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Majority decision

A majority decision (MD) is a verdict in professional boxing and mixed martial arts (MMA) competitions where two of the three judges score the bout in favor of one fighter as the winner, while the third judge scores it as a draw, resulting in a win for the majority-favored competitor without a knockout or technical knockout.^[1]^[2] This outcome reflects a closely contested fight where the judges' scorecards, typically based on the 10-point must system evaluating effective striking, grappling, aggression, and ring generalship over the rounds, show divided opinions but a clear majority consensus.^[3]^[4] Unlike a unanimous decision, where all three judges agree on the winner, or a split decision, where two judges favor one fighter and the third favors the opponent, a majority decision avoids a draw by tipping the scale through the two agreeing scores, often calculated by total points across rounds (with the winner of each round receiving 10 points and the loser 9 or fewer).^[5] This method ensures decisive results in non-finishing bouts while highlighting judicial nuance, and it has been a standard under the rules of sanctioning bodies like the World Boxing Association (WBA) and Unified Rules of MMA since their formalization in the late 20th century.^[6] Majority decisions are relatively rare, occurring in high-profile matches where fights are competitive but one fighter edges out in key exchanges, as seen in bouts like Félix Trinidad's 1999 win over Oscar De La Hoya or Conor McGregor's 2016 victory against Nate Diaz, underscoring their role in maintaining the sport's emphasis on majority rule for fair adjudication.^[7]^[8] Critics sometimes argue that such verdicts can lead to controversy due to subjective scoring, prompting calls for clearer criteria or additional judges, but they remain integral to ensuring bouts have winners in ambiguous cases.^[3]^[4]

Definition and Principles

Core Definition

A majority decision is a fundamental decision-making rule whereby the option receiving support from more than half of the voting participants is adopted as the prevailing choice.^[9] This principle ensures that the selected outcome reflects the explicit preference of an absolute majority, typically calculated as over 50% of the votes cast by those present and eligible to vote.^[10] The basic mechanics involve tallying votes or expressed preferences among a defined set of options, with the simple majority threshold requiring at least one vote more than half of the total votes cast—such as 51 out of 100 or 9 out of 17.^[11] In cases of a tie, where no option achieves this threshold, the decision generally fails unless the presiding authority breaks the tie by voting affirmatively or alternative procedures are invoked.^[9] Abstentions are excluded from the vote count and do not influence the outcome, as they represent neither support nor opposition.^[9] Effective implementation of majority decisions presupposes clear procedural rules delineating participant eligibility, which often requires a quorum (typically a majority of the total membership) to be present.^[9] It also assumes equal voting rights for all qualified members and a predefined slate of options to avoid ambiguity in preference expression.^[9] This contrasts with plurality decision-making, in which the option garnering the most votes prevails regardless of whether it exceeds 50%, potentially allowing a winner with only relative support.^[10] While simple majority forms the core variant, other types—such as absolute majority, based on the entire membership rather than votes cast—build upon this foundation.^[9]

Types of Majority Decisions

Majority decisions can take several forms depending on the threshold required for approval and the basis upon which votes are counted. Building on the core principle that a majority represents more than half of the relevant votes, these types vary in their stringency to suit different decision-making contexts.^[9] A simple majority requires more than 50% of the votes actually cast by those present and voting, excluding abstentions and blank votes unless the organization's rules specify otherwise. This threshold ensures that a proposal passes if it garners support from over half of the participating members, making it the most common standard for routine decisions. For example, if 20 members vote with 11 in favor and 9 against, the motion carries by simple majority.^[9] In contrast, an absolute majority demands more than 50% of all eligible participants, treating abstentions and non-voters as equivalent to "no" votes. This higher bar accounts for the entire membership, not just those who vote, and is often stipulated in bylaws for critical actions like amendments or elections to reflect broader consensus. If an organization has 30 members and only 20 vote with 11 in favor, an absolute majority would not be met since 11 is less than half of 30.^[9] A qualified majority imposes a threshold exceeding a simple majority, such as two-thirds of the votes cast, to protect against hasty changes in sensitive matters. This form, sometimes called a supermajority, requires favorable votes to constitute at least two-thirds of the votes cast, meaning the number of yes votes is at least twice the number of no votes (assuming no abstentions). For example, out of 102 total votes with 34 no votes, at least 68 yes votes are needed. It is typically reserved for significant alterations, ensuring stronger support.^[9] Implementation of majority decisions also differs based on quorum rules and proxy voting. A fixed quorum establishes a static minimum number of members who must be present to conduct business, after which majorities are calculated from votes cast; this is the standard approach unless bylaws provide otherwise. Variable quorums, though less common, adjust the required presence based on the agenda item, such as higher attendance for constitutional changes. Proxies allow absent members to delegate their voting rights to another, potentially expanding participation but complicating counts if not all proxies are exercised; they are permitted only if explicitly authorized by governing documents or law, as they can alter the effective membership base for threshold calculations.^[9]

Historical Development

Ancient Origins

The concept of majority decision-making traces its earliest documented roots to ancient Athens in the 5th century BCE, where it played a central role in the democratic processes of the Ecclesia, the assembly of male citizens. The Ecclesia, convening up to 40 times per year, allowed approximately 6,000 eligible citizens to deliberate and vote on laws, policies, and foreign affairs by a simple majority, typically through a show of hands counted by officials. This system empowered direct participation, enabling decisions on critical matters such as ostracism and military expeditions, and marked a foundational shift from aristocratic rule to popular sovereignty.^[12]^[13] In the Roman Republic (509–27 BCE), majority voting influenced senatorial proceedings among the patrician elite, as evidenced in the works of Cicero, who described the Senate as a deliberative body where decrees (senatus consulta) were adopted by majority assent to guide magistrates and assemblies. Cicero, in his De legibus, advocated for transparent voting among the "best citizens" (optimates) to balance freedom and order, reflecting how majority principles were adapted to aristocratic contexts rather than full popular democracy. This approach underscored the Senate's advisory yet influential role in republican governance, contrasting with the more direct Athenian model.^[14]^[15] Non-Western traditions also exhibited early forms of majority decision-making in advisory assemblies. In ancient India during the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE), tribal councils known as Sabha and Samiti functioned as deliberative bodies where elders and warriors reached decisions on governance and disputes through collective agreement, often implying majority consensus as described in Rigvedic hymns. Similarly, in ancient China, under Confucian influence from the 6th century BCE, advisory groups to rulers employed majority voting in policy conferences during the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), echoing ideals of harmonious consultation. These examples highlight parallel developments in collective decision-making across civilizations.^[16]^[17]^[18] Philosophical reflection on majority rule emerged prominently in Aristotle's Politics (c. 350 BCE), where he analyzed it as a core feature of democracy, defining the regime as "rule by the many" through majority decisions on laws and offices, while cautioning against its potential to devolve into mob rule without constitutional checks. Aristotle contrasted this with oligarchy and aristocracy, praising balanced majority systems in mixed constitutions like that of Athens, thus providing an enduring theoretical framework for evaluating democratic practices.^[19]^[20]

Modern Evolution

The modern evolution of majority decision principles began during the Enlightenment, with key theoretical foundations laid by philosophers emphasizing consent and collective rationality. John Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government (1689), argued that in a civil society formed by mutual consent, the majority holds the authority to act on behalf of the community, as no subordinate can transfer more power than they possess individually, establishing representative majority rule as a safeguard against arbitrary governance. This idea influenced subsequent democratic thought by framing majority decisions as an extension of natural rights and limited government. Complementing Locke's normative approach, the Marquis de Condorcet introduced a critical analytical perspective in his Essai sur l'application de l'analyse à la probabilité des décisions rendues à la pluralité des voix (1785), where he identified the Condorcet paradox: a situation in which majority preferences form a cycle (e.g., A preferred to B, B to C, and C to A), revealing potential inconsistencies in aggregating individual votes into coherent group choices.^[21] In the late 18th and 19th centuries, these principles were institutionalized in foundational constitutional documents, marking a shift from theoretical discourse to practical governance structures. The United States Constitution (1787) incorporated majority voting in Congress, stipulating that a majority constitutes a quorum and that bills pass by simple majority unless otherwise specified, thereby operationalizing representative democracy at the national level. Similarly, the French Revolution's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) enshrined popular sovereignty as the basis of all authority, declaring that "the principle of any sovereignty resides essentially in the Nation," which implied majority rule as the mechanism for expressing the general will and legitimizing legislative decisions.^[22] These documents represented a pivotal advancement, embedding majority decision-making in republican frameworks to balance power and reflect collective consent. The 20th century saw further expansions of majority voting in international institutions, adapting Enlightenment ideals to global cooperation. The Covenant of the League of Nations (1919) established majority voting in the Assembly for procedural and deliberative matters, requiring a majority of represented members for decisions, though unanimity applied to substantive actions by the Council, aiming to foster collective security through inclusive decision processes.^[23] This model evolved in the United Nations Charter (1945), which formalized majority voting in the General Assembly—simple majority for most matters and two-thirds for important questions—while retaining weighted procedures in the Security Council, thereby institutionalizing majority rule as a cornerstone of multilateral diplomacy and dispute resolution.

Applications

In Politics and Governance

In electoral systems, majority decision-making often manifests through winner-takes-all mechanisms in single-member districts, where the candidate receiving the plurality of votes—typically more than any other contender—secures the entire seat, even if not exceeding 50% of the total vote. This approach, prevalent in systems like the United States' congressional elections, prioritizes decisive outcomes but can lead to disproportionate representation if third-party votes fragment the field.^[24] In contrast, proportional representation systems allocate legislative seats based on the proportion of votes each party receives in multi-member districts, frequently resulting in no single party achieving an outright majority; consequently, governing coalitions must form among parties to establish a parliamentary majority capable of enacting policy.^[25] Within legislative processes, majority decisions are fundamental to passing bills in parliamentary bodies. For instance, in the U.S. House of Representatives, a bill requires a simple majority—defined as at least 218 votes out of 435 members, assuming a quorum—to advance to the Senate after committee approval and floor debate.^[26] This simple majority threshold, which is a majority of members present and voting, enables efficient lawmaking under standard procedures, though certain motions like suspending rules demand a two-thirds supermajority. Executive decisions in presidential systems sometimes intersect with majority rule, particularly in overriding vetoes, though the focus remains on baseline majority contexts. Overriding a presidential veto necessitates a two-thirds majority in both chambers of Congress, but routine executive actions, such as appointing officials with legislative consent, often proceed via simple majorities in relevant committees or full bodies.^[27] In international governance, majority decisions facilitate collective action in bodies like the United Nations General Assembly, where resolutions on non-procedural matters pass by simple majority of members present and voting. This rule, outlined in the Assembly's procedures, applies to a wide array of issues, from budgetary approvals to recommendations on global peace, ensuring decisions reflect the will of participating states without requiring unanimity.^[28]

In Legal Systems

In legal systems rooted in common law traditions, majority decisions have evolved as a mechanism to resolve disputes efficiently while balancing the need for consensus. Historically, English common law required unanimous jury verdicts, a practice solidified by the 14th century and maintained for centuries thereafter.^[29] However, a significant shift occurred in the 20th century with the Criminal Justice Act 1967, which introduced majority verdicts in criminal trials in England and Wales to address hung juries and streamline proceedings, allowing convictions by at least 10 of 12 jurors after extended deliberation.^[30] This change influenced jurisdictions across the common law world, including the United States, where federal civil jury trials retained unanimity but many states adopted majority rules for civil cases.^[31] The transition reflected broader concerns about judicial efficiency and the dilution of minority influences, though it sparked debates on fairness.^[32] In appellate courts, majority decisions form the cornerstone of binding precedent, ensuring stability in legal interpretation. For instance, in the United States Supreme Court, a majority opinion—typically supported by at least five of the nine justices—establishes authoritative rulings that lower federal and state courts must follow when addressing similar issues.^[33] Close 5-4 splits, such as in landmark cases on constitutional rights, carry the same precedential weight as unanimous decisions, compelling adherence across the judiciary unless overturned by the Supreme Court itself.^[34] This principle extends to other appellate panels, like the U.S. Courts of Appeals, where a majority vote among the three-judge panel binds district courts within the circuit, promoting uniformity in federal law application.^[35] Jury trials illustrate the tension between unanimity and majority verdicts, particularly in civil proceedings. While the U.S. Supreme Court's 2020 decision in Ramos v. Louisiana mandated unanimous verdicts for serious criminal convictions in both federal and state courts under the Sixth Amendment, civil cases often permit majority outcomes to avoid mistrials.^[36] As of recent assessments, 27 states allow non-unanimous civil jury verdicts, commonly requiring agreement from 10 of 12 jurors (10-2) or nine of 12 (9-3), as seen in states like Florida and Texas, to render a binding decision on liability or damages.^[37] This approach contrasts with federal civil trials, which default to unanimity unless parties stipulate otherwise, highlighting variations that prioritize practicality in non-criminal disputes.^[31] In arbitration, especially under international frameworks, majority rulings prevail in multi-arbitrator panels to facilitate swift dispute resolution. The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) Arbitration Rules, widely used in cross-border commercial disputes, stipulate that when a tribunal consists of three arbitrators—one appointed by each party and a presiding arbitrator—the award is decided by majority vote.^[38] If no majority emerges, the presiding arbitrator's decision stands, ensuring finality without deadlock.^[39] This structure, applicable in complex multi-party arbitrations, underscores the efficiency of majority mechanisms in private adjudication, influencing rules in other institutions like the UNCITRAL Model Law.^[40]

In Organizational Settings

In organizational settings, majority decision-making serves as a foundational mechanism for decision-making in non-governmental entities such as corporations, non-profits, unions, and committees, enabling efficient resolution of internal matters through the vote of more than half of participating members.^[41] This approach ensures that actions reflect the will of the majority while maintaining operational momentum in group dynamics. In corporate governance, boards of directors typically approve significant actions like mergers, acquisitions, or policy changes via simple majority vote, unless bylaws or statutes specify otherwise. Under Delaware General Corporation Law, which governs many U.S. corporations, the act of a majority of directors present at a meeting with a quorum binds the board on routine matters, providing a streamlined process for strategic decisions.^[42] For instance, board resolutions on executive compensation or operational policies often pass by this standard, promoting accountability without requiring unanimity. Non-profit organizations and labor unions similarly rely on majority approval for key internal votes, such as amending bylaws or authorizing strikes. In non-profits, bylaws amendments frequently require a majority vote of the board or membership to ensure adaptability while upholding governance standards.^[43] Unions conduct strike authorization votes where a simple majority of participating members can greenlight collective action, facilitating democratic expression during negotiations.^[44] These processes underscore majority voting's role in aligning organizational actions with member priorities. Committee procedures in various organizations often follow established parliamentary guidelines, such as those in Robert's Rules of Order, which mandate a majority vote for adopting most motions, including approvals of reports or initiatives.^[45] This applies to simple majorities in the context of quorums, ensuring decisions proceed only when sufficient attendance is met. In modern remote teams, digital tools like live polling platforms enable majority-based consensus by allowing real-time voting on agendas or priorities, enhancing participation across distributed groups.^[46]

Advantages and Criticisms

Key Advantages

In combat sports like boxing and mixed martial arts (MMA), a majority decision allows for a clear winner in closely contested bouts where judges' opinions differ slightly, with two of the three judges favoring one fighter while the third scores a draw. This approach ensures that competitive fights do not end in a draw unless all judges agree, promoting decisive outcomes and maintaining the sport's emphasis on determining victors through majority consensus among the judging panel. The use of majority decision highlights the nuance in judging under the 10-point must system, where effective striking, grappling, aggression, and control are evaluated round by round. By tipping the result toward the fighter supported by the majority of judges, it reflects a balanced adjudication process that avoids stalemates in high-stakes professional matches.^[2] This method adds drama and intrigue to the sport, as seen in notable bouts where a majority decision underscores the competitiveness, allowing fans to appreciate the fighters' skills without an inconclusive result.^[1]

Major Criticisms

A primary criticism of majority decisions in combat sports is their susceptibility to controversy due to the subjective nature of judging criteria, where the third judge's draw can appear to undermine the overall verdict and fuel debates over fairness. High-profile examples, such as Manny Pacquiao's 2009 majority decision win over Miguel Cotto, have sparked fan and expert disputes, highlighting inconsistencies in how rounds are scored.^[2]^[3] Critics argue that such outcomes often stem from ambiguous interpretations of aggression, effective offense, and ring generalship, leading to calls for standardized training for judges, clearer guidelines from sanctioning bodies like the World Boxing Association (WBA), or the addition of more judges to reduce the impact of a single dissenting scorecard.^[4] In MMA, similar issues arise under the Unified Rules, where grappling-heavy rounds can divide judges, prompting suggestions for video review systems or revised scoring to mitigate perceived biases and enhance transparency in close decisions.^[6]

Alternatives and Variations

Consensus-Based Approaches

Consensus-based approaches to decision-making emphasize achieving full or near-unanimity among participants, where decisions proceed only with the active consent of all members or in the absence of any blocking objections, contrasting with majority rule by prioritizing collective agreement over simple plurality.^[47] This process aims to integrate diverse perspectives, ensuring that no individual or subgroup feels overridden, thereby addressing common criticisms of majority decisions that can marginalize minorities and foster resentment. A prominent historical example is the Quaker business method, developed by the Religious Society of Friends, which relies on discerning a unified "sense of the meeting" through periods of silent reflection, open discussion, and clerk-led facilitation, without resorting to votes to avoid division.^[47] In this approach, participants speak from personal conviction, and the group seeks spiritual or communal unity, with the final minute recording the collective agreement only after broad assent is confirmed.^[48] In contemporary settings, such as agile software development teams, consent-based variants incorporate veto rights, allowing any member to block a proposal if it poses a significant risk, but permitting progress on "good enough for now, safe enough to try" options to maintain momentum.^[49] These methods, influenced by sociocratic principles, focus on objection resolution rather than exhaustive debate, enabling faster iteration while still building broad support.^[50] Compared to majority rule, consensus approaches reduce interpersonal conflict by validating all voices, leading to higher commitment and implementation success, as participants feel ownership over outcomes rather than defeat.^[47] For example, the Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) employed consensus deliberation among clan mothers and chiefs to coordinate policies across nations, promoting sustained unity and collective adherence without coercive majorities.^[51] This fosters deeper trust and long-term stability in governance structures valuing harmony.^[52] Despite these benefits, consensus processes are often time-intensive, requiring skilled facilitation and extended dialogue to resolve differences, which can delay urgent actions.^[53] In larger groups, the need for near-unanimity heightens the risk of paralysis, where persistent objections or diverse interests prevent closure, potentially stalling progress on complex issues.^[54]

Supermajority Requirements

A supermajority requirement mandates a voting threshold exceeding a simple majority (more than 50% of votes), serving as a safeguard to ensure decisions reflect broader consensus and prevent hasty changes in critical matters. This variation on majority decision-making elevates the bar to foster deliberation, particularly in foundational legal or institutional frameworks. For instance, it extends the basic principle of majority rule by requiring a higher fraction of support, such as two-thirds or three-quarters, to override protections against minority interests. Common thresholds include a two-thirds majority, equivalent to approximately 66.7% of votes, or a three-quarters majority at 75%, depending on the context. In the United States, Article V of the Constitution specifies a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress to propose constitutional amendments, with subsequent ratification by three-fourths of the states. Similarly, many state constitutions adopt two-thirds thresholds for overriding gubernatorial vetoes or approving budgets. Internationally, the European Union's treaty amendments require unanimous approval by the Member States, ensuring stability across member states.^[55] These requirements are primarily used to protect institutional stability in constitutions, treaties, and organizational charters, where simple majorities might enable frequent or disruptive alterations. For example, they guard against transient political shifts by necessitating sustained support, as seen in protocols for amending international agreements like the United Nations Charter, which demands a two-thirds vote in the General Assembly plus ratification by two-thirds of members, including all permanent Security Council members. In corporate governance, supermajorities (often two-thirds) are invoked for mergers or charter changes to shield against activist takeovers. The advantages of supermajority requirements include enhanced deliberation and legitimacy, as they compel negotiators to build coalitions and address diverse viewpoints, reducing the risk of policies favored by slim margins that could erode long-term trust. However, they also carry risks of gridlock, where entrenched minorities can block necessary reforms, potentially leading to paralysis in dynamic environments like fiscal policy during crises. Mathematically, a supermajority is defined as a fraction q > \frac{1}{2} of total votes or members, where q is the required proportion (e.g., q = \frac{2}{3} \approx 0.667). This can be expressed as needing at least \lceil q \cdot n \rceil affirmative votes out of n total participants, ensuring the threshold surpasses half to qualify as "super."

Notable Examples

Political Elections

In the 2000 United States presidential election, Republican candidate George W. Bush secured victory in the Electoral College with 271 votes to Democrat Al Gore's 266, despite Gore winning the national popular vote by approximately 543,895 ballots (48.4% to Bush's 47.9%). This outcome hinged on slim state-level majorities, particularly in Florida where Bush prevailed by just 537 votes after a Supreme Court ruling halted a recount, illustrating how majority decisions in individual states can override the national popular will under the Electoral College system.^[56]^[57] The 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum exemplified a narrow national majority decision, with 51.89% voting to leave the EU compared to 48.11% to remain, based on a turnout of 72.2% across the UK and Gibraltar. This slim margin, totaling about 1.27 million votes in favor of Leave out of over 33 million cast, triggered the formal invocation of Article 50 in 2017, initiating a two-year negotiation period that reshaped UK foreign policy, trade agreements, and immigration rules.^[58]^[59] In India's 2019 general election for the 17th Lok Sabha, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) achieved a simple majority with 353 seats out of 543, including 303 for the BJP alone, on a vote share of 44.87% for the alliance and 37.36% for the BJP. This result, announced on May 23, 2019, after voting in seven phases from April 11 to May 19, enabled the formation of Narendra Modi's second government without reliance on external support, marking the first re-election of a non-Congress coalition since 1977.^[60] These examples of slim majorities in political elections have often led to heightened governance challenges, including policy polarization and legitimacy disputes; for instance, Bush's narrow win contributed to a divided Congress and contentious domestic agendas like tax reforms, while the Brexit margin fueled ongoing parliamentary gridlock and regional tensions in the UK, and India's NDA majority deepened religious and ideological divides in legislative priorities.^[61]^[62]

Judicial Rulings

One of the most transformative applications of majority decision-making in judicial contexts occurred in Brown v. Board of Education (1954), where the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled 9-0 that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.^[63] This landmark decision overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), declaring segregated educational facilities inherently unequal and psychologically harmful to Black children.^[63] Although unanimous, Brown built upon a series of prior majority rulings that gradually eroded segregation precedents, such as Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1938), a 6-2 decision requiring states to provide equal graduate education opportunities within their borders for Black students,^[64] and Sweatt v. Painter (1950), a unanimous holding that a hastily created segregated law school for Black applicants at the University of Texas failed to meet equal protection standards.^[65] These earlier majority shifts in higher education cases laid the groundwork for extending desegregation principles to primary and secondary schools, marking a pivotal evolution in civil rights jurisprudence. In Roe v. Wade (1973), the U.S. Supreme Court issued a 7-2 majority decision recognizing a constitutional right to abortion under the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, invalidating state laws like Texas's that broadly criminalized the procedure except to save the mother's life.^[66] Justice Harry Blackmun's majority opinion established a trimester framework balancing women's privacy rights against state interests in maternal health and fetal viability, allowing states minimal regulation in the first trimester, health-based rules in the second, and potential bans (with exceptions) in the third. Dissenting opinions by Justices William Rehnquist and Byron White argued that the ruling unduly interfered with state authority over medical procedures, highlighting tensions in interpreting privacy rights.^[66] This majority precedent profoundly shaped reproductive rights law for nearly five decades until it was overturned in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022), a 6-3 decision that returned abortion regulation to the states, underscoring the revocable nature of judicial majorities.^[67] An international example of majority decision-making in human rights adjudication is Hirst v. United Kingdom (No. 2) (2005), where the European Court of Human Rights' Grand Chamber ruled 12-5 that the UK's blanket ban on prisoner voting under the Representation of the People Act 1983 violated Article 3 of Protocol No. 1, which guarantees the right to free elections.^[68] The majority opinion, delivered by the Court, emphasized that such an indiscriminate disenfranchisement lacked a sufficient evidentiary basis linking voting denial to reducing crime or enhancing civic responsibility, requiring a more individualized approach.^[68] The five dissenting judges contended that the ban served legitimate aims of punishment and deterrence, reflecting national sovereignty in electoral matters.^[68] This decision has influenced ongoing reforms in several Council of Europe member states, though the UK has resisted full implementation, illustrating the binding force of ECtHR majorities on domestic policy.^[69] In judicial systems, majority opinions establish binding precedents that guide lower courts and future cases, providing authoritative interpretations of law that promote consistency and stare decisis.^[70] Dissenting views, while non-binding, offer critical alternative reasoning that can foreshadow doctrinal shifts, as seen when dissents in Plessy informed the majority in Brown, or when Roe's dissents echoed in Dobbs.^[70] This dynamic underscores how majority decisions not only resolve immediate disputes but also shape societal norms, with their precedential weight often enduring until a new majority reevaluates them.

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Dec 16, 2022 · To put it simply, stare decisis holds that courts and judges should honor “precedent”—or the decisions, rulings, and opinions from prior cases.
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The Role of the U.S. Courts of Appeals in the Federal Judiciary
The U.S. Courts of Appeals are the final expositor of federal law in their jurisdiction, and are the last point of appellate review for most federal cases.
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[PDF] 18-5924 Ramos v. Louisiana (04/20/2020) - Supreme Court
Apr 20, 2020 · The case Ramos v. Louisiana concerned a 10-to-2 jury verdict. The Supreme Court ruled that a unanimous verdict is required for a serious ...
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Bench Trial vs. Jury Trial: Preparing for Each | U.S. Legal Support
Aug 19, 2024 · For civil trials, federal juries must vote unanimously but states are split on the issue, with 27 currently allowing majority decisions rather ...
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[PDF] icc-2021-arbitration-rules-2014-mediation-rules-english-version.pdf
1 When the arbitral tribunal is composed of more than one arbitrator, an award is made by a majority decision. If there is no majority, the award shall be made ...
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2021 Arbitration Rules - ICC - International Chamber of Commerce
The disputes shall be decided by a sole arbitrator or by three arbitrators. 2) Where the parties have not agreed upon the number of arbitrators, the Court shall ...Commencing the Arbitration · The Arbitral Tribunal · Awards · Appendix I
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[PDF] Introduction to ICC Arbitration | Clifford Chance
Where there are three arbitrators, the award must be made by a majority decision. If there is no majority, the award shall be made by the. Chairman of the ...
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Chapter 1. General Corporation Law - Delaware Code Online
Voting rights of members of nonstock corporations; quorum; proxies. (a) ... (2) If more than 1 vote, the act of the majority so voting binds all;. (3) If ...
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Majority Rules
Apr 18, 2024 · The “disinterested and independent board majority” is one of the most important concepts in corporate law, because it is the fulcrum on ...
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Nonprofit Bylaws: Complete Guide With Tips & Best Practices
Rating 4.8 (234) · $0.00 to $475.00To avoid cumbersome procedures, make your bylaws not too difficult to amend. Consider allowing an amendment to pass by a majority vote at a regularly scheduled ...
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How does a union strike vote work? - Survey & Ballot Systems
Unions representing teachers, nurses, pilots and retail workers across the country are making news with contract negotiations and strike authorization votes.
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Voting Procedures and Voting ... - Robert's Rules of Order Online
Vote. 46. Voting; 47. Votes that are Null and Void even if Unanimous; 48. Motions requiring more than a majority ...
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Meeting Polls: Get Instant Feedback to Improve Team Collaboration
Oct 16, 2024 · Meeting polls are interactive tools used during meetings to gather instant feedback from participants. These polls help make decisions, ...
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[PDF] Consensus versus majority decision making - UNI ScholarWorks
Majority vote or majority decision making is by far the most widely used because it offers a clean resolution in the sense that once a vote has been taken.
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Knowing and Navigating Decision Rules
Simple majority rule means that an agreement is validated when the majority (over 50%) of voting parties support it. · Unanimity and consensus rules are often ...
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Majority Rule - Novak - 2014 - Compass Hub - Wiley
Oct 6, 2014 · May demonstrated that simple majority rule is the only decision rule that satisfies four conditions: decisiveness, anonymity, neutrality, and ...Abstract · 2 Existing Studies · 3 Underexplored And...
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[PDF] The Robust Beauty of Majority Rules in Group Decisions
Majority rules are transparent, easy to execute, encourage sincere beliefs, and perform well in group decisions, comparable to more complex rules.Missing: diverse | Show results with:diverse<|control11|><|separator|>
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Majority Decision-Making Works Best Under Conditions of ... - Frontiers
Jun 13, 2021 · As predicted, majority decision-making was more effective when task representations were shared, and this positive effect was more pronounced ...Introduction · Theoretical Background and... · Methods · Discussion
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Mill, On Liberty, 1859 - Hanover College History Department
{5}Like other tyrannies, the tyranny of the majority was at first, and is still vulgarly, held in dread, chiefly as operating through the acts of the public ...
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[PDF] ON LIBERTY - rintintin.colorado.edu
Like other tyrannies, the tyranny of the majority was at first, and is still vulgarly, held in dread, chiefly as operating through the acts of the public ...
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John Stuart Mill (1806—1873) - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The topic of justice received further treatment at Mill's hands in his famous 1859 book On Liberty. ... This social “tyranny of the majority” (a phrase Mill takes ...
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Arrow's Theorem - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Oct 13, 2014 · The impossibility theorem itself set much of the agenda for contemporary social choice theory. Arrow accomplished this while still a graduate ...
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[PDF] Arrow's Impossibility Theorem - GMU
Mar 4, 2015 · The Arrow theorem tells us that this is impossible - we cannot have transitivity and consistency with the pairwise votes if we maintain Arrow's ...
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[PDF] Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma
L ow voter turnout is a serious democratic problem for five reasons: (1) It means unequal turnout that is systematically biased against less well-to-do ...
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[PDF] Five Studies on the Causes and Consequences of Voter Turnout
Then, I exploit the differential adoption of compulsory voting laws across Australian state assembly elections. A difference-in-difference analysis shows that.
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[PDF] Janis_Groupthink.pdf - MIT
I use the term groupthink as a quick and easy way to refer to the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes.
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[PDF] Groupthink (Irving Janis) Reference
Groupthink occurs when groups are highly cohesive and when they are under considerable pressure to make a quality decision. When pressures for unanimity seem ...
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Group Decision by Consensus: Reaching Unity in the Society of ...
The members of the Society of Friends (Quakers) have been making group decisions without voting. Their method is to find a “sense of the meeting'which ...
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Decision Making Systems Matter - Agile Alliance
Jul 12, 2016 · Majority votes, consensus decisions and veto rights are typical ways to come to a group decision. Mature Agile teams usually have developed ...
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Consent Decision Making - How to take effective ... - Crisp's Blog
Nov 3, 2017 · Consent decision making is about making “good enough for now, safe enough to try” decisions and then testing them in practice to learn through experience.
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Deliberative Democracy & American Indian Political Decision-Making
Jun 24, 2020 · We conduct a close reading of key historical and ethnographic accounts of four historical AI/AN contexts—the Iroquois Confederation under the ...
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The League of the Iroquois | Gilder Lehrman Institute of American ...
... League forged its final, consensus decision. In some instances, the chiefs might find consensus difficult and prove unable to construct unified policy. In ...
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Decision-Making Models - MIT Human Resources
Consensus decisions mean that the entire team has come to agreement on a course of action, even if individuals might have a different preference. Consensus ...
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Consensus Decision-Making for Boards [When, Why, and How]
Apr 9, 2025 · Used well, consensus helps transform disagreement into trust and inclusion. It turns conflict into creativity and leads to better, more widely ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
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2000 Electoral College Results - National Archives
President George W. Bush [R] Main Opponent Albert Gore, Jr. [D] Electoral Vote Winner: 271 Main Opponent: 266* Total/Majority: 538/270 Vice President ...
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[PDF] Federal Elections 2000: Presidential General Election Results by State
Total State Votes: 1,666,272. LASKA. Bush, George W. R. 167,398. 58.62. Gore, Al. D. 79,004. 27.67. Nader, Ralph. GRN. 28,747. 10.07. Buchanan, Pat. REF. 5,192.
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Report: 23 June 2016 referendum on the UK's membership of the ...
Jul 29, 2022 · On 23 June 2016 a referendum was held across the United Kingdom and Gibraltar about whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union or leave the ...
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EU referendum - GOV.UK
Jun 23, 2016 · On Thursday 23 June 2016 the EU referendum took place and the people of the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union.
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[PDF] All India Lok Sabha Result 2019 - Lokniti
Party performance. Parties. Seats Contested. Seats Won. Vote(%). NDA. 541. 352. 44.87. BJP. 436. 303. 37.36. AGP. 3. 0. 0.24. BPF. 1. 0. 0.07. JD(U).
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Reflections on the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election
After mistaken television network projections on election night leading to a concession call by Al Gore to George W. Bush that was withdrawn an hour later, and ...
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Post-poll survey: the 2019 verdict is a manifestation of ... - The Hindu
May 30, 2019 · BJP's all-time high vote share of 37.4% has come mostly on the back of an unprecedented Hindu consolidation which may also reflect in Lok ...
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Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1) - Oyez
The Supreme Court held that “separate but equal” facilities are inherently unequal and violate the protections of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth ...
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Roe v. Wade | Oyez
A case in which the Court struck down several Texas laws that criminalized abortion, holding that laws that impose an undue burden on a woman's right to ...
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[PDF] 19-1392 Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (06/24/2022)
Jun 24, 2022 · Roe held that the abortion right is part of a right to privacy that springs from the First, Fourth, Fifth, Ninth, and. Fourteenth Amendments.
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HIRST v. THE UNITED KINGDOM (No. 2) - HUDOC
A hearing took place in public in the Human Rights Building, Strasbourg, on 27 April 2005 (Rule 59 § 3). There appeared before the Court: (a) for the Government
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[PDF] Factsheet – Prisoners' right to vote - ECHR - The Council of Europe
Jul 4, 2013 · The European Court of Human Rights held that there had been a violation of Article 3. (right to free elections) of Protocol No. 1 to the ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
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Supreme Court Procedures - United States Courts
... majority. On rare occasions in close cases, a dissenting opinion later becomes the majority opinion because one or more Justices switch their votes after ...