest that BLT2 is involved in carcinogenesis (11, 12), arthritis (13), bronchial asthma (14), and vascular ...<|separator|>
[70]
Leukotriene B4-receptor-1 mediated host response shapes gut ... - NIH
DSS-induced colitis strongly promotes AOM-induced colon cancer in mice. In AOM-DSS colon tumor model, the BLT1−/− mice showed a significant increase in colon ...
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LTB4 Inflammation & ALOX5/ACE2 in Severe COVID-19 with Diabetes
In the current study, we sought to evaluate whether LTB4 plays a role in the severity of COVID-19 in individuals with diabetes. Research Design and Methods.
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Iron Dyshomeostasis in COVID-19: Biomarkers to 5-LOX Activation
Furthermore, LTB4 systemic levels were found to be associated with the severity grade of COVID-19 in patients with diabetes [137], and increased LTB4 ...
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Mixed storm in SARS‐CoV‐2 infection: A narrative review and new ...
Apr 26, 2023 · LTB4 increases the influx of lymphocytes to the lung and airway causing severe lymphopenia, a hallmark of SARS-CoV-2 infection pathogenesis.
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The Role of LTB4 in Obesity-Induced Insulin Resistance Development
In accordance, a recent study in vivo showed that HFD enriched with ω-3 (eicosapentaenoic acid) downregulated LTB4 levels and inflammation in visceral adipose ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[75]
Deficiency of the leukotriene B4 receptor, BLT-1, protects against ...
Here, we report that deficiency of BLT-1 protects against the development of insulin resistance in diet-induced obesity (DIO) by regulating ATM accumulation and ...Missing: nephropathy 2022
[76]
Finding New Ways to Treat Diabetes and Other Inflammatory Diseases
Jan 11, 2022 · Several studies implicate a protein called the leukotriene B4 receptor 1 (BLT1), which is found in white blood cells, as being involved in ...Missing: nephropathy | Show results with:nephropathy
[77]
Leukotriene B4 Receptor Antagonism Reduces Monocytic Foam ...
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) is a potent chemotactic agent that activates monocytes through the LTB4 receptor (BLTR). We tested the hypothesis that LTB4 receptor ...
[78]
The yin and yang of leukotriene B4 mediated inflammation in cancer
In this review, we summarize recent findings on LTB 4 /BLT1 axis enabling distinct outcomes toward tumor progression.Missing: 2021 | Show results with:2021
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Neutrophil diversity and function in health and disease - Nature
Dec 6, 2024 · These insights underscore the pivotal role of the LTB4-BLT1 axis in the homeostatic control of neutrophils and highlight its potential ...
[80]
Phosphoinositide‐3 kinase gamma regulates caspase‐1 activation ...
LTB4 is a potent chemotactic agent for polymorphonuclear leukocytes and in vivo may mediate inflammatory reactions by inducing leukocyte recruitment by ...<|separator|>
[81]
Leukotriene B4 Activates Pulmonary Artery Adventitial Fibroblasts in ...
Here, we demonstrate that LTB4 enhanced human pulmonary artery adventitial fibroblast proliferation, migration, and differentiation in a dose-dependent manner ...Missing: sepsis shock gout crystal- fibrosis