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Lightering

Lightering, also known as lighterage, is the process of transferring cargo—typically oil, liquefied gases, or bulk commodities—between vessels of different sizes, often from a larger ship to a smaller one or barge, to reduce the larger vessel's draft for port entry or to mitigate risks such as oil spills from compromised tankers.^[1]^[2]^[3] This maritime operation has historical roots dating to the pre-19th century, when large sailing ships unable to navigate shallow harbors relied on smaller lighters for unloading; it evolved significantly with the advent of steamships and, later, massive oil tankers in the 20th century, becoming a standard practice for economical cargo transport in regions with port limitations.^[4] In contemporary shipping, lightering is crucial for very large crude carriers (VLCCs) and ultra-large crude carriers (ULCCs) serving areas like the US Gulf of Mexico, where offshore transfers allow these vessels to offload portions of their cargo before proceeding to shallower facilities, enhancing efficiency and reducing infrastructure demands.^[2] It also plays a vital role in emergency response by relocating hazardous materials from damaged ships.^[3] Lightering operations typically occur at designated zones up to 70 nautical miles offshore, involving side-by-side mooring of vessels using large fenders and hoses, with transfers conducted at anchor, while drifting, or underway under controlled speeds of 4-6 knots.^[2] Safety is paramount, overseen by mooring masters and supported by lightering service vessels equipped for firefighting and spill response; regulations, such as those in 33 CFR Part 156 Subpart B enforced by the US Coast Guard, mandate pre-arrival notifications, equipment certifications, personnel work limits (e.g., no more than 15 hours in 24), and immediate incident reporting to minimize risks in the marine environment.^[5]^[2] These measures have been refined since the 1970s through phased improvements in mooring arrangements and fender technology, reflecting the industry's commitment to environmental protection and operational reliability.^[4]

Introduction and Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Lightering, also known as lighterage, is the process of transferring cargo between vessels of different sizes, typically from a larger deep-draft ship, such as an ocean-going tanker or bulker, to smaller barges or lighters, in order to reduce the draft of the larger vessel and enable access to shallow-water ports or inland waterways.^[6]^[7] This operation occurs either at sea or in designated port areas and is a specialized form of ship-to-ship transfer tailored to maritime logistics constraints.^[6] The term specifically emphasizes the use of "lighters," which are shallow-draft vessels designed for such transfers.^[8] The primary purpose of lightering is to enable large vessels to access shallow-water ports or inland waterways that cannot accommodate their full draft, thereby avoiding grounding risks and optimizing cargo delivery in draft-restricted environments like rivers, bays, or harbors with limited depth.^[7]^[6] For instance, it allows deep-sea carriers to offload portions of their cargo offshore, permitting safe navigation into facilities that would otherwise be inaccessible.^[8] Additionally, lightering facilitates emergency cargo removal from damaged or compromised vessels, such as transferring oil or hazardous materials to prevent spills and mitigate environmental hazards during incidents at sea.^[3] The term "lightering" derives from "lighter," referring to a flat-bottomed barge historically used for unloading ships, with origins tracing back to the late 15th century in European ports, possibly from the Dutch word lichter meaning "to lighten" or unload cargo.^[9] These early lighters were essential in busy harbors like those in the Netherlands and England, where they supported the transfer of goods from deep-water anchors to shallower berths.^[9] Over time, the practice evolved but retained its foundational role in enhancing logistical efficiency in constrained maritime settings.^[10]

Types of Cargo Handled

Lightering operations primarily handle wet bulk cargo, which consists of liquid commodities such as crude oil, petroleum products, and chemicals. These cargoes are transferred between vessels using specialized hoses connected to pumping systems to ensure efficient flow and prevent environmental spills during the process.^[11] The handling of wet bulk requires careful consideration of cargo properties, including viscosity and stability, to maintain safe transfer rates and avoid issues like foaming or separation that could compromise vessel balance.^[11] Wet bulk dominates lightering activities, particularly in regions like the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, where port depth restrictions necessitate offloading from large tankers to smaller vessels for safe navigation.^[12] Dry bulk cargo, encompassing solid materials like grains, coal, ores, and minerals, represents another key category in lightering, especially in ports with infrastructure constraints or shallow drafts. Transfer methods for dry bulk typically involve cranes, derricks, or conveyor systems to load and unload the cargo into the receiving vessel's holds, ensuring compatibility with the equipment's certified load capacities.^[13] Specific challenges include controlling dust emissions during handling to minimize health and environmental risks, as well as protecting against moisture ingress, which can lead to cargo degradation or spontaneous combustion in materials like coal—often requiring operations to halt and hatches to be secured during inclement weather.^[13] Dry bulk lightering is prevalent in developing regions, such as parts of Asia, where large bulk carriers offload portions of their cargo at sea to access inland facilities.^[14] In addition to wet and dry bulk, lightering occasionally involves other cargo types, such as liquefied gases (LPG or LNG) under wet bulk classifications or, in emergency scenarios, hazardous materials when standard port access is unavailable.^[11] Overall, the selection of cargo types in lightering reflects the need to reduce vessel draft for navigational purposes while adhering to safety protocols tailored to each commodity's physical characteristics.^[14]

Historical Development

Early Maritime Practices

Lightering, the process of transferring cargo from seagoing vessels to smaller boats for delivery to shore, originated in ancient times as a necessity for ports with limited deep-water access. In Roman harbors like Ostia and Portus, large merchant ships anchored offshore due to silting and shallow approaches, relying on small auxiliary barges called lenunculi to ferry goods such as grain, amphorae of oil, and building materials to quaysides.^[15] These flat-bottomed craft, often rowed or poled, enabled efficient unloading in congested basins where direct docking was impractical, supporting Rome's vast Mediterranean trade network.^[16] During the medieval period, lightering remained essential in lagoonal and riverine settings. In Venice, the shallow, tidal lagoon required deep-draft galleys and cogs to anchor at outer roadsteads, with cargo transferred via small oared boats or barche to the city's intricate canal system and quays.^[17] This method was critical for handling spices, silks, and timber from the Byzantine and Islamic worlds, allowing Venice to thrive as a maritime entrepôt despite navigational challenges. Similarly, in northern European ports like London on the Thames, lightering addressed the river's meandering course and mudflats; ships moored in the deeper Pool of London, while flat-bottomed lighters carried wool, timber, and wine upstream to wharves during favorable tides.^[18] By the 18th and 19th centuries, lightering underpinned colonial commerce amid expanding global trade. The British East India Company extensively used lighters in Indian ports such as Calcutta and Bombay, where silted approaches and monsoon tides barred large Indiamen from direct berthing; these vessels unloaded tea, spices, and cotton into shallow-draft barges for riverine transport to inland markets.^[19] In the United States, New York Harbor's lighterage system flourished, with barges—some towed by horse along waterfronts or canals—ferrying perishable goods like flour and tobacco from anchored ships to Manhattan piers, handling millions of tons annually by the mid-19th century.^[20] Innovations in lighter design enhanced efficiency, particularly the evolution of flat-bottomed lighters in the 1600s along the Thames, which featured broad beams and minimal draft for beaching on mudflats and stability under load.^[21] These craft proved vital in naval logistics, as during the American Revolution when Continental forces used small boats and lighters to transfer scarce gunpowder from French supply ships and captured British vessels to shore depots in ports like Portsmouth and Boston, averting shortages in key campaigns.^[22] The adoption of lightering in early maritime practices stemmed primarily from geographical and technological limitations: shallow coastal harbors unable to accommodate deep-draft ships, the absence of mechanical dredging until the 19th century, and tidal fluctuations that restricted access windows, often confining operations to high water periods.^[23]

Modern Evolution and Decline

In the 20th century, advancements in port infrastructure and cargo handling technologies significantly transformed lightering practices. Post-World War II dredging projects deepened U.S. coastal ports, allowing larger vessels to access berths directly and thereby reducing the reliance on lightering for both wet and dry bulk cargoes.^[24] The introduction of containerization in the 1950s and 1960s further revolutionized maritime logistics by standardizing cargo units and enabling efficient direct loading at deep-water terminals, which sidelined traditional lightering methods for containerized and breakbulk goods in many developed ports.^[25] Despite these shifts, lightering persisted and even expanded in the wet bulk sector during the 1970s energy crises, as the rise of supertankers exceeding port draft limits necessitated offshore transfers to deliver oil efficiently to U.S. refineries.^[26] A key example is the Delaware Bay lightering operations, which by the late 1970s handled a substantial share of East Coast oil imports—approximately 70% of which transited the bay and river—and accounted for 10 to 15% of U.S. oil imports.^[27]^[28] Entering the 21st century, lightering's role in dry bulk cargo continued to decline due to the proliferation of larger vessels capable of navigating improved channels, coupled with ongoing port deepening initiatives that minimized the need for intermediate transfers.^[29] In contrast, wet bulk lightering experienced growth, driven by sustained demand for offshore oil transfers in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), reflecting robust activity amid fluctuating global energy markets.^[30] Planned innovations such as the 2025 hybrid-electric retrofits of lightering support vessels, including the AET Innovator, aim to enhance efficiency and reduce emissions in these operations.^[31] Globally, lightering remains essential in regions like Asia, where shallow drafts in ports of India and China necessitate transfers for a significant portion of bulk trade, supporting the movement of commodities in infrastructure-constrained environments.

Operational Processes

Ship-to-Ship Transfer Methods

Ship-to-ship transfer methods in lightering operations primarily involve the controlled exchange of cargo between a larger vessel, often a very large crude carrier (VLCC), and a smaller service vessel to facilitate port access or draft reduction. These methods are selected based on environmental conditions, location, and operational efficiency, with transfers occurring either in-port or offshore within designated areas of the exclusive economic zone (EEZ), typically up to 70 nautical miles from shore. Common approaches include at-anchor transfers, where both vessels remain stationary for stability; drifting transfers, in which the vessels maintain a controlled drift in open sea under engine power; and underway transfers, where the vessels proceed side-by-side at speeds of 4-6 knots to minimize relative motion.^[32]^[4]^[32] Essential equipment ensures safe alignment and cargo flow during these transfers. Fenders, such as large pneumatic rubber units measuring up to 6.5 meters in diameter, cushion impacts and maintain separation between hulls, while robust mooring lines—typically 4-6 headlines, 2 spring lines, and 4-6 stern lines per vessel—secure the connection against wave action. For liquid cargo, reinforced rubber hoses (e.g., 12-inch diameter, 90-foot lengths) connect manifolds, supported by pumps that control flow rates starting slowly and ramping to operational maximums; cranes or derricks handle hose positioning and emergency disconnection. Solid cargo employs conveyor belts or similar systems, though less common in lightering. Monitoring tools, including radar for relative motion tracking and vapor recovery units for emissions control, provide real-time oversight to prevent spills or instability.^[32]^[4]^[32] Planning for ship-to-ship transfers emphasizes risk mitigation and coordination to avoid incidents. Pre-transfer assessments involve completing a Declaration of Inspection (DOI) and safety checklists, evaluating vessel compatibility, cargo stability, and emergency response readiness. Weather windows are critical, with operations generally initiating only if sustained winds are below 30 knots and wave heights under 2-3 meters, though maximum limits allow continuation up to 44 knots or 16-foot waves before mandatory cessation. Crew coordination occurs via VHF radio, guided by a mooring master who directs approach, berthing, and ongoing adjustments, ensuring synchronized actions between bridge teams and deck personnel.^[4]^[33]^[34] These operations typically span 12-48 hours per transfer, depending on cargo volume and method, with scale varying by vessel size—often handling hundreds of thousands of barrels in a single session. Transfer rates for oil commonly range from 5,000 to 10,000 barrels per hour once stabilized, achieved through multiple pumps and hoses to optimize efficiency while adhering to safety thresholds.^[4]^[35]^[36]

Wet Bulk Procedures

Wet bulk lightering involves the transfer of liquid cargoes such as crude oil and petroleum products between vessels, primarily through ship-to-ship operations. The process emphasizes precise alignment and secure connections to ensure safe and contamination-free transfer.^[2] During preparation, the receiving and supplying vessels are aligned parallel to each other, typically at a distance maintained by fenders to prevent contact damage. Hoses, often 12-inch diameter reinforced rubber types for oil transfer, are connected between the manifolds of the two vessels using cranes or derricks, with nylon straps and chafe fittings for support. Lines are purged prior to transfer to remove any residual fluids or air, avoiding contamination of the cargo.^[2]^[37] The transfer phase begins with pumping cargo at a controlled initial rate to establish flow without leaks, gradually increasing to optimal speeds while monitoring for stability. Tank levels are tracked using gauges and sensors to prevent overfilling or overflow, and multiple hoses may be managed through vessel manifolds for efficient parallel transfer. Continuous oversight of flow rates, pressures, and hose integrity is essential throughout.^[2]^[33] Upon completion, hoses are drained and disconnected, followed by flushing to remove residues and ensure cleanliness for future use. Vessel stability is verified through ballast adjustments and trim checks to maintain safe seaworthiness. For oil cargoes, procedures include measures aligned with American Petroleum Institute (API) standards to control vapor emissions during disconnection and handling.^[2]^[37]^[38] These operations occur primarily offshore, such as in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico at distances of 20-60 nautical miles from shore, to accommodate deep-draft vessels while minimizing coastal risks.^[2]

Dry Bulk Procedures

Dry bulk lightering involves the ship-to-ship transfer of solid cargoes such as grain, coal, or ore, utilizing mechanical equipment rather than pumping systems employed for liquids. This process enables larger vessels to offload portions of their cargo to smaller lighters or barges, facilitating access to ports with draft restrictions or enhancing navigational efficiency in shallow waters. Procedures emphasize stability, equipment compatibility, and precise cargo handling to minimize dust, spillage, and vessel imbalance.^[11]^[13] Preparation begins with securing the vessels alongside each other, often using fenders and mooring lines to maintain safe distances and alignment, followed by verification of equipment such as cranes, grabs, conveyor systems, or buckets for loading and unloading. A person in charge, typically an experienced officer, oversees the operation, ensuring crew familiarity with cargo characteristics and establishing VHF communication protocols for coordination. Charterers or operators obtain necessary permissions from port authorities and develop a detailed plan outlining cargo quantities, transfer methods, and contingency measures.^[13]^[39]^[11] During transfer phases, cargo is scooped or poured using grabs or buckets from the mother vessel's holds into the receiving lighter, with conveyor systems employed for continuous flow in some setups. Continuous monitoring and adjustments to trim and list are critical to account for freeboard differences and maintain vessel stability as cargo shifts.^[11]^[13]^[40] Upon completion, holds are cleaned to remove residues and prevent contamination in subsequent voyages, while stowage plans are finalized for the lighter vessels to ensure even distribution and compliance with stability criteria. All documentation, including transfer logs and equipment checks, is recorded to verify adherence to operational plans.^[11]^[40] These operations commonly occur in-port or nearshore areas, particularly in developing regions with high bulk trade volumes, such as Paranaguá, Brazil, where the port handled approximately 66.8 million tons of cargo in 2024, much of it dry bulk like soybeans. Other frequent locations include the US Gulf, West Africa, and Southeast Asia, where draft limitations necessitate such transfers.^[11]^[41]

Safety and Regulatory Framework

Key Safety Protocols

Lightering operations demand rigorous personnel protocols to mitigate risks associated with ship-to-ship transfers. Crew members must complete training aligned with the Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping (STCW) Convention, encompassing basic safety training, proficiency in survival techniques, firefighting, and advanced cargo handling for hazardous materials. This ensures seafarers are competent in emergency response and operational procedures specific to lightering. Personal protective equipment (PPE), including full-body harnesses secured to fixed points and Coast Guard-approved life vests or buoyant work vests, is mandatory for all personnel involved in mooring, hose handling, or deck work to prevent falls overboard or injuries from equipment movement.^[42] Minimum manning requirements, typically ranging from 12 to 15 qualified personnel per vessel depending on size and cargo type, are enforced to maintain watchstanding, monitoring, and rapid response capabilities during transfers.^[42] Operational safety measures focus on controlled execution to avoid collisions, spills, or fires. For underway lightering, vessel speeds are strictly limited to 4-6 knots, allowing steady engine revolutions while minimizing relative motion between ships.^[43] Emergency disconnect systems, such as quick-release couplings on transfer hoses, enable immediate separation of vessels and cargo lines in the event of excessive shear forces or imminent hazards, preventing uncontrolled releases.^[44] Dedicated fire watches, involving at least two trained personnel with communication devices and extinguishers positioned near manifolds, are required throughout operations involving flammable cargoes, complemented by spill response kits containing absorbents, booms, and containment gear readily accessible on deck.^[34] Effective monitoring protocols integrate technology and environmental assessments to preempt risks. Real-time surveillance employs radar for proximity detection, Automatic Identification System (AIS) for positional tracking, and weather monitoring applications to forecast changes in wind, visibility, or sea state.^[44] On high seas, operations adhere to strict weather thresholds, such as suspending transfers if swells exceed 2 meters, to reduce hose stress, fender compression, and collision potential from wave-induced movements.^[34] Despite these safeguards, lightering maintains a relatively strong safety record, underscoring the critical role of collision avoidance in overall risk reduction.

International and National Regulations

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) establishes key global standards for lightering operations, primarily through the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) Annex I, Regulation 41, which mandates that all oil tankers of 150 gross tonnage and above engaged in ship-to-ship (STS) transfers at sea must carry an approved STS Operations Plan detailing procedures to prevent oil pollution. This plan must address equipment, personnel qualifications, emergency response, and reporting, with approval by the flag state administration. Additionally, the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Chapter IX incorporates the International Safety Management (ISM) Code, requiring companies and ships to implement safety management systems that cover risks in STS transfers, including lightering, to ensure structural integrity and operational safety.,-1974.aspx) The Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) complements these with its Ship to Ship Transfer Guide for Petroleum, Chemicals and Liquefied Gases (second edition, 2025), providing industry best practices for planning, equipment use, and human factors in oil lightering, aligned with IMO requirements and recommended for all participating vessels.^[44] In the United States, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) oversees lightering within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) under 33 CFR Part 156, Subpart B, which applies to transfers of oil and hazardous materials beyond the territorial sea baseline for vessels destined to U.S. ports, mandating pre-arrival notifications, designated lightering zones, and operational limits such as no more than 15 hours of work in any 24-hour period.^[5] To facilitate foreign crew participation, the U.S. Department of State introduced the D-3 lightering visa classification on September 5, 2024, allowing noncitizen crewmembers to perform STS transfers for up to 180 days, distinct from shorter transit visas.^[45] For operations in sensitive areas like Delaware Bay, the Captain of the Port (COTP) Sector Delaware Bay requires specific permits and safety zone approvals prior to commencing transfers, as outlined in Federal Register notices for environmental and navigational protection. In the European Union, lightering of chemical cargoes falls under the REACH Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006, which requires EU importers to register and assess risks for substances transferred via STS operations entering EU waters, ensuring safe handling and supply chain communication of hazard information.^[46] Member states implement additional controls through the International Bulk Chemical (IBC) Code, integrated into SOLAS and MARPOL, governing the carriage and transfer of dangerous chemicals to prevent accidents and pollution. In India, the Directorate General of Shipping (DG Shipping) enforces mandates under the Merchant Shipping Act, 1958 (as amended), for lightering at major ports like Mumbai, where operations must comply with pollution prevention rules in Part XIA, including tanker equipment standards and prior notification to port authorities for STS transfers involving oil or chemicals.^[47] Enforcement of these regulations varies by jurisdiction but emphasizes deterrence through penalties; in the U.S., violations of lightering rules under 46 U.S.C. § 3716 can result in civil fines up to $50,000 per violation for tank vessel operations. Recent 2025 updates to IMO's GHG Strategy include the Net-Zero Framework, approved in April 2025 at MEPC 83, with adoption pending as of October 2025 following deferral of the extraordinary session; if adopted, it would impose mandatory greenhouse gas intensity limits and pricing mechanisms on shipping operations, including emissions from STS transfers, to align with the sector's 2050 net-zero target.^[48]^[49]

Environmental and Sustainability Aspects

Potential Risks and Impacts

Lightering operations carry significant operational risks, primarily due to the close proximity of vessels during ship-to-ship transfers. Collisions between lightering vessels have been documented, such as the 1995 incident involving the Berge Banker and Skaubay in the Gulf of Mexico, where poor communication led to a contact that spilled over 850 barrels of oil. Between 1993 and 1997, 16 vessel-to-vessel contacts were reported during lightering activities, mostly occurring during mooring or unmooring phases. Human error contributes substantially to these incidents, accounting for approximately 80% of marine casualties overall, including lightering mishaps like premature valve openings or misjudged maneuvers that have resulted in small spills.^[50]^[51] Environmentally, lightering poses risks of oil spills from equipment failures, such as ruptured hoses or tank overfills, which can release hydrocarbons into marine waters. These spills are typically small, with an average volume of 26 barrels (about 1,095 gallons) recorded between 1984 and 1996, though larger releases like the 850-barrel Berge Banker event demonstrate potential for greater impact. Hose failures remain a recurring issue, as seen in early 1990s incidents near Galveston. Additionally, vapor emissions during transfers contribute to air pollution, with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from displaced cargo vapors posing atmospheric risks; for instance, Delaware lightering operations emitted over 1,687 tons of VOCs in 1996 alone.^[50]^[52] Marine life in exclusive economic zones can experience disruption from these spills and emissions, including toxicity to fish, birds, and mammals through direct exposure or habitat contamination.^[50] Over the longer term, lightering contributes to greenhouse gas emissions as part of broader shipping activities, which account for 2-3% of global anthropogenic GHG output, primarily through fuel combustion during transfers and support operations. In nearshore dry bulk lightering, vessel movements and cargo handling can disturb seafloor sediments, potentially altering benthic ecosystems and releasing contaminants bound in the substrate, though such impacts are localized and depend on water depth and sediment type. A notable case illustrating these risks is the 2004 M/V Selendang Ayu wreck off Unalaska Island, Alaska, where attempted lightering amid severe weather failed to prevent the vessel from breaking apart, releasing approximately 300,000 gallons of intermediate fuel oil and affecting over 2,000 seabirds and 10 sea otters while contaminating 113 kilometers of shoreline.^[53]^[54]

Mitigation Strategies and Innovations

To mitigate environmental risks associated with lightering operations, such as oil spills and emissions, industry best practices emphasize rigorous planning, equipment deployment, and adherence to international standards. The Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) Ship to Ship Transfer Guide outlines comprehensive protocols for petroleum and chemical transfers, including pre-transfer checklists that assess weather conditions, vessel compatibility, and spill response readiness to minimize discharge risks.^[44] Operations are often restricted to daylight hours with visibility exceeding one mile, and suspended if winds surpass 30 knots or significant wave heights exceed two meters, reducing collision probabilities and potential leaks.^[55] Spill containment measures form a core component of mitigation, with containment booms deployed around transfer sites—typically twice the length of the larger vessel for side-by-side operations and three times for stern-to-bow—to encircle and isolate any unintended releases. Response barges equipped with skimmers, absorbent materials, and skiffs must be on-site prior to transfers, ensuring rapid deployment in sensitive areas like Alaska's coastal waters. Advance lightering plans, submitted to authorities such as the U.S. Coast Guard at least four days prior, detail cargo volumes, maximum flow rates, overfill protections, and arrangements for Average Most Probable Discharge (AMPD) response resources, enabling coordinated environmental safeguards.^[56] In salvage scenarios, lightering prioritizes cargo and fuel removal from distressed vessels to prevent spills, supported by professional salvors and U.S. Coast Guard Strike Teams that assess stability and deploy high-capacity pumps.^[57] Regulatory frameworks further bolster mitigation through mandatory training and human factors management. The International Safety Management (ISM) Code requires operators to implement safety management systems that address environmental hazards, while Standards of Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping (STCW) conventions mandate crew certification, fatigue limits (e.g., no more than 14 hours of work in 24), and simulation-based drills for transfer procedures.^[51] Regular exercises, including scenario-based planning for tanker groundings, enhance response efficacy and reduce human error, which contributes to a significant portion of incidents.^[58] Innovations in lightering focus on technology integration to enhance monitoring and efficiency while curbing emissions. Remote monitoring systems, utilizing onboard cameras and real-time data feeds, allow oversight from shore-based centers, enabling early detection of anomalies like hose failures during transfers. Geofencing technologies notify response teams automatically when operations enter predefined zones, facilitating quicker mobilization of spill response assets in remote areas.^[55] Advanced vessel designs, such as next-generation barges with improved fenders and vapor recovery systems for volatile cargoes like gasoline, capture emissions during air quality-sensitive periods, aligning with MARPOL Annex VI requirements.^[56] These developments, informed by collaborative studies like the 2022 OCIMF analysis of transfers in adverse conditions, promote safer operations in challenging environments, potentially reducing spill volumes by integrating predictive analytics for weather and vessel dynamics.^[59] As of 2025, efforts to decarbonize lightering include retrofitting support vessels with plug-in hybrid-electric propulsion systems to lower fuel consumption and emissions during operations.^[60]

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[PDF] 650 CLASS ARTICULATED TUG BARGE FLEET (ATB) | Crowley
• Transfer rates of up to 20,000 barrels per hour. • Cargo pump in each of the 14 cargo tanks to assure maximum cargo integrity and segregation flexibility.
[35]
Long Term Lightering Contract between Sunoco, Inc. (R&M) and
Owner warrants (a) a cargo pump discharge rate of not less than 2,250 barrels per hour per each pump for TBT fleet and 6,000 barrels per hour per pump for ATB ...
[36]
[PDF] Arctic Council Guidelines for Transfer of Refined Oil and Oil ... - PAME
o Purge the hose by previously agreed method, and shut all manifold and tank valves. When purging ensure that no air will be introduced to the tanks at the ...
[37]
[PDF] 474 PART 39—VAPOR CONTROL SYSTEMS - GovInfo
May 23, 1996 · (b) An arrangement to control vapor emissions during a lightering or top- ping-off operation which does not use vapor balancing must receive ...
[38]
Ship-to-Ship Transfer Clause for Dry Bulk Voyage Charter Parties ...
This is a new clause for voyage charter parties setting out a regime for ship-to-ship cargo transfers in dry bulk trades.
[39]
Ship to Ship transfer operations for dry bulk carriers: What's new
Jul 25, 2024 · Ship to ship (STS) transfer is the term primarily applied to the transfer of dry bulk cargo between sea-going Bulk Carriers.
[40]
Efficiency and Investments Propel Port of Paranaguá to Record ...
Jan 10, 2025 · Despite weather challenges, the Port of Paranaguá reached its highest cargo throughput volume in 2024, totaling 66,769,001 tonnes.
[41]
46 CFR Part 15 -- Manning Requirements - eCFR
The minimum safe manning levels specified in a vessel's COI or other safe manning document take into consideration routine maintenance requirements and ...
[42]
Ship to Ship Transfer Guide for Petroleum, Chemicals and Liquefied ...
This Guide provides comprehensive guidance on the planning and execution of Ship to Ship (STS) transfer operations for petroleum, chemical and liquefied gas ...Missing: typical rate
[43]
A new world for STS - SafeSTS
Jul 28, 2022 · Ship-to-ship transfers of crude, clean and dirty oil products have been taking place for over 50 years, and over 11,500 transfers take place ...
[44]
Announcement of the Creation of a Lightering Visa Classification
Sep 5, 2024 · Starting on September 5, 2024, the ... The new visa classification permitting crewmembers to perform lightering activities is the D-3 visa.Missing: USCG EEZ Delaware Bay
[45]
Understanding REACH - ECHA
### Summary: How REACH Applies to Ship-to-Ship Transfers of Chemicals
[46]
PART XIA Prevention And Containment Of Pollution Of The Sea BY ...
This Part shall apply to--- (a) tankers of one hundred and fifty tons gross or more; (b) other ships of five hundred tons gross or more; and (c) off-shore ...Missing: lightering | Show results with:lightering
[47]
https://www.dgshipping.gov.in/Content/PARTXIAPrevention.aspx
[48]
1 Introduction | Oil Spill Risks From Tank Vessel Lightering
Lightering risks include vessel collisions, human error, and equipment issues. Spills can occur from ruptured hoses or tank overfills, but are generally small ...
[49]
4 Procedures, Practices, and Human Factors | Oil Spill Risks From ...
Human factors can both create problems and provide solutions. Approximately 80 percent of marine casualties have been attributed to human error (USCG, 1995; von ...Missing: collisions | Show results with:collisions
[50]
The role of maritime fuel projects in decarbonizing shipping
Apr 18, 2024 · Maritime transport accounts for 2–3% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The shipping industry is moving to decarbonize, despite the ...
[51]
SELENDANG AYU, United States, 2004 - ITOPF
Dec 7, 2004 · At the time of the incident, the vessel was carrying approximately 1,800 m3 of intermediate fuel oil (IFO 380) and 70 m3 of marine diesel oil ( ...
[52]
[PDF] Best Practices for Western Alaska Lightering Operations 2020 ...
Mar 11, 2020 · Historical Lightering Tank Vessel ... practices do not replace the vessel's procedures, State of Alaska requirements, or the federal oil.
[53]
[PDF] Columbia River Lightering Guidelines
Vessels will not come alongside in preparation for lightering if sustained winds are at or exceed 30 knots. If lightering operations have already begun when.
[54]
[PDF] job aid: marine firefighting, vessel salvage & lightering
Aug 1, 2019 · This job aid is an On-Scene Coordinator's guide for marine firefighting, salvage, and lightering, assisting with initial actions during ...
[55]
Improving the Safety of At-Sea Fuel Transfer - Ocean Conservancy
Mar 26, 2019 · So far, this system has worked well: there have been no recorded spills from ship-to-ship transfers of fuel in the region. Close Calls. But ...
[56]
OCIMF releases new study on ship-to-ship transfer operations
May 19, 2022 · The Oil Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF) has published a new study analysing ship-to-ship (STS) transfers under varying environmental conditions.