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Malignant transformation

Malignant transformation refers to the multistep process by which normal cells acquire the hallmarks of cancer cells, including sustained proliferative signaling, evasion of growth suppressors and apoptosis, replicative immortality, induction of angiogenesis, and activation of invasion and metastasis, primarily through accumulated genetic mutations and epigenetic changes.^[1] This transformation typically begins with initiating oncogenic events, such as somatic mutations in proto-oncogenes like KRAS or tumor suppressor genes like TP53, leading to genomic instability and clonal expansion of altered cells.^[2] Over time, additional driver alterations enable premalignant lesions to progress into fully invasive malignancies, often influenced by environmental factors and the tumor microenvironment.^[3] The process of malignant transformation unfolds in distinct phases, starting with tumor initiation where a single cell or small population acquires a proliferative advantage due to genetic hits, followed by promotion involving epigenetic modifications and microenvironmental remodeling that foster survival and expansion.^[1] Key intermediate stages include the development of dysplasia or in situ carcinoma, where cells exhibit abnormal growth but remain confined, before progressing to invasive cancer capable of disseminating.^[3] On average, tumors accumulate around 90 mutant genes by the time they become established, reflecting the multistep nature of this evolution.^[2] Central mechanisms driving malignant transformation include the evasion of apoptosis, often achieved by mutations in genes like p53 or Bcl-2 that prevent programmed cell death despite oncogenic stress, and the shift to aerobic glycolysis (Warburg effect) via upregulation of enzymes like PKM2, which supports rapid proliferation under low-oxygen conditions.^[3] Aneuploidy, characterized by abnormal chromosome numbers, further promotes genetic instability and tolerance to additional mutations, while deregulation of signaling pathways such as those involving tyrosine kinases enhances cell motility and survival.^[2] Epigenetic alterations, including DNA methylation changes and histone modifications, cooperate with genetic events to silence tumor suppressors and activate oncogenes, amplifying the transformed phenotype.^[1] The tumor microenvironment, including cancer-associated fibroblasts and extracellular matrix stiffening, plays a critical role in sustaining these changes and facilitating progression.^[1]

Definition and Overview

Core Definition

Malignant transformation refers to the process by which normal cells acquire the ability to proliferate uncontrollably, invade surrounding tissues, and metastasize to distant sites, thereby converting from a benign to a malignant state.^[4] This multistep progression fundamentally alters cellular behavior, enabling the formation of cancerous tumors that threaten organismal health.^[5] The concept was first experimentally demonstrated in 1911 when Peyton Rous identified a filterable agent—now known as the Rous sarcoma virus—that induced sarcomas in chickens, marking the initial recognition of a viral cause for malignancy.^[6] Building on this, key advancements in the 1970s revealed the role of oncogenes, with the discovery of the src gene in avian retroviruses providing evidence that specific genetic elements could drive cellular transformation.^[7] These milestones shifted understanding from empirical observations to molecular underpinnings, often involving genetic mutations that initiate the process.^[7] A prerequisite for malignant transformation is the distinction between benign and malignant tumors: benign tumors consist of non-invasive cells that remain localized and do not spread, whereas malignant ones exhibit aggressive growth and dissemination.^[8] Central to this shift is dysregulation of the cell cycle, which serves as an entry point by allowing unchecked progression through phases like G1/S and mitosis, bypassing normal regulatory checkpoints.^[9] This dysregulation facilitates the accumulation of further alterations, propelling cells toward malignancy. The process unfolds in distinct stages: initiation, where an initial insult—such as a genetic "first hit"—creates a susceptible cell population; promotion, involving clonal expansion of these initiated cells through sustained proliferative signals; and progression, during which additional changes confer invasiveness and metastatic potential.^[10] These stages highlight the gradual, accumulative nature of transformation, underscoring its dependence on sequential disruptions in cellular homeostasis.^[11]

Key Characteristics of Transformed Cells

Malignantly transformed cells acquire a suite of phenotypic and functional traits that distinguish them from normal cells, enabling uncontrolled proliferation, survival, and dissemination. These characteristics, collectively known as the hallmarks of cancer, represent the core capabilities that cancer cells must attain during tumorigenesis. First proposed by Hanahan and Weinberg in 2000 with six core hallmarks, the framework was refined in 2011 to include two enabling characteristics—genomic instability and tumor-promoting inflammation—and further expanded in 2022 to incorporate new dimensions such as unlocking phenotypic plasticity, nonmutational epigenetic reprogramming, polymorphic microbiomes, and senescent cells.^[12]^[13]^[14] The foundational six remain central to understanding malignant transformation. The hallmarks encompass:

Sustained proliferative signaling: Transformed cells generate their own growth signals, often through autocrine loops or mutations in signaling pathways, bypassing the need for external stimuli.^[12]
Evasion of growth suppressors: These cells ignore anti-proliferative signals from tumor suppressors like p53 or Rb, allowing unchecked division.^[12]
Resisting cell death: Enhanced survival mechanisms, such as inactivation of apoptotic pathways, protect transformed cells from programmed death.^[12]
Enabling replicative immortality: Activation of telomerase or alternative lengthening of telomeres allows indefinite replication without senescence.^[12]
Inducing angiogenesis: Transformed cells stimulate new blood vessel formation to secure nutrients and oxygen for growth.^[12]
Activating invasion and metastasis: Reprogramming enables cells to breach tissue barriers and colonize distant sites.^[12]

These capabilities are not isolated but interconnected, forming a network that supports the malignant phenotype.^[13] Morphologically, transformed cells lose contact inhibition, continuing to proliferate and form multilayers even at confluence, unlike normal cells that halt upon touching.^[15] They also gain anchorage independence, proliferating without adhesion to extracellular matrix, a trait absent in non-transformed cells.^[15] Furthermore, the cytoskeleton undergoes reorganization, with altered actin and microtubule networks that promote irregular cell shapes, increased motility, and enhanced invasiveness.^[16] Functional assays confirm these traits in vitro. The soft agar colony formation assay is a standard test for anchorage-independent growth; transformed cells form visible colonies in semi-solid agar, while normal cells do not, providing a direct measure of malignant potential.^[17] Metabolically, transformed cells exhibit the Warburg effect, shifting to aerobic glycolysis where glucose is converted to lactate even in oxygen-rich conditions, prioritizing rapid ATP production and biosynthetic intermediates over efficient oxidative phosphorylation.^[18] This metabolic reprogramming supports the high bioenergetic demands of proliferation and biomass accumulation in transformed cells.^[18]

Molecular Mechanisms

Genetic Alterations

Malignant transformation often begins with genetic alterations that disrupt normal cellular regulation, leading to uncontrolled proliferation and evasion of apoptosis. These changes accumulate in the DNA sequence, converting proto-oncogenes into oncogenes or inactivating tumor suppressor genes, thereby promoting oncogenesis.^[19] Such alterations are heritable and provide a selective advantage to affected cells, driving the progression from benign to malignant states.^[1] Common types of genetic mutations involved include point mutations, which substitute a single nucleotide and can alter protein function; deletions and insertions, which remove or add genetic material and may cause frameshifts; and chromosomal translocations, which rearrange segments between chromosomes, often fusing genes to create aberrant proteins.^[20] A classic example of translocation is the Philadelphia chromosome, resulting from the t(9;22) reciprocal translocation in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), which fuses the BCR and ABL1 genes to produce a constitutively active tyrosine kinase that drives leukemogenesis.^[21] Activation of oncogenes typically occurs through gain-of-function mutations in proto-oncogenes, leading to persistent signaling pathways that promote cell growth and survival. For instance, mutations in the RAS family genes, found in approximately 19% of human cancers, lock RAS proteins in an active GTP-bound state, resulting in constitutive activation of downstream pathways like MAPK and PI3K, which enhance proliferation.^[22] Similarly, deregulation of the MYC proto-oncogene, observed in over 50% of cancers through various mechanisms including gene amplification, upregulates transcription of genes involved in cell cycle progression and metabolism, contributing to tumor aggressiveness.^[23] In contrast, tumor suppressor genes are inactivated by loss-of-function mutations, removing brakes on cell division. Mutations in TP53, the most frequently altered gene, occur in about 50-60% of human cancers and impair its role in DNA damage response and apoptosis induction, allowing survival of genetically damaged cells.^[24] In retinoblastoma, biallelic inactivation of the RB1 tumor suppressor gene exemplifies this, where loss of RB1 function deregulates the E2F transcription factor, leading to unchecked cell cycle entry.^[19] The multi-hit hypothesis, proposed by Alfred Knudson in 1971 based on retinoblastoma incidence patterns, posits that both hereditary and sporadic forms require two mutational hits to inactivate both alleles of a tumor suppressor gene, explaining earlier onset in germline carriers who inherit one mutated allele and need only a somatic second hit.^[25] This model underscores the stepwise nature of oncogenesis, where initial hits confer partial susceptibility and subsequent events complete transformation. Genomic instability further accelerates malignant progression by increasing mutation rates, manifesting as aneuploidy—abnormal chromosome numbers that disrupt gene dosage and cellular homeostasis—or microsatellite instability (MSI), caused by defective DNA mismatch repair and leading to hypermutation at repetitive sequences.^[26] Aneuploidy is prevalent in most solid tumors and promotes adaptability, while MSI, seen in 15% of colorectal cancers, correlates with better prognosis in some contexts due to heightened immunogenicity but drives rapid evolution in others.^[27] These instabilities amplify the effects of driver mutations, fostering tumor heterogeneity and metastasis.

Epigenetic Modifications

Epigenetic modifications play a pivotal role in malignant transformation by altering gene expression without changing the underlying DNA sequence, thereby enabling the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and activation of oncogenes that drive uncontrolled cell proliferation and survival. These heritable changes, including DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNA dysregulation, and chromatin remodeling, accumulate during carcinogenesis and contribute to the phenotypic plasticity of cancer cells. Unlike genetic mutations, epigenetic alterations are often reversible, offering therapeutic opportunities to restore normal gene regulation. DNA methylation involves the addition of methyl groups to cytosine residues in CpG dinucleotides, particularly within promoter-associated CpG islands, leading to transcriptional repression. Hypermethylation of these CpG islands frequently silences tumor suppressor genes, such as MLH1 in colorectal cancer, where it promotes genomic instability by impairing mismatch repair pathways. This mechanism is a hallmark of the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP), observed in a subset of colorectal tumors and associated with adverse prognosis.^[28]^[29] Histone modifications, including acetylation and deacetylation, regulate chromatin structure and accessibility to transcription factors. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) remove acetyl groups from lysine residues on histone tails, resulting in chromatin condensation and gene repression; overexpression of HDACs is common in various cancers, contributing to the downregulation of tumor suppressors and enhanced cell survival. For instance, HDAC activity promotes malignant transformation by maintaining a repressive chromatin state that favors oncogenic signaling pathways.^[30]^[31] MicroRNA (miRNA) dysregulation represents another key epigenetic layer, where small non-coding RNAs post-transcriptionally repress target mRNAs. Oncogenic miRNAs, or oncomiRs, such as miR-21, are upregulated in multiple cancers and promote invasion and metastasis by targeting tumor suppressor genes involved in apoptosis and extracellular matrix remodeling. Conversely, tumor-suppressive miRNAs like miR-34 are often downregulated, leading to derepression of oncogenes that enhance proliferation and stemness; for example, miR-34 loss is implicated in p53-mediated tumor suppression failure across various malignancies.^[32]^[33] Chromatin remodeling complexes, such as SWI/SNF, use ATP-dependent mechanisms to reposition nucleosomes and alter DNA accessibility for transcription. Mutations in SWI/SNF subunits occur in approximately 20% of human cancers, disrupting normal gene regulation and enabling oncogenic transformation by impairing the activation of tumor suppressors or derepressing proto-oncogenes. These alterations highlight the complex's tumor-suppressive role, as loss-of-function changes lead to aberrant chromatin landscapes that sustain malignant phenotypes.^[34] The reversibility of epigenetic modifications distinguishes them from irreversible genetic changes and underpins the development of targeted therapies. HDAC inhibitors, such as vorinostat (suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid), approved by the FDA in 2006 for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, restore acetylation levels to reactivate silenced genes and induce cancer cell death, demonstrating the clinical potential of epigenetic reprogramming in halting malignant progression. Ongoing research explores combinations of these agents with other modalities to enhance efficacy across cancer types.^[35]^[36]

DNA Repair Deficiencies

Deficiencies in DNA repair mechanisms play a critical role in malignant transformation by allowing unrepaired or misrepaired DNA damage to accumulate, leading to genomic instability and the promotion of oncogenic mutations. Cells rely on multiple DNA repair pathways to maintain genomic integrity in response to various types of damage, including base modifications, bulky adducts, replication errors, and double-strand breaks (DSBs). When these pathways are impaired, such as through germline or somatic mutations in repair genes, the resulting hypermutation or chromosomal aberrations can drive the multistep process of carcinogenesis.^[37]^[38] The major DNA repair pathways include base excision repair (BER), which removes damaged bases like those caused by oxidative stress; nucleotide excision repair (NER), which excises bulky lesions such as UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers; mismatch repair (MMR), which corrects replication errors and insertion/deletion loops; homologous recombination (HR), which accurately repairs DSBs using a sister chromatid template; and non-homologous end joining (NHEJ), which ligates DSB ends but is prone to errors. Defects in these pathways disrupt the cell's ability to safeguard the genome, fostering an environment conducive to malignant transformation through increased mutation rates and chromosomal rearrangements. For instance, BER deficiencies can lead to persistent oxidative damage, while NHEJ impairments may cause translocations that activate oncogenes.^[37]^[38] A prominent example of NER deficiency is xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in genes encoding NER proteins (e.g., XPA through XPG), resulting in extreme sensitivity to UV radiation and a dramatically elevated risk of skin cancers. Individuals with XP exhibit up to a 10,000-fold increased incidence of non-melanoma skin cancers and a 2,000-fold higher risk of melanoma due to unrepaired UV-induced DNA adducts, often developing multiple tumors by early adulthood. Similarly, HR deficiencies, particularly germline mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2, impair DSB repair and are associated with hereditary breast and ovarian cancer syndrome, conferring lifetime risks of up to 85% for breast cancer and 40% for ovarian cancer in carriers.^[39]^[40]^[41] MMR deficiencies also contribute to hypermutator phenotypes, as seen in Lynch syndrome (hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer), where germline mutations in MMR genes like MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, or PMS2 lead to microsatellite instability (MSI) and a 70-80% lifetime risk of colorectal cancer, often at younger ages. These defects cause replication errors to persist, accelerating the accumulation of mutations in tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes, thereby promoting malignant progression. MMR-deficient tumors exhibit a high mutational burden, which paradoxically enhances responsiveness to immunotherapy in some cases.^[42]^[43] Therapeutically, DNA repair deficiencies enable targeted strategies like synthetic lethality, where inhibition of a compensatory pathway exploits the primary defect. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, such as olaparib, capitalize on HR deficiencies in BRCA1/2-mutant cancers by trapping PARP on DNA and causing lethal DSBs during replication; olaparib received FDA approval in December 2014 for BRCA-mutated advanced ovarian cancer, marking a milestone in precision oncology. This approach has since expanded to maintenance therapy in various BRCA-associated malignancies, improving progression-free survival.^[44]^[45]

Environmental and Lifestyle Factors

Tobacco Exposure

Tobacco exposure, primarily through smoking, is a leading cause of malignant transformation across multiple organ systems, with cigarette smoke containing over 70 known carcinogens that initiate and promote oncogenic processes. Key among these are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as benzopyrene, which form DNA adducts that distort the DNA helix and lead to mutations during replication. Another critical class includes tobacco-specific nitrosamines, notably 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK), which preferentially targets the KRAS proto-oncogene in lung epithelial cells, inducing activating G-to-A transitions at codon 12. Epidemiological evidence strongly links tobacco use to malignant transformation, with approximately 85-90% of lung cancer cases worldwide attributable to active smoking. A clear dose-response relationship exists, where heavy smokers (e.g., 20+ cigarettes per day for decades) face a 15- to 30-fold increased risk of developing lung cancer compared to never-smokers. In the lungs, tobacco-induced DNA damage frequently results in G-to-T transversion mutations at hotspots in the TP53 tumor suppressor gene, such as codons 157, 248, and 273, which impair DNA repair and apoptosis, facilitating clonal expansion of transformed cells. Beyond the lungs, tobacco exposure drives malignant transformation in other sites, including the oral cavity, where PAHs contribute to squamous cell carcinomas via chronic mucosal irritation and genetic instability; the bladder, through nitrosamine metabolites excreted in urine causing urothelial mutations; and the pancreas, where NNK promotes acinar cell dedifferentiation and KRAS activation. Secondhand smoke exposure also elevates risk, increasing lung cancer incidence by about 20-30% in nonsmokers, particularly through similar adduct-forming mechanisms in susceptible individuals. Overall, these effects underscore tobacco's role as a potent environmental inducer of multistep carcinogenesis, with cessation reducing but not eliminating cumulative risk.

Dietary Influences

Dietary factors play a significant role in malignant transformation, particularly for gastrointestinal and liver cancers, where certain components can promote oncogenic processes while others offer protection. Epidemiological evidence indicates that between 30 and 50% of all cancer cases are preventable through avoiding key risk factors, including adherence to healthy dietary patterns, tobacco use, and physical inactivity, highlighting the modifiable nature of diet-related risks.^[46] Among risk factors, high intake of red and processed meats is strongly linked to colorectal cancer, with heme iron in these meats facilitating the formation of N-nitroso compounds that damage colonic mucosa and initiate carcinogenesis.^[47]^[48] Similarly, low-fiber diets increase colorectal cancer risk by slowing colonic transit time, thereby prolonging exposure to dietary carcinogens and reducing the dilution of fecal mutagens.^[49]^[50] In colorectal cancer, dietary influences contribute to malignant progression through specific molecular mechanisms, such as APC gene mutations that drive the formation and transformation of adenomatous polyps into invasive tumors.^[51] For liver cancer, consumption of foods contaminated with aflatoxins—mycotoxins produced by Aspergillus fungi in staples like peanuts and corn—induces p53 mutations, particularly the R249S hotspot, leading to hepatocellular carcinoma in high-exposure regions.^[52]^[53] Obesity, often exacerbated by calorie-dense diets, further elevates cancer risk via hyperinsulinemia and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) signaling, which promotes cell proliferation and survival in tissues like the colon and liver.^[54]^[55] Protective dietary elements counteract these risks by mitigating oxidative damage and supporting genomic stability. Antioxidants such as folate, vitamin C, and vitamin E help prevent malignant transformation by neutralizing reactive oxygen species and aiding DNA repair, with folate specifically influencing epigenetic methylation patterns as detailed in related molecular mechanisms.^[56]^[57] The Mediterranean diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and olive oil, reduces colorectal cancer risk by approximately 20%, likely through its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that lower overall carcinogenic burden.^[58]

Infectious Agents

Infectious agents, particularly certain viruses and bacteria, play a significant role in inducing malignant transformation by either directly altering cellular genetic machinery or indirectly promoting chronic inflammation that fosters oncogenic environments. Approximately 13% of all human cancers worldwide are attributable to infectious agents (as of 2020), with viruses accounting for the majority of cases.^[59] Among viruses, high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs), especially types 16 and 18, are primary causes of cervical cancer, responsible for nearly all cases (99.7%) through persistent infection. These viruses encode oncoproteins E6 and E7, which bind and inactivate key tumor suppressors p53 and retinoblastoma (RB) protein, respectively, leading to uncontrolled cell proliferation and genomic instability.^[60]^[61] Similarly, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) drive hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) primarily through chronic infection that induces liver cirrhosis, a premalignant condition characterized by fibrosis and regenerative nodules. In HBV, viral integration into the host genome can occur, but the predominant pathway involves sustained inflammation; HCV, lacking a DNA intermediate, promotes oxidative stress and fibrosis via RNA replication and immune activation.^[62] Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a herpesvirus, is linked to Burkitt lymphoma, where it collaborates with chromosomal translocations involving the c-MYC oncogene, typically t(8;14), to deregulate cell growth and inhibit apoptosis in B lymphocytes.^[63] Bacterial infections contribute to carcinogenesis mainly through indirect mechanisms, though some exhibit virulence factors enabling more direct effects. Helicobacter pylori, a gram-negative bacterium, is the leading cause of gastric adenocarcinoma, accounting for approximately 76% of cases globally via chronic gastritis that progresses to intestinal metaplasia and dysplasia. The CagA protein, injected by the type IV secretion system in certain strains, activates signaling pathways that induce proinflammatory cytokines like interleukin-8 (IL-8), promoting epithelial cell proliferation and angiogenesis.^[64]^[65]^[66] Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi, associated with chronic carriage in the biliary tract, elevates the risk of gallbladder cancer, particularly in regions with high typhoid fever endemicity, by forming biofilms on gallstones that sustain inflammation and genotoxic stress.^[67] Mechanisms of malignant transformation by infectious agents fall into direct and indirect categories. Direct mechanisms involve viral oncogenes, such as HPV E6/E7 or EBV latent membrane proteins, that hijack host cell cycle regulators to immortalize cells. Indirect mechanisms, common to both viruses and bacteria, include chronic inflammation leading to reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, DNA damage, and immunosuppressive microenvironments that favor mutagenesis and tumor evasion. For instance, viral DNA integration, as seen in some HPV and HBV cases, can amplify oncogene expression, though this is secondary to inflammatory drivers in many infections.^[68]^[69]

Chemical and Physical Inducers

Heavy Metal Exposure

Heavy metal exposure, particularly to arsenic and cadmium, contributes to malignant transformation by promoting genotoxic damage and disrupting cellular homeostasis, leading to cancers in multiple organs. Arsenic, commonly ingested through contaminated drinking water, is associated with elevated risks of skin, lung, and bladder cancers due to its interference with DNA integrity and repair processes.^[70] Cadmium, frequently encountered via occupational sources and cigarette smoke, has been linked to prostate and lung cancers, partly through its ability to mimic estrogen and stimulate hormone-dependent cell proliferation.^[71] These metals accumulate in tissues over time, exacerbating their carcinogenic potential through chronic low-level exposure. The primary mechanisms by which arsenic and cadmium induce malignant transformation involve the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause oxidative DNA damage such as strand breaks and base modifications, ultimately leading to genomic instability.^[72] Additionally, both metals exert epigenetic effects, including global DNA hypomethylation that alters gene expression and promotes oncogenesis by derepressing proto-oncogenes.^[73] Arsenic specifically inhibits DNA repair pathways, such as nucleotide excision repair (NER), by interacting with zinc finger proteins and blocking ligation of repaired DNA strands, thereby allowing mutations to persist and accumulate.^[74] Cadmium, acting as a metalloestrogen, binds to estrogen receptors to activate signaling pathways that enhance cell survival and proliferation, further compounded by its induction of ROS-mediated damage.^[75] Epidemiological evidence underscores the public health impact of these exposures. In Bangladesh, the arsenic crisis has affected an estimated 35-57 million people through groundwater contamination as of the early 2000s, with chronic exposure linked to increased risks of skin cancer, particularly in those with visible skin lesions as precursors.^[76] Recent studies as of 2025 indicate that 20-50 million people remain at risk, though mitigation efforts have reduced exposure levels for many.^[77] Occupational exposure to heavy metals in mining and smelting industries has been associated with a 1.5- to 3-fold elevated odds ratio for lung cancer, driven by inhalation of metal-laden dust and fumes.^[78] Cadmium exposure through cigarette smoke represents a significant modifiable source, contributing to lung cancer risk in smokers.^[79] Recent longitudinal research shows that reducing arsenic exposure via alternative water sources can lower cancer-related mortality by up to 50%.^[77] To mitigate these risks, international regulations have been established, including the World Health Organization's provisional guideline value of 10 μg/L (10 ppb) for arsenic in drinking water, adopted in 1993 to protect against chronic carcinogenic effects.^[80] Ongoing monitoring and remediation efforts, such as well-testing and alternative water sources in affected regions, aim to reduce exposure levels and prevent malignant transformation.^[81]

Radiation and Other Physical Agents

Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays, induces malignant transformation primarily through the generation of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in DNA, which can lead to chromosomal rearrangements, gene fusions, and genomic instability if not properly repaired.^[82] These DSBs are particularly lethal and promote oncogenic mutations by disrupting critical genes involved in cell cycle control and apoptosis.^[83] A notable historical example is the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster, where exposure to radioactive iodine-131 significantly increased the incidence of papillary thyroid carcinoma in children, often characterized by RET/PTC gene rearrangements that drive uncontrolled cell proliferation.^[84] The risk assessment for ionizing radiation follows the linear no-threshold (LNT) model, which posits that cancer risk increases proportionally with dose, even at low levels, without a safe threshold, guiding radiation protection standards.^[85] Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, particularly UVB wavelengths, contributes to malignant transformation in skin cells by forming cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) and 6-4 photoproducts, which distort DNA structure and, if unrepaired, result in characteristic mutations.^[86] These lesions predominantly cause C-to-T transitions and CC-to-TT tandem mutations, especially at dipyrimidine sites in the TP53 tumor suppressor gene, leading to loss of p53 function and the development of non-melanoma skin cancers like squamous cell carcinoma.^[86] Such UV-signature mutations are hallmarks of sunlight-induced skin carcinogenesis, with hotspots in p53 exons frequently affected due to slower repair kinetics at these sites.^[87] Other physical agents, including certain fibers and particulates, also facilitate malignant transformation through indirect genotoxic effects. Asbestos fibers, for instance, trigger chronic inflammation in the pleural mesothelium by activating macrophages, which release reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cytokines, leading to persistent DNA damage and oxidative stress that culminate in mesothelioma.^[88] Engineered nanoparticles, due to their small size and high surface area, can penetrate cells and induce genotoxicity via ROS production and direct DNA interaction, raising concerns for increased cancer risk in occupational or environmental exposures, though mechanisms vary by particle type and composition.^[89] The dose-response relationship for radiation-induced malignancies differs between acute high-dose and chronic low-dose exposures. Acute high doses, as experienced by atomic bomb survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, elevate leukemia risk with a peak incidence 5-10 years post-exposure, following a linear-quadratic model where excess cases correlate with absorbed dose.^[90] In contrast, chronic low-dose exposures, such as from environmental sources, are modeled under the LNT framework to accumulate risks over time, potentially amplified by individual DNA repair deficiencies.^[91]

Clinical Aspects

Signs and Symptoms

Malignant transformation often manifests through local signs in affected tissues, such as the development of unexplained lumps or masses, which may indicate the formation of a tumor. Persistent sores or ulcers that do not heal, particularly in the skin, mouth, or other mucosal areas, can also signal underlying cellular changes leading to malignancy. For skin lesions, changes in existing moles are a key indicator; the ABCDE rule helps identify potential melanoma, where A stands for asymmetry (one half unlike the other), B for irregular borders, C for varied colors, D for diameter larger than 6 mm, and E for evolving size, shape, or symptoms.^[92]^[93] Systemic symptoms arise as the transformed cells proliferate and affect the body's overall homeostasis, including unexplained weight loss, chronic fatigue, and fever. In lymphomas, these may present as B symptoms, characterized by drenching night sweats, persistent fever above 38°C, and unintentional weight loss exceeding 10% of body weight over six months. Paraneoplastic syndromes, resulting from tumor-secreted factors, can cause additional systemic effects; for instance, hypercalcemia due to parathyroid hormone-related peptide (PTHrP) secretion is common in squamous cell carcinomas, leading to symptoms like excessive thirst, frequent urination, constipation, and confusion.^[94]^[95] Organ-specific symptoms emerge depending on the site of transformation and tumor growth. In lung cancer, hemoptysis—coughing up blood—often occurs due to tumor erosion into airways or blood vessels. Pancreatic cancer frequently presents with jaundice, yellowing of the skin and eyes from bile duct obstruction, accompanied by dark urine and pale stools. Cancer cachexia, a severe wasting syndrome, contributes to profound weight loss and muscle atrophy across various malignancies through cytokine-mediated inflammation, particularly involving tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which promote metabolic dysregulation and increased energy expenditure.^[96]^[97]^[98] As malignant transformation progresses to invasion and metastasis, symptoms intensify from local tissue disruption. Tumor invasion into surrounding structures can cause pain from nerve compression or tissue stretching, and obstruction of hollow organs like the intestines or ureters, leading to bloating, nausea, and vomiting. Metastatic spread, particularly to bones, results in persistent, aching bone pain that worsens at night or with movement, often the first indication of skeletal involvement in cancers such as breast or prostate.^[99]^[100]

Detection Methods

Detection of malignant transformation relies on a combination of screening, pathological examination, molecular assays, and imaging techniques to identify precancerous or early cancerous changes before clinical symptoms manifest. These methods aim to detect cellular abnormalities indicative of uncontrolled proliferation and invasion, enabling timely intervention to prevent progression to invasive malignancy. Screening programs play a crucial role in early detection for high-risk populations. Mammography, the standard screening modality for breast cancer, has been shown to reduce breast cancer mortality by 20-40% through the identification of non-palpable lesions and microcalcifications suggestive of ductal carcinoma in situ or early invasive disease.^[101] Similarly, colonoscopy facilitates the detection and removal of colorectal polyps, which are precursors to adenocarcinoma, preventing an estimated 50-70% of colorectal cancers by interrupting the adenoma-carcinoma sequence.^[102] Biopsy followed by histopathological analysis remains the gold standard for confirming malignant transformation. Tissue samples obtained via core needle or excisional biopsy are graded based on architectural and cytological features; for instance, the Gleason scoring system for prostate cancer assigns a score from 6 to 10 by summing the dominant and secondary glandular patterns, with higher scores indicating greater dedifferentiation and aggressive potential.^[103] Immunohistochemistry enhances this evaluation by detecting specific protein markers of proliferation and oncogenesis, such as Ki-67, which quantifies the percentage of cycling cells and correlates with tumor aggressiveness in breast cancer, or HER2 overexpression, present in 15-20% of invasive breast carcinomas and associated with rapid growth and metastasis.^[104] Molecular detection methods offer non-invasive alternatives or complements to tissue-based diagnostics. Liquid biopsies analyze circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) in plasma to identify somatic mutations, such as those in the TP53 tumor suppressor gene, which occur in over 50% of human cancers and can signal early transformation with sensitivities approaching 70-90% in advanced stages.^[105] Epigenomic tests, including DNA methylation arrays, profile aberrant methylation patterns at promoter regions of genes like SEPT9 or SHOX2, enabling multi-cancer detection with specificities above 90% by distinguishing tumor-derived epigenetic signatures from normal cell-free DNA.^[106] Advanced imaging modalities support staging and predictive assessment post-initial detection. Computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) combined scans utilize metabolic tracers like 18F-FDG to delineate tumor extent, lymph node involvement, and distant metastases, guiding TNM staging per NCCN guidelines with accuracy rates of 80-95% for locoregional disease.^[107] Emerging artificial intelligence-enhanced MRI applies machine learning algorithms to multiparametric sequences, predicting malignant transformation in lesions like prostate PI-RADS scores or breast BI-RADS categories with improved specificity up to 15-20% over traditional radiologist assessment by identifying subtle textural and perfusion changes.^[108]

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Proto-oncogenes to Oncogenes to Cancer | Learn Science at Scitable
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4353381/
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Discovery of the Philadelphia chromosome: a personal perspective
Abstract. Almost 50 years ago, David Hungerford and I noticed an abnormally small chromosome in cells from patients with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML).Missing: myeloid | Show results with:myeloid
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The Frequency of Ras Mutations in Cancer - PubMed - NIH
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MYC Activity Inference Captures Diverse Mechanisms of Aberrant ...
Nov 24, 2020 · c-MYC (MYC) is deregulated in more than 50% of all cancers. While MYC amplification is the most common MYC-deregulating event, many other ...Missing: prevalence | Show results with:prevalence
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Why are there hotspot mutations in the TP53 gene in human cancers?
Nov 3, 2017 · The p53 gene contains homozygous mutations in ~50-60% of human cancers. About 90% of these mutations encode missense mutant proteins that ...
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Mutation and cancer: statistical study of retinoblastoma - PubMed
Based upon observations on 48 cases of retinoblastoma and published reports, the hypothesis is developed that retinoblastoma is a cancer caused by two
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The chromosomal instability pathway in colon cancer - PubMed - NIH
The acquisition of genomic instability is a crucial feature in tumor development and there are at least 3 distinct pathways in colorectal cancer ...
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a perspective from genetic studies in mice - PubMed - NIH
It has been proposed that enhanced genomic instability at least contributes significantly to, if not requires, tumor progression. Two major modes for genomic ...
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CpG Island Methylation in Colorectal Cancer: Past, Present and Future
Aberrant DNA methylation, in the form of hypermethylation of CpG islands, results in repression of transcription in tumor suppressor genes.
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CpG island methylator phenotype in adenocarcinomas from ... - NIH
Early studies of CIMP established that the MLH1 promoter is consistently hypermethylated in CRC[5]. This observation has since been extended to other cancer ...
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The role of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in human cancer - PMC
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Histone Modifications and Cancer - PMC - PubMed Central
In this article, we review many of the key and newly identified histone modifications known to be deregulated in cancer and how this impacts function.
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MicroRNA-21 targets tumor suppressor genes in invasion ... - Nature
Feb 12, 2008 · Mir-21 has a role not only in tumor growth but also in invasion and tumor metastasis by targeting multiple tumor/metastasis suppressor genes.
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Mir-34: A New Weapon Against Cancer? - PMC - NIH
The microRNA(miRNA)-34a is a key regulator of tumor suppression. It controls the expression of a plethora of target proteins involved in cell cycle, ...
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Mutations in genes encoding subunits of SWI/SNF (BAF) chromatin remodeling complexes are particularly prevalent, occurring in 20% of all human cancers.
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Vorinostat in solid and hematologic malignancies - PMC - NIH
Jul 27, 2009 · Vorinostat is the first HDAC inhibitor approved for the treatment of cancer: in October 2006, the US Food and Drug Administration granted ...
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Cancer epigenetics: from laboratory studies and clinical trials to ...
Jan 15, 2024 · This review summarizes the main mechanisms of epigenetic dysregulation and discusses past and present examples of epigenetic inhibitors in cancer diagnosis and ...
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DNA damage repair: historical perspectives, mechanistic pathways ...
Jul 9, 2021 · Notably, HR repair pathway deficiency has been observed in some cancers. ... repair-deficient squamous cell lung cancer: Lung-MAP substudy S1400G.
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DNA repair mechanisms in cancer development and therapy - PMC
... malignant cells that are HR deficient (Rouleau et al., 2010). Since PARP1 dissociation from DNA is mediated by auto-PARylation, PARP1 inhibitors exert their ...
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Xeroderma Pigmentosum: A Genetic Condition Skin Cancer ... - NIH
Jul 18, 2022 · In particular, the deficiency in functional NER results in up to 2000 times greater susceptibility to melanoma and a 10,000-fold increase in ...
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Genomic mutation landscape of skin cancers from DNA repair ...
May 4, 2023 · Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) is a genetic disorder caused by mutations in genes of the Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER) pathway (groups A-G) ...
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Homologous Recombination Deficiency in Ovarian, Breast ...
Hereditary mutations in one copy of the BRCA gene predispose patients to female breast cancer (85% lifetime risk), ovarian cancer (10%–40%), male breast cancer ...
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Identification of Lynch Syndrome Among Patients With Colorectal ...
Oct 17, 2012 · As a result, tumors of patients with Lynch syndrome characteristically demonstrate MMR deficiency, defined as the presence of microsatellite ...
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Mismatch repair deficiency commonly precedes adenoma formation ...
May 26, 2017 · MMR deficiency is a ubiquitous feature of Lynch syndrome-associated colorectal adenocarcinomas; however, it remains unclear when the MMR- ...
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Mar 16, 2017 · The successful development of PARPi for BRCA mutant cancers provides proof-of-concept that SL interactions can be translated into cancer ...
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Feb 3, 2025 · Between 30 and 50% of cancers can currently be prevented by avoiding risk factors and implementing existing evidence-based prevention strategies ...
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Dose-response analysis showed that the intake of 120 g/d of red meat increases cancer risk by 24% and 30 g/day of processed meat increases this risk by 36% ...
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Like red meat, processed meat is rich in fat, protein and heme iron, which can promote carcinogenesis, or yield promoters in vivo. Processing and cooking can ...
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Increased fiber intake may lead to a dilution of fecal carcinogens, reduced transit time, and bacterial fermentation of fiber to short-chain fatty acids with ...
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The Role of Diet and Lifestyle in Colorectal Cancer Incidence ... - NCBI
Risk factors for increased colorectal cancer incidence includes a diet high in red and processed meat, alcohol, and tobacco. The evidence regarding the ...
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Multiple Roles of APC and its Therapeutic Implications in Colorectal ...
Germ-line mutations in the APC gene result in familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), the major hereditary predisposition event leading to CRC development (3).
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Aflatoxins, hepatocellular carcinoma and public health - PMC - NIH
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Aflatoxin B1-induced hepatocellular carcinoma in developing ...
When AFBO binds to liver cell DNA, it causes mutation of p53 that may lead to HCC. AFBO is also capable of causing aflatoxicosis when it binds to protein ...
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Obesity and endocrine-related cancer: The important role of IGF-1
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Antioxidant and Anti-Tumor Effects of Dietary Vitamins A, C, and E
Mar 3, 2023 · Some studies have found that antioxidant supplements, such as vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E, can reduce the risk of certain types of cancer.
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Concise update on colorectal cancer epidemiology - PMC - NIH
Reliable evidence garnered on over 2.1 million subjects shows that colorectal cancer mortality can be reduced by ~20% with high adherence to the Mediterranean ...Mortality Data · Risk Factors · Conclusions
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Viruses Associated with Human Cancer - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
It is estimated that viral infections contribute to 15–20% of all human cancers. ... cancers can be caused by infectious agents. Analyses of retroviral ...
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The Role of HPV E6 and E7 Oncoproteins in HPV-associated ... - NIH
It is even less well known that nearly all cervical cancers (99.7%) are directly linked to previous infection with one or more of the oncogenic types of HPV (1) ...
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In high-risk HPV types, the E6 and E7 proteins have a high affinity for p53 and pRB. Binding disrupts the normal function of these cellular proteins and can ...
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Hepatitis C Virus Infection as a Risk Factor for Hepatocellular ...
Conclusions: Hepatitis C virus infection is a risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma, apparently by inducing cirrhosis and, to a lesser extent, by enhancing ...
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Epstein-Barr virus provides a survival factor to Burkitt's lymphomas
Activation of the c-myc oncogene through reciprocal chromosomal translocations that juxtapose c-Myc to one of the Ig loci characterizes most BLs (2).
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Global lifetime estimates of expected and preventable gastric ...
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Helicobacter pylori and gastric cancer: mechanisms and new ...
Jan 23, 2025 · This review summarizes the latest research advances to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the H. pylori infection in gastric carcinogenesis.
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Helicobacter pylori and interleukin-8 in gastric cancer
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Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and gallbladder cancer: a case ...
Oct 11, 2016 · Typhi carriers have a significantly higher risk of death from GBC in comparison with the general population. More recently, several case–control ...
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Viral oncogenesis in cancer: from mechanisms to therapeutics - Nature
May 12, 2025 · EBV-associated cancers account for around 1.3–1.9% of the global cancer burden, encompassing nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), Burkitt lymphoma ( ...
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Causal role of infectious agents in cancer: An overview - PMC
These cancers include hepatocellular carcinoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, cervical cancers, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, Kaposi sarcoma, ...
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Molecular Mechanisms of Arsenic-Induced Disruption of DNA Repair
Because the inhibition of DNA ligation by arsenic exposure prevents the completion of DNA repair, it may lead to accumulation of damaged intermediates ...
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Role of Cadmium and Nickel in Estrogen Receptor Signaling ... - NIH
Cadmium and nickel have been hypothesized to play a role in breast cancer development by acting as metalloestrogens— metals that bind to estrogen receptors and ...
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Role of genomic instability in arsenic-induced carcinogenicity. A ...
Arsenic and its metabolites generate oxidative stress, which in turn induces genomic instability through DNA damage, irreversible DNA repair, telomere ...Review · Abstract · Introduction<|separator|>
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Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms in Metal Carcinogenesis and ...
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Inhibition of DNA repair and interaction with zinc finger proteins
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Arsenicosis in Bangladesh: prevalence and socio-economic correlates
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Lung cancer among coal miners, ore miners and quarrymen - NIH
Working in mines and quarries has been associated with an elevated lung cancer risk but with inconsistent results for coal miners.
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Cadmium Exposure: Mechanisms and Pathways of Toxicity and ...
May 26, 2024 · Cadmium (Cd), a prevalent environmental contaminant, exerts widespread toxic effects on human health through various biochemical and molecular mechanisms.
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An analysis of global drinking water regulations and ...
In 1993, the WHO replaced its earlier “tentative limit” of 50 μg/L with a “provisional guideline” of 10 μg/L for As in drinking water [17]. By this time, a skin ...
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[PDF] Guidelines for Drinking‐water Quality
The World Health Organization (WHO) published four editions of the Guidelines for drinking-water quality (in 1983–1984, 1993 ... arsenic, fluoride, lead ...
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Ionizing radiation-induced DNA injury and damage detection in ...
Double-strand DNA breaks (DSB), although rare, are perhaps the most lethal mechanism and are often produced by ionizing radiation (Pastink et al., 2001; Siever ...Dsb Repair Pathways · Table 1. Dna Repair And Cell... · Radiosensitivity In Breast...
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DNA damage response signaling pathways and targets for ... - Nature
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RET/PTC and PAX8/PPARγ chromosomal rearrangements in ... - NIH
RET/PTC and PAX8/PPARγ chromosomal rearrangements in post-Chernobyl thyroid cancer and their association with I-131 radiation dose and other characteristics.
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The Controversial Linear No-Threshold Model
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Mechanisms of UV-induced mutations and skin cancer - PMC - NIH
... CC dinucleotides and also CC to TT mutations. G to T mutations potentially ... Slow repair of pyrimidine dimers at p53 mutation hotspots in skin cancer.
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Cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers form preferentially at the major p53 ...
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Asbestos exposure leads to the development of mesothelioma through multiple mechanisms, including chronic inflammation, oxidative stress with reactive oxygen ...
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Engineered Nanoparticles May Induce Genotoxicity
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Leukemia Risks among Atomic-bomb Survivors – Radiation Effects ...
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The linear no-threshold model in radiation protection
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What to look for: ABCDEs of melanoma
D is for Diameter While melanomas are usually greater than 6 millimeters, or about the size of a pencil eraser, when diagnosed, they can be smaller.
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Signs and Symptoms of Melanoma Skin Cancer
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Signs and Symptoms of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma
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Cancer - Symptoms and causes - Mayo Clinic
Nov 19, 2024 · Signs and symptoms of chemical imbalances might include excessive thirst, frequent urination, constipation and confusion. Brain and nervous ...
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Signs and Symptoms of Pancreatic Cancer
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Interleukin-6 as a Key Regulator of Muscle Mass during Cachexia
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Bowel Obstruction and Cancer - Side Effects - NCI
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A systematic assessment of benefits and risks to guide breast cancer ...
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Measuring and Improving Quality of Colonoscopy for Colorectal ...
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Gleason Score - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The Gleason score is the primary initial histologic assessment tool used to grade prostate malignancies and has proven to have significant prognostic value.Definition/Introduction · Issues of Concern · Clinical Significance
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Ki-67 as a Prognostic Biomarker in Invasive Breast Cancer - PMC
In breast cancer development, the expression of Ki-67 is strongly associated with cancer proliferation and is a known indicator of prognosis and outcome.
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The Polemic Diagnostic Role of TP53 Mutations in Liquid Biopsies ...
Nov 12, 2020 · Mutations in TP53 occur very early during tumor development, so their identification helps in diagnosing cancer. Furthermore, knowing in advance ...
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Artificial Intelligence in cancer epigenomics: a review on advances ...
Jun 14, 2025 · Epigenetic modifications, particularly DNA methylation, have emerged as stable and highly sensitive tumor-type-specific biomarkers with ...
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Imaging AUC Compendium - NCCN
NCCN Imaging AUC provides evidence‑based guidelines on appropriate imaging use to optimize cancer diagnosis and care.
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Application of artificial intelligence in medical imaging for tumor ...
Aug 26, 2025 · As AI evolves, its integration with big data, genomics, and molecular imaging will refine tumor detection and personalize cancer management, ...