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Link protection

Link protection is a network survivability technique in telecommunications that provides rapid recovery from link failures by rerouting traffic via pre-established backup paths, minimizing service disruption in backbone and transport networks.^[1] In Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) environments, it is implemented as part of MPLS Fast Reroute (FRR), an extension to Resource Reservation Protocol-Traffic Engineering (RSVP-TE) that enables local repair of label-switched paths (LSPs) upon detecting link or node failures, ensuring high availability for delay-sensitive applications such as voice over IP (VoIP) and real-time data services.^[2] Key implementations include one-to-one backup, where a dedicated detour LSP is created for each protected segment at the point of local repair (PLR), allowing individualized rerouting around the failure without affecting other paths, and facility backup, which employs a shared bypass tunnel to protect multiple LSPs traversing the same vulnerable link or node, optimizing resource utilization through MPLS label stacking for seamless traffic redirection.^[2] By pre-signaling these backup paths during LSP establishment, MPLS link protection supports recovery times in tens of milliseconds, contrasting with slower global reconvergence methods, and is widely deployed in core IP/MPLS networks to enhance reliability against single-point failures.^[2] Similar principles apply in optical transport networks, where dedicated protection paths are associated with each working link to bolster resilience in high-capacity infrastructures, and in packet-based layers such as Ethernet and IP.^[3]

Overview and Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

Link protection serves as a fault-tolerance strategy in data transmission networks, providing alternate paths or resources to reroute traffic automatically upon detecting a link failure, thereby ensuring network continuity against disruptions such as fiber cuts or equipment malfunctions.^[4] This mechanism is essential in telecommunications infrastructures, where it operates at various layers to safeguard high-speed data flows in environments prone to physical or logical faults.^[5] The primary purpose of link protection is to minimize downtime, reduce packet loss, and uphold service level agreements (SLAs) in high-availability settings like telecom backbones and optical transport systems, where even brief interruptions can lead to significant revenue losses or service degradations.^[6] By enabling rapid failover to redundant resources, it maintains seamless connectivity for critical applications, preventing cascading failures that could affect broader network segments. Key benefits include fast recovery times, such as sub-50 ms switching in optical systems, which aligns with carrier-grade requirements for uninterrupted service;^[7] cost efficiency achieved through shared backup resources rather than dedicated spares; and scalability to accommodate growing traffic demands without proportional increases in infrastructure costs. ^[8] At its core, the basic architecture of link protection involves primary working links paired with backup links or paths, where switching is triggered by failure detection signals such as loss of signal (LOS), indicating no incoming optical power, or alarm indication signal (AIS), which notifies downstream nodes of an upstream fault to initiate protection actions.^[9] ^[10] This setup supports topologies like rings and meshes by pre-provisioning redundant routes for efficient traffic diversion.^[4]

Types of Link Failures and Detection

Link failures in networks can be categorized into several types, each presenting distinct challenges for detection and subsequent protection mechanisms. Physical breaks, such as fiber cuts in optical links, represent one of the most severe failure modes, often resulting from excavation damage, natural disasters, or rodent activity, leading to complete signal loss across all wavelengths on the affected fiber.^[11] Equipment faults, including transceiver failures or optical amplifier malfunctions, disrupt signal transmission due to hardware degradation or power issues, impacting specific components without necessarily severing the entire cable.^[12] Transient errors, manifested as bit errors caused by noise, attenuation, or dispersion in the optical medium, are intermittent and may not immediately halt communication but can accumulate to degrade performance over time.^[13] Logical failures, such as configuration mismatches between network elements, arise from software misconfigurations or protocol inconsistencies, causing apparent link unavailability without physical damage.^[14] Detection of these failures relies on specialized mechanisms tailored to the network layer and failure type, enabling timely identification to support protection switching. Bidirectional Forwarding Detection (BFD), a protocol-independent method standardized by the IETF, provides rapid failure signaling through periodic hello packets exchanged between adjacent nodes, achieving sub-second detection suitable for packet-based networks.^[15] In optical systems, Optical Performance Monitoring (OPM) assesses signal quality by measuring parameters like optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) and power levels, allowing early detection of degradation from transient errors or equipment faults without disrupting traffic.^[16] For legacy transport networks, protocol-specific alarms in SONET/SDH, such as path alarms indicating end-to-end signal issues, trigger alerts based on overhead bytes to identify failures like physical breaks or logical mismatches. The speed of failure detection varies significantly by mechanism and failure type, directly affecting the feasibility of fast recovery in protection schemes. Physical layer detections, such as Loss of Signal (LOS) in optical links, occur in under 10 milliseconds due to immediate cessation of light reception at the receiver.^[17] In contrast, higher-layer methods like BFD typically detect failures in 50 milliseconds or less, while OPM-based monitoring for subtle degradations may take seconds to confirm thresholds.^[15] These detection times set the baseline for overall protection latency, as quicker identification minimizes service disruption. Monitoring protocols play a crucial role as prerequisites for effective link protection by accurately isolating failures and minimizing false positives, ensuring that protection actions are triggered only for verified issues. For instance, Forward Error Correction (FEC) thresholds monitor pre-FEC bit error rates (BER); exceeding a predefined limit, such as 10^{-3} for certain coherent systems, signals impending failure from noise-induced transients, prompting preemptive measures without unnecessary switching.^[18] Such protocols enhance reliability by distinguishing transient degradations from hard failures, laying the groundwork for topology-specific recovery without overreacting to benign fluctuations.^[13]

Protection in Optical Transport Networks

Ring-Based Protection Mechanisms

Ring topologies in optical transport networks, such as those defined in Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standards, consist of closed-loop fiber arrangements where multiple nodes are interconnected in a circular configuration to provide inherent redundancy against link failures. This structure allows traffic to traverse the ring in both directions, enabling rapid rerouting around faults without requiring complex mesh interconnections.^[19] In SONET/SDH rings, working traffic is carried on primary paths, while spare capacity on protection paths remains available for switching, ensuring high availability in metro and access environments.^[19] Key protection mechanisms in these rings include Bidirectional Line Switched Ring (BLSR) in SONET—equivalent to Multiplex Section-Shared Protection Ring (MS-SPRING) in SDH—and Unidirectional Path Switched Ring (UPSR), also known as Sub-Network Connection Protection (SNCP) ring in SDH. BLSR operates at the line or multiplex section level, utilizing shared protection capacity across the ring to support multiple spans, with variants such as 2-fiber BLSR (using two fibers, each divided into working and protection bandwidths for 50% spare capacity efficiency) and 4-fiber BLSR (employing two working and two protection fiber pairs for enhanced redundancy against dual failures).^[19] In contrast, UPSR functions at the path level, providing dedicated 1+1 protection where duplicate signals are transmitted unidirectionally around the ring, and the receiving end selects the intact path, making it suitable for point-to-multipoint services like video distribution.^[19] Unlike dedicated 1+1 linear protection, ring-based schemes like BLSR allow efficient sharing of spare bandwidth among multiple connections, reducing fiber requirements while maintaining protection ratios.^[19] The switching process in these rings relies on the Automatic Protection Switching (APS) protocol, which coordinates fault detection and recovery across nodes using dedicated overhead bytes in the SONET/SDH frame. Specifically, K1 and K2 bytes in the line overhead carry signaling information: K1 encodes the request type, channel number, source node identifier, and switching priority, while K2 indicates the current switch status, architecture type, and direction (e.g., clockwise or counterclockwise).^[20] Upon detecting a failure—such as a fiber cut or signal loss—via loss of signal or frame alarms, the affected nodes initiate APS bridging and looping to reroute traffic onto the protection path, with the protocol ensuring bridgeless operation and reversion to working paths after repair.^[20] This mechanism achieves sub-50 ms restoration times, meeting carrier-grade requirements for minimal service disruption.^[19] Ring-based protection offers advantages in simplicity and cost-effectiveness for smaller, geographically constrained networks like metro rings, where the predefined topology enables fast, deterministic switching without extensive computation.^[19] For instance, UPSR's unidirectional nature simplifies head-end provisioning for broadcast applications, while BLSR's shared capacity optimizes bandwidth utilization in linear traffic patterns.^[19] However, these schemes have limitations in scalability; the circular topology restricts efficient protection for large, interconnected meshes, as spare capacity cannot be readily shared beyond the ring, and 2-fiber BLSR halves working capacity due to dedicated protection fibers.^[19] Additionally, the APS protocol introduces signaling overhead and potential complexity in multi-ring interconnections, making rings less suitable for core networks with diverse routing needs.^[20]

Mesh-Based Protection Mechanisms

In optical transport networks, mesh topologies provide interconnected nodes beyond simple ring structures, such as in dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) and optical transport network (OTN) environments, enabling multiple alternate paths for enhanced resilience and capacity efficiency. Unlike rings, mesh networks allow for arbitrary node connectivity, supporting diverse routing options that reduce overall network redundancy while maintaining high availability against single or multiple failures.^[21] Mesh-based protection mechanisms primarily include dedicated path protection (1:1) and shared path protection (1:N), where backup paths are pre-computed and provisioned alongside working paths to ensure rapid failover. In 1:1 protection, a dedicated backup path is exclusively reserved for each working path, offering low recovery times but at the cost of higher resource utilization, typically achieving sub-50 ms switching in OTN systems. Shared 1:N schemes, as defined in ITU-T G.873.3 for shared mesh protection (SMP), allow multiple working paths to share backup resources, optimizing capacity by up to 40-60% in typical mesh deployments, provided that backup paths remain link-disjoint to avoid single-point failures. Dynamic restoration complements these by leveraging Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching (GMPLS) signaling for on-demand path recomputation, enabling end-to-end recovery in wavelength-switched optical networks (WSON) without pre-reserved backups, as outlined in IETF RFC 3945.^[22] Backup route selection in mesh protection often employs the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm, adapted as constraint-based SPF (CSPF) in GMPLS to account for wavelength continuity and shared-risk link groups (SRLGs). The path cost is calculated as \text{Cost} = \sum w_l, where w_l represents link weights incorporating factors like latency, residual capacity, and administrative metrics, ensuring diverse and efficient routing.^[23] For instance, in dynamic scenarios, CSPF prunes the network graph to find disjoint paths, minimizing end-to-end delay while maximizing resource sharing.^[24] The recovery process in mesh networks involves end-to-end rerouting upon failure detection, initiated via GMPLS notify messages, with hold-off timers to coordinate multi-layer actions and prevent transient loops or cascading switches. These timers, configurable from 10 ms to several seconds per IETF RFC 4428, allow lower-layer optical protection to act first before escalating to higher layers, achieving recovery times under 200 ms in large-scale WSON testbeds.^[25] An example is OTN Y-cable protection for client signals, where a splitter cable duplicates the input to two transponders—one active and one standby—enabling automatic 1+1 redundancy at the client interface without mesh-wide signaling, as supported in ITU-T G.873.1 implementations.

Protection in Packet-Based Service Layers

Ethernet Link Protection Protocols

Ethernet link protection has evolved significantly to address the limitations of early mechanisms in providing rapid failover and loop prevention in layer 2 networks. The original Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), standardized in IEEE 802.1D, prevents loops by electing a root bridge and blocking redundant paths, but its convergence time can exceed 30-50 seconds, making it unsuitable for time-sensitive applications. To improve this, Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP), defined in IEEE 802.1w, reduces convergence to under 10 seconds by introducing faster port states and proposal-agreement handshakes for topology changes. Further advancement came with Multiple Spanning Tree Protocol (MSTP) in IEEE 802.1s, which maps multiple VLANs to distinct spanning tree instances, enabling load balancing across links while maintaining loop-free topology and failover capabilities similar to RSTP. Key protocols enhance Ethernet's resilience through bundling, fault detection, and ring-specific recovery. The Link Aggregation Control Protocol (LACP), part of IEEE 802.3ad (now incorporated into 802.1AX), dynamically bundles multiple physical links into a logical aggregated link, providing redundancy and increased bandwidth; if one link fails, traffic automatically shifts to remaining members without service interruption. For fault detection, Ethernet Operations, Administration, and Maintenance (OAM) under ITU-T Y.1731 enables proactive monitoring, including continuity checks via periodic messages to detect link failures within milliseconds and support for loopback and linktrace functions to isolate faults.^[26] In ring topologies common to carrier Ethernet, Ethernet Ring Protection Switching (ERPS) delivers sub-50 ms recovery, surpassing STP variants in speed for metro and access networks. ERPS, standardized in ITU-T G.8032, operates by blocking one link—the Ring Protection Link (RPL)—in a ring to prevent loops, using a dedicated control channel over a Ring Automatic Protection Switching (R-APS) protocol to signal faults and trigger switching.^[27] Upon detecting a failure via mechanisms like loss of continuity or OAM alarms, nodes flush MAC tables and forward traffic over the RPL; a control VLAN carries R-APS messages to coordinate this, ensuring only affected rings revert paths. Reversion mode automatically restores the original topology after fault clearance, minimizing persistent rerouting. For example, in dual-homing configurations for access rings, customer edge devices connect to two ring nodes, allowing ERPS to provide seamless failover while integrating with aggregation rings for broader resiliency.^[27] These protocols are particularly applicable to Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF)-defined services such as Ethernet Private Line (EPL) and Ethernet Virtual Private Line (EVPL), which demand high availability for point-to-point and multipoint connectivity. During switchover, ERPS and LACP preserve VLAN stacking (via IEEE 802.1Q or Provider Bridging) to maintain service isolation, while OAM ensures Quality of Service (QoS) parameters like delay and packet loss remain within service level agreements, supporting carrier-grade Ethernet in enterprise and metro environments.

IP and MPLS Link Protection Techniques

In IP networks, link protection relies primarily on routing protocols such as OSPF and IS-IS, which use link-state advertisements to detect failures and trigger reconvergence by flooding topology updates across the domain. Upon failure detection, these protocols recompute paths, typically achieving reconvergence in 100 milliseconds to 1 second depending on network size and configuration, though this can lead to temporary packet loss during the process. This approach provides global repair but is limited by the time required for full topology dissemination and shortest-path recalculation. MPLS enhances IP protection through Fast Reroute (FRR), which enables local repair by precomputing detour paths to bypass failed links or nodes without waiting for global reconvergence. FRR supports two main methods: facility backup, where a single backup path (bypass tunnel) protects multiple Label Switched Paths (LSPs) sharing the failed segment, and one-to-one backup, where a dedicated detour LSP is established for each protected LSP at the point of local repair (PLR). Both are local repair mechanisms. In both cases, the PLR computes and selects backup paths using constraint-based shortest path first (CSPF) routing, ensuring they avoid the protected link or node and reach the merge point. Key techniques in IP and MPLS include Loop-Free Alternates (LFA), which identify backup next-hops in pure IP networks that avoid loops by ensuring the alternate path's distance to the destination is strictly less than the primary's. For MPLS, Segment Routing (SR) provides explicit path protection by encoding paths via segment lists, allowing the PLR to steer traffic onto a precomputed backup using topology-independent segments upon link failure. An advanced example is Topology-Independent LFA (TI-LFA), which extends LFA using SR to guarantee 100% coverage in any topology by constructing a repair segment list that steers traffic onto a loop-free path intersecting with the post-convergence path, providing topology-independent protection.^[28] Trade-offs in these mechanisms involve pre-signaled backups, which reserve resources in advance for sub-50ms recovery but increase state and bandwidth overhead, versus on-demand backups that signal paths reactively to reduce idle resource usage at the cost of longer setup times during failures. These techniques apply effectively to MPLS-based VPNs, where FRR protects L3VPN traffic tunnels, and to 5G backhaul, enabling resilient IP/MPLS transport for network slicing with low-latency recovery.^[29]

Performance and Standards

Key Metrics and Trade-offs

The efficacy of link protection schemes is primarily evaluated through core metrics such as recovery time, capacity efficiency, and protection ratio. Recovery time, often referred to as switchover latency, measures the duration from failure detection to traffic restoration, typically comprising detection, hold-off, switching operations, transfer, and final recovery phases. In linear protection mechanisms, this is designed to be under 50 ms to meet stringent service level agreements for high-priority traffic. Capacity efficiency assesses the utilization of backup resources, commonly expressed via the 1:N sharing ratio, where dedicated 1:1 schemes require full duplication of working paths, while shared 1:N approaches (N>1) allow multiple working paths to share a single backup, improving resource utilization. The protection ratio quantifies the balance between redundant and working capacity, with dedicated schemes maintaining a 1:1 ratio and shared variants reducing it to 1:2 or lower depending on network topology and failure scenarios. A fundamental trade-off in link protection lies between recovery speed and capacity efficiency. Dedicated 1+1 protection achieves sub-10 ms recovery times by pre-provisioning and simultaneously transmitting on working and backup paths, but incurs 100% capacity overhead since backup resources remain idle during normal operation. In contrast, shared mesh protection enhances efficiency by allowing 50-70% redundancy through backup path sharing across disjoint failures, potentially saving up to 70% in spare capacity compared to dedicated methods, though it introduces risks of contention during concurrent failures that can extend recovery to 50-200 ms. These compromises are particularly evident in optical transport networks, where ring-based schemes prioritize speed with fixed overhead, while mesh variants optimize for scalability at the cost of coordination overhead. Evaluation of these metrics often relies on simulation tools like NS-3, which models outage durations by simulating link failures, routing reconvergence, and traffic restoration in realistic topologies. For instance, NS-3 can quantify mean outage duration by tracking packet loss and recovery latency under induced failures in point-to-point or mesh configurations. Capacity efficiency is formally calculated as:

\text{Efficiency} = \left( \frac{\text{Working Capacity}}{\text{Total Capacity}} \right) \times 100\%

This metric highlights how shared schemes approach 60-80% efficiency in sparse topologies, versus 50% for dedicated protection. Emerging considerations in link protection include energy consumption in green networks and AI-driven failure prediction to preempt outages. Dedicated protection schemes like 1+1 consume more power due to constant duplication of active transponders and amplifiers, whereas shared 1:1 or mesh variants reduce energy by 20-40% through selective activation of spares, though at the expense of slightly longer detection times. AI techniques, such as machine learning models trained on optical performance monitoring data, enable proactive rerouting by predicting link degradations hours in advance with over 90% accuracy in reported studies, minimizing reactive recovery needs in elastic optical networks.^[30] For example, protocols like Ethernet Ring Protection Switching (ERPS) and Fast Reroute (FRR) incorporate these metrics to balance trade-offs in packet layers.

Relevant Standards and Evolutions

Key standardization bodies have played a pivotal role in defining link protection mechanisms across optical, Ethernet, and packet-based networks. The International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) has established foundational standards for optical transport networks (OTN), with Recommendation G.873.1 specifying the automatic protection switching (APS) protocol for linear protection at the optical channel data unit k (ODUk) level, enabling sub-50 ms recovery times for single-link failures (amended February 2022).^[31] For Ethernet networks, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.1 working group developed 802.1ag Connectivity Fault Management (CFM), which provides end-to-end fault detection and isolation through continuity checks and loopback functions, supporting rapid link failure identification for protection switching.^[32] In packet-based environments, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 5286 outlines Basic Specification for IP Fast Reroute (FRR), utilizing loop-free alternates to offer local repair for unicast traffic in IP and MPLS/LDP networks, achieving protection against link or node failures without global recomputation.^[33] The historical evolution of link protection traces back to the 1980s with the advent of Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET), where ring-based architectures were standardized by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1988 to provide automatic protection switching in bidirectional line-switched rings, ensuring 50 ms recovery for telecom backbone reliability.^[34] This progressed into the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) era in the 1990s under ITU-T, expanding to mesh protections, before transitioning in the 2010s to software-defined networking (SDN) integration, where centralized controllers enabled dynamic rerouting beyond static rings. A notable milestone was the Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF) 10.3 specification released in 2013, which defined resiliency attributes for Ethernet services at user-network interfaces, including protection against multiple link failures through bundling and failover mechanisms.^[35] Modern developments emphasize integration with network functions virtualization (NFV) and SDN for dynamic protection, leveraging OpenFlow protocol extensions to orchestrate multipath recoveries and link-failure mitigation in virtualized environments, as demonstrated in 5G backhaul scenarios.^[36] In optical transport, 5G enhancements to OTN incorporate packet-enhanced multiplexing for ultra-low latency protection under 1 ms, supporting fronthaul connections between central and distributed units with end-to-end reliability.^[37] Looking ahead, future trends include AI and machine learning for predictive link protection, where models analyze historical traffic patterns to forecast failures and preemptively reroute flows, enhancing proactive resilience in autonomic networks. Quantum-safe routing protocols are emerging to counter post-quantum threats, integrating lattice-based cryptography into path computations for secure link diversions.^[38] Post-2020 precursors to 6G, such as AI-native architectures and quantum key distribution for physical layer security, address gaps in current protections by enabling distributed ledger-based trust and jamming-resistant mechanisms.^[39]

References

[1]
RFC 4090 - Fast Reroute Extensions to RSVP-TE for LSP Tunnels
This document defines RSVP-TE extensions to establish backup label- switched path (LSP) tunnels for local repair of LSP tunnels.
[2]
What is Link Protection | IGI Global Scientific Publishing
Link protection is a link-based protection scheme in optical networks, meaning each link has a protection path it is associated with.
[3]
Protection Link - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A 'Protection Link' refers to a mechanism in computer networks where links are safeguarded by dedicated protection paths.
[4]
[PDF] Optical Transport Network (OTN) Tutorial - ITU
Monitoring an optical channel tandem connection for the purpose of detecting a signal fail or signal degrade condition in a switched optical channel ...
[5]
A Deep Dive into Optical Layer Protection (OCP, OMSP, OLP)
Mar 29, 2024 · Optical Layer Protection is a set of technologies and mechanisms designed to ensure uninterrupted communication in optical networks by ...
[6]
An efficient hybrid protection scheme with shared/dedicated backup ...
In this paper a hybrid protection scheme with shared and dedicated backup paths resources is proposed. The objective of this study is to minimize spectrum ...
[7]
Troubleshooting Physical Layer Alarms on SONET and SDH Links
Oct 24, 2006 · This document discusses the loss of signal (LOS) and loss of frame (LOF) states. Indication—Prompted by a change of state. This indicates the ...
[8]
Telecom Glossary - Ciena
AIS (Alarm Indication Signal) A signal, transmitted by a system within a communications link, which lets the receiver know that some part of the link has failed ...
[9]
[PDF] A review of machine learning-based failure management in optical ...
Oct 25, 2022 · Optical networks are subject to several types of failure, primarily divided into soft and hard failure. These typically include fiber cut, ...
[10]
[PDF] Fault and Attack Management in All-Optical Networks
Conventional component failures in AONs usually occur because of malfunctions or breakdowns of AON devices and components. Examples include optical fiber cuts, ...
[11]
Forward Error Correction (FEC): A Primer on the Essential Element ...
FEC is an effective digital signal processing method that improves the bit error rate of communication links by adding redundant information (parity bits) to ...
[12]
[PDF] Understanding Network Failures in Data Centers
ABSTRACT. We present the first large-scale analysis of failures in a data cen- ter network. Through our analysis, we seek to answer several fun-.
[13]
RFC 5880 - Bidirectional Forwarding Detection (BFD)
Bidirectional Forwarding Detection (BFD) · RFC - Proposed Standard June 2010. View errata Report errata IPR. Updated by RFC 7880, RFC 8562, RFC 7419, RFC 9747.
[14]
[PDF] Optical Performance Monitoring
Optical Performance Monitoring (OPM) is physical layer monitoring of signal quality to determine signal health in the optical domain, including measures like ...
[15]
How Fast Can We Detect a Network Failure? - ipSpace.net blog
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[16]
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[17]
G.841 : Types and characteristics of SDH network protection architectures
**Summary of Ring-Based Protection Mechanisms in SDH (G.841)**
[18]
G.783 : Characteristics of synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) equipment functional blocks
**Summary of Automatic Protection Switching (APS) in SDH/SONET from ITU-T G.783:**
[19]
https://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.841/en
[20]
RFC 3945: Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching (GMPLS ...
... dynamically provision resources and to provide network survivability using protection and restoration techniques. ... Optical Transport Networks Control ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1027532
[22]
[PDF] Implementing A Constraint-based Shortest Path First Algorithm in ...
May 5, 2003 · The implementation of an effective and efficient CSPF algorithm is the subject of this paper. There are several key differences between CSPF ...
[23]
RFC 4428 - Analysis of Generalized Multi-Protocol Label Switching ...
... Hold-off Time) Fast convergence is related to the failure management operations. It refers to the time elapsed between failure detection/correlation and hold ...
[24]
Y.1731 : OAM functions and mechanisms for Ethernet based networks
### Summary of Ethernet OAM Functions in Y.1731 (Fault Detection Mechanisms)
[25]
G.8032 : Ethernet ring protection switching
### Summary of G.8032 Ethernet Ring Protection Switching
[26]
draft-ietf-rtgwg-microloop-analysis-01
Abstract Link-state routing protocols (e.g. OSPF or IS-IS) are known to converge to a loop-free state within a finite period of time after a change in the ...
[27]
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[28]
draft-ietf-teas-5g-ns-ip-mpls-18 - A Realization of Network Slices for ...
This document describes a Network Slice realization model for IP/MPLS networks with a focus on the Transport Network fulfilling 5G slicing connectivity service ...
[29]
Optical transport network: Linear protection - G.873.1 - ITU
Mar 6, 2024 · G.873.1 is a recommendation for linear protection in optical transport networks. The in-force component is G.873.1 (10/17).
[30]
Introduction to OAM Connectivity Fault Management (CFM) | Junos OS
OAM CFM, defined in IEEE 802.1ag, uses protocols like continuity check and linktrace for fault monitoring and path discovery in Ethernet networks.
[31]
RFC 5286 - Basic Specification for IP Fast Reroute - IETF Datatracker
This document describes the use of loop-free alternates to provide local protection for unicast traffic in pure IP and MPLS/LDP networks in the event of a ...
[32]
A Brief Overview of SONET Technology - Cisco
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MEF 10.3 Ethernet Services Attributes Phase 3 - Mplify
Abstract: NOTE: THIS STANDARD HAS BEEN SUPERSEDED. The attributes of Ethernet Services observable at a User Network Interface (UNI) and from User Network ...
[34]
[PDF] Multipath Protections & Dynamic Link Recovery in 5G
Mar 5, 2020 · We formulate the multipath protection and dynamic link- failure free SDN/NFV system ... process which involves the SDN controller and OpenFlow.
[35]
Research on 5G optical transport schemes - IOP Science
At the same time, the packet-enhanced OTN constructs a super-wideband and connection with ultra-low latency between CU and DU, and effectively implement real- ...
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What Are the Predictions of AI In Cybersecurity? - Palo Alto Networks
Predictive AI uses historical and real time network data to forecast where and when an attack is most likely to occur. These models move beyond detecting ...
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As quantum computers continue to advance, they will pose a significant threat to cybersecurity. Most communications infrastructure presently using ...
[38]
[PDF] Security and trust in the 6G era - Nokia
Quantum safe security enablers have the potential to redefine cyber-resilience. Jamming protection and physical layer security (PLS) and distributed ledger are ...