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Mantis

A mantis, commonly known as a praying mantis, is a carnivorous insect belonging to the order Mantodea, renowned for its elongated body, triangular head, and raptorial forelegs folded in a characteristic "praying" posture used for capturing prey.^[1] These ambush predators are found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions worldwide, with over 2,400 valid species distributed across 33 families and about 460 genera.^[2] Mantises exhibit remarkable camouflage, often mimicking foliage or flowers, and play a role in ecosystems as generalist predators that consume a wide array of insects, including both pests and beneficial species.^[3] Physically, mantises typically range from 1 to 15 cm (0.4 to 6 inches) in length, though some species are smaller or larger, with adults displaying green, brown, or yellowish hues depending on their environment.^[1] Their heads are highly mobile, capable of rotating 180 degrees, equipped with large compound eyes and three simple ocelli for enhanced vision, which aids in detecting movement up to 60 feet away.^[3]^[4] The forelegs are specialized with sharp spines for grasping, while the body features leathery forewings and fan-like hindwings used for short flights, though many species are flightless or poor fliers.^[5] Nymphs resemble smaller versions of adults and undergo incomplete metamorphosis, hatching from foam-like egg cases (oothecae) containing 12 to 400 eggs.^[3] Behaviorally, mantises are solitary and territorial, employing stealth and patience to stalk prey such as flies, crickets, moths, and even small vertebrates like lizards in larger species.^[1] They exhibit cannibalism, particularly among nymphs or during mating when females may consume males, a trait that has cultural significance in various societies.^[3] With a lifespan of 6–12 months and one generation per year in temperate zones, mantises contribute to biological control but are indiscriminate feeders, limiting their utility in agriculture.^[5]

Etymology and Overview

Etymology

The term "mantis" derives from the Ancient Greek word μάντις (mántis), meaning "prophet," "seer," or "soothsayer," a name inspired by the insect's characteristic posture with its forelegs folded in a manner suggestive of prayer or divination.^[6]^[7] This etymology reflects early observations of the insect's vigilant stance, evoking images of a diviner or oracle in Greek culture.^[8] In English, the common name "praying mantis" emerged in the 17th century, directly alluding to the raised forelegs that resemble hands clasped in prayer, a descriptor that has persisted alongside the simpler "mantis."^[6] Similar linguistic variations appear in other languages, such as the French "mante religieuse," which translates to "religious mantis" and emphasizes the pious connotation of the posture.^[9] The term entered scientific nomenclature through Carl Linnaeus, who in his 1758 Systema Naturae classified the European species as Gryllus (Mantis) religiosus, later simplified to Mantis religiosa, with "religiosa" underscoring the religious imagery of its pose.^[10]^[11] This binomial naming formalized the Greek root in taxonomy, influencing subsequent classifications within the order Mantodea.^[7]

General Characteristics

Mantises are predatory insects in the order Mantodea, encompassing approximately 2,500 species across 29 families and over 460 genera, with a cosmopolitan distribution but highest diversity in tropical and subtropical regions.^[12] These insects typically feature elongated bodies measuring 1 to 15 cm in length, adapted for agile movement and ambush hunting.^[13] A defining trait is their raptorial forelegs, which are enlarged and spined for grasping prey, often held in a prayer-like posture that aids in camouflage among vegetation.^[14] Mantises inhabit warm, vegetated environments such as forests, gardens, meadows, and shrubs, where they perch on foliage or flowers to await prey.^[14] As generalist predators, they contribute to ecosystem balance by consuming herbivorous insects, including agricultural pests, though their impact is moderated by cannibalistic tendencies.^[14] The order's diversity includes remarkable adaptations for crypsis, such as the orchid mantis (Hymenopus coronatus), which mimics flower petals to lure pollinators, and dead-leaf mantises (Deroplatys spp.), which resemble decaying foliage to blend into leaf litter.^[15]

Taxonomy and Evolution

Classification and Phylogeny

Mantises are classified in the order Mantodea, which belongs to the superorder Polyneoptera within the subclass Pterygota of the class Insecta.^[16] The order encompasses over 2,500 described species distributed across approximately 29 families, with many more likely undiscovered, especially in understudied tropical habitats.^[2] The family Mantidae is the largest, comprising about 1,261 species or roughly 50% of the total mantis diversity, while other notable families include Empusidae, known for their ornate, flower-mimicking forms, and Tarachodidae, which features slender, twig-like species.^[17] Phylogenetic analyses position Mantodea as the sister group to Blattodea (encompassing cockroaches and termites), with the two orders together forming the higher taxon Dictyoptera.^[18] Molecular clock estimates date this divergence to between 200 and 300 million years ago during the Permian period.^[19] Within Mantodea, molecular and morphological studies reveal a basal split, with early-diverging lineages such as Mantoididae and Metallyticidae branching off before the core group of "higher mantises," reflecting adaptations to predatory lifestyles across diverse clades.^[20] Recent phylogenetic research has advanced understanding of mantis evolution, including the description of new species like Sinaiella azadi from central Iran in 2025, expanding the known range of the genus Sinaiella into Armenia and highlighting ongoing taxonomic discoveries in Western Asia.^[21] Additionally, a 2023 genomic study on the orchid mantis (Hymenopus coronatus) uncovered genetic mechanisms, such as expansions in pigmentation-related gene families, driving its pink, flower-like camouflage as an evolutionary innovation for predatory mimicry.^[15]

Fossil Record

The fossil record of mantises (order Mantodea) is notably sparse, reflecting challenges in preserving their predominantly soft-bodied structures, with only about 38 species described across the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. Most known fossils originate from Cretaceous amber deposits, such as those in Myanmar, Lebanon, and Spain, which have yielded exceptionally preserved specimens revealing details of wing venation and raptorial forelimbs. These amber inclusions, dating from approximately 100 to 110 million years ago, include genera like Santanmantis from Brazil's Crato Formation, highlighting early predatory adaptations.^[22]^[23] The earliest confidently identified mantis fossils date to the Late Jurassic, specifically the Kimmeridgian stage (~157–152 million years ago) of the Karabastau Formation in southern Kazakhstan. Notable among these is Juramantis initialis Vršanský, 2002, a basal mantodean that already exhibits specialized raptorial forelegs adapted for grasping prey, suggesting that key predatory traits had evolved by this time. These compression fossils from Karatau indicate that mantises originated in tropical to subtropical environments during the Jurassic, with no substantial morphological innovations appearing in later records—their basic body plan, including elongated bodies and folded wings, remains remarkably conserved to the present day.^[22]^[24] While some researchers have suggested possible extensions of mantodean lineage to the Permian based on wing venation similarities in certain dictyopteran fossils like those of the Strephocladidae, this interpretation remains debated, as such forms are often classified as stem-group relatives rather than true crown Mantodea. The record's gaps are exacerbated by the insects' fragile exoskeletons and terrestrial habits, limiting preservation outside amber or fine-grained sediments; recent analyses, including a 2024 systematic review by Vršanský et al., have refined classifications of Jurassic taxa from high-latitude deposits, underscoring the group's early diversification amid Mesozoic climatic shifts.^[25]^[26]

Similar Taxa

Mantidflies (family Mantispidae) in the order Neuroptera are among the insects most commonly confused with praying mantises due to their raptorial forelegs, which are modified for grasping prey in a manner strikingly similar to those of mantises.^[27] These forelegs feature spiny tibiae and femora that fold together to capture small insects, enabling mantidflies to ambush prey much like mantises.^[28] However, mantidflies belong to a different insect order, Neuroptera, characterized by net-veined wings with intricate, lace-like venation that contrasts with the simpler, often leathery forewings of mantises.^[29] Additionally, mantidflies undergo complete metamorphosis (holometabolous), with larvae that typically parasitize spider egg sacs, differing from the incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetabolous) of mantises, where nymphs resemble miniature adults.^[30] A notable example is Climaciella brunnea, the brown wasp mantidfly, which not only possesses raptorial forelegs but also adopts mantis-like coloration and posture to mimic praying mantises, deterring potential predators through Batesian mimicry.^[31] This species further enhances its disguise by resembling paper wasps in yellow-and-black patterning, combining traits from multiple unrelated groups for protection.^[27] Other elongated insects, such as stick insects (order Phasmatodea), may be superficially mistaken for mantises due to their slender, twig-like bodies adapted for camouflage, but they lack raptorial forelegs entirely and are herbivorous rather than predatory.^[32] Similarly, some orthopterans like grasshoppers exhibit elongated bodies and can blend into vegetation, yet they possess powerful hind legs for jumping and do not have the grasping forelimbs characteristic of mantises.^[33] These superficial resemblances arise from evolutionary convergence, where raptorial foreleg adaptations have independently evolved in distantly related predatory insect lineages, including Mantodea and Neuroptera, as a response to similar selective pressures for capturing prey.^[34] Such convergences highlight how unrelated groups can develop analogous structures for ambush predation, aiding in distinguishing true mantises from mimics or similarly shaped taxa.^[35]

Biology

Anatomy and Morphology

The body of a praying mantis is divided into three thoracic segments: the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. The prothorax is notably elongated and highly mobile, featuring a pronotum that is divided into an anterior prozone and a posterior metazone by the supracoxal sulcus, allowing for flexible neck movement and supporting the raptorial forelegs.^[36] The mesothorax and metathorax are shorter, with the mesothorax bearing the forewings and the metathorax supporting the hindwings and walking legs.^[36] The head is triangular in shape, equipped with large compound eyes positioned laterally to provide a wide field of vision, and three ocelli for additional light detection.^[36] This structure, combined with the mobility afforded by the elongated prothorax, enables 180-degree head rotation to track potential prey.^[36] Raptorial forelegs are a defining morphological adaptation for predation, consisting of an elongated coxa, spined femur, and tibia that form a grasping "basket." The femur features rows of spines—discoidal, anteroventral (typically 10–12), and posteroventral (4–5)—while the tibia has anteroventral (7–8) and posteroventral (12–14) spines, creating a folding mechanism to secure prey.^[36] These spines vary in size and shape across species, with enlarged, sclerotized forms in some (e.g., Metallyticus splendidus) enhancing strike power, supported by 17 extrinsic and up to 15 intrinsic muscles for rapid extension and flexion.^[37] Many mantis species possess wings adapted for flight, with leathery forewings (tegmina) covering the abdomen and membranous hindwings folded beneath for short-distance dispersal.^[36] Sexual dimorphism is evident in wing length, where males typically have longer, fully functional wings extending beyond the abdomen to aid in mate location, while females often have shorter wings. Camouflage is achieved through integument variations, including leaf-like expansions on the pronotum (e.g., in Phyllocrania paradoxa), flower-mimicking elongations on eyes or legs (e.g., Hymenopus coronatus), and bark-resembling textures or colors across the body surface.^[36]

Vision and Sensory Systems

Praying mantises possess two large compound eyes, each comprising approximately 9,000 ommatidia, which provide a wide field of view and enable detailed visual processing.^[38] These ommatidia function as individual photoreceptive units, allowing the mantis to detect movement and form images across a nearly 180-degree horizontal panorama per eye. Unlike many insects, mantises exhibit trichromatic color vision, with photoreceptors sensitive to ultraviolet (peaking around 350 nm), blue (around 450 nm), and green (around 520 nm) wavelengths, a capability that facilitates discrimination of environmental cues such as camouflage patterns.^[39] A key feature of mantis vision is stereopsis, the ability to perceive depth through binocular disparity, which is rare among invertebrates and supports accurate distance estimation for approaching objects up to about 60 cm. This 3D vision is enhanced by a specialized foveal region in each eye, characterized by higher photoreceptor density and smaller inter-ommatidial angles (less than 1° in adults), enabling high-acuity fixation and smooth tracking of targets.^[40] The overlapping binocular field, spanning up to 70° frontally, integrates these inputs to triangulate prey position rapidly.^[41] Beyond vision, mantises rely on antennae equipped with sensilla for chemoreception, detecting olfactory and gustatory cues essential for locating mates and food sources.^[42] Mechanoreceptors distributed on the legs, including hair sensilla and chordotonal organs, sense vibrations and substrate movements, supplementing visual detection in low-light or cluttered environments.^[43] Neural processing in the mantis brain, particularly in the optic lobes and central complex, handles motion detection and stereoscopic integration through dedicated projection neurons that respond to binocular disparities and changing visual stimuli.^[44] This circuitry enables precise 3D targeting, where motion cues trigger predatory responses by computing relative image shifts across the eyes.^[45]

Diet and Predation

Mantises are obligate carnivores, primarily feeding on other insects such as flies, moths, crickets, grasshoppers, and beetles, which form the bulk of their diet due to their abundance in natural habitats.^[46] However, they exhibit opportunistic predation, occasionally capturing small vertebrates including lizards, frogs, small birds like hummingbirds, and even fish when opportunities arise, with over 147 documented cases of bird predation across various species worldwide.^[47]^[48] As sit-and-wait ambush predators, mantises rely on cryptic camouflage to blend into foliage, bark, or flowers, remaining motionless to lure unsuspecting prey within striking range; certain species, like the orchid mantis, employ aggressive mimicry by resembling blossoms to attract pollinators.^[49] Once prey is detected, they execute a rapid raptorial strike using their specialized forelegs, achieving speeds up to 730 mm/s in some species to capture targets with high precision.^[50] Following capture, mantises initiate extraoral digestion by regurgitating digestive enzymes from their salivary glands onto the prey, which liquefies internal tissues for easier consumption; they then chew and ingest the softened material, with the midgut facilitating nutrient absorption.^[51] This process allows efficient extraction of proteins and other nutrients, enabling mantises to process meals exceeding 100% of their body mass without significant waste production.^[52] In their ecosystems, mantises serve as apex predators within microhabitats like gardens and shrublands, exerting top-down control on insect populations and contributing to natural pest management by preying on agricultural nuisances such as aphids, leafhoppers, and invasive species like the spotted lanternfly.^[53]^[54] Their predatory efficiency underscores their role in maintaining biodiversity balance, though as generalists, they do not discriminate between pest and beneficial insects.^[55]

Defense and Antipredator Adaptations

Praying mantises employ a range of antipredator strategies to evade detection and deter threats from predators such as birds, bats, and larger arthropods. A primary defense is cryptic camouflage through background matching and disruptive coloration, allowing them to blend seamlessly with their surroundings. For instance, Amazonian bark mantises in the Liturgusidae family exhibit color morphs—white, green, and grey—that closely match whitish trunks, bryophyte patches, and greenish-brown bark, respectively, resulting in low chromatic and achromatic contrasts (e.g., 2.20–2.84 just noticeable differences for color matching). Disruptive patterns further break up their body outline, with intermediate edge disruption values (GabRat 0.20–0.40) enhancing concealment against avian visual predators. Field experiments confirm this efficacy, as camouflaged models were detected over three to five times slower by human observers simulating birds.^[56] When camouflage fails and predators approach, mantises deploy deimatic or startle displays to startle attackers and create an opportunity for escape. These displays involve sudden revelation of hidden conspicuous features, such as eye-spots on the wings or hindlegs, which are phylogenetically conserved across mantis lineages and were observed in 31 of 58 studied species (across 58 genera, approximately 13% of total extant genera). Originating around 60 million years ago following the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction, these displays have contributed to diversification in species-rich clades, though they show no direct correlation with body size or primary camouflage type. In species like those in the genus Sphodromantis, eye-spots mimic larger threats, eliciting reflexive recoils from predators.^[57] Threat postures form another key behavioral adaptation, often triggered post-attack by tactile stimuli such as pinching or poking. Mantises raise their forelegs, pronotum, and sometimes wings and abdomen to appear larger and more intimidating; for example, Archimantis latistyla lifts its pronotum and tilts its abdomen upward, while Hierodula majuscula exposes dark femoral patches. These displays are sexually dimorphic in responsiveness, with females more likely to perform them than males in species like Pseudomantis albofimbriata. Accompanying sounds enhance the display in some taxa; Mantis religiosa produces defensive stridulation via an abdomino-alar mechanism, where teeth on metathoracic wing veins rub against the coxa, generating variable broadband hisses (spectral peaks at 5–20 kHz) to deter predators.^[58]^[59] Chemical defenses are rare among mantises, which generally lack potent toxins, but some species secrete irritants or mimic chemical cues for protection. Juvenile orchid mantises (Hymenopus coronatus) release volatile compounds that mimic floral scents, deceiving predators like the oriental hornet into perceiving them as flowers rather than prey. Escape behaviors complement these tactics; when threatened by bats, flying mantises execute evasive dives, abruptly halting wingbeats and dropping altitude to disrupt echolocation tracking, with responses timed to pulse repetition rates above 50 Hz for optimal evasion.^[60]^[61] The bold ambush predation style of mantises imposes evolutionary trade-offs, heightening their vulnerability to larger predators due to prolonged exposure during hunting. Starved individuals prioritize energy acquisition by increasing attentive behaviors like prey monitoring and strikes, elevating predation risk, whereas satiated mantises reduce such activities in favor of grooming or mating, reflecting a state-dependent balance between foraging gains and survival costs. This internal state modulation underscores how antipredator adaptations must navigate conflicts with predatory demands in a high-risk lifestyle.^[62]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Sexual dimorphism in mantises is pronounced, with females typically larger and heavier than males to support egg production, while males exhibit enhanced locomotion and sensory adaptations for mate location.^[63] This size difference influences reproductive roles, as females allocate energy to ootheca development and males prioritize mobility for dispersal.^[64] Courtship involves males approaching females guided by airborne sex pheromones, followed by elaborate displays such as wing fluttering, antennal movements, and cautious advances to avoid aggression.^[65]^[66] Mating often includes a risk of sexual cannibalism, where the female may consume the male, though this is more common in laboratory settings than in the wild.^[67] Oviposition occurs primarily in late summer or fall, with females extruding a frothy secretion that hardens into protective egg cases known as oothecae, which are attached to twigs, stems, or other substrates.^[5] Each ootheca contains 10 to 400 eggs, depending on species and environmental conditions; for example, the eremic mantis Blepharopsis mendica averages about 32 eggs per case.^[54] Eggs overwinter within the ootheca and hatch in spring after an incubation period of several weeks to months, triggered by warmer temperatures.^[68] Mantises undergo incomplete metamorphosis, progressing through egg, nymph, and adult stages without a pupal phase. Nymphs emerge from the ootheca as miniature versions of adults and undergo 6 to 10 instars, molting periodically to grow; the nymphal period lasts several months, varying by species and sex.^[5] Adults, which eclose in summer, have a lifespan of 3 to 6 months, during which they focus on reproduction before dying in colder months.^[54] Recent research in 2025 on the bordered mantis Stagmomantis limbata demonstrates that nymphs exhibit color plasticity, changing from green to brown (or vice versa) post-molting in response to background cues, enhancing camouflage against predators during development.^[69] Parental care is generally absent in mantises, with females providing no post-oviposition protection beyond the ootheca's structure; however, the hardened casing offers some defense against environmental hazards and parasitoids.^[68] In some species, females may guard oothecae briefly, but this is rare and not widespread.^[54]

Sexual Cannibalism

Sexual cannibalism, the consumption of males by females during or immediately after mating, is a documented behavior in many mantis species, though its frequency varies widely. In laboratory settings, rates can reach up to 30% or higher, particularly when females are hungry, as experimental pairings with low mate access and starved females result in cannibalism in nearly 80% of cases over extended observation periods. In the wild, however, occurrences are generally lower, ranging from 13% to 31% of observed matings, as seen in field studies of species like Mantis religiosa and Tenodera sinensis. This disparity arises because natural conditions often provide females with alternative prey, reducing the likelihood of targeting mates. Triggers include female hunger, which heightens predatory responses, and male behavioral errors, such as overly aggressive or poorly timed approaches during courtship, where males must cautiously signal to avoid eliciting an attack.^[70]^[71]^[72] The primary benefit to females is nutritional gain, which directly supports egg production and enhances reproductive output. In Tenodera sinensis, females that cannibalize males produce significantly more eggs in their first ootheca—up to 88 eggs compared to 38 in non-cannibalized females—and lay additional oothecae with greater viability, equivalent to the boost from consuming similarly sized prey like crickets. This nutrient transfer includes male-derived amino acids incorporated into eggs at rates over 38%, improving offspring quality. For males, the behavior may represent a form of terminal investment, where their body materials contribute to higher offspring fitness, potentially offsetting the loss of future mating opportunities despite the fatal cost.^[73]^[74] Evolutionary hypotheses frame sexual cannibalism as an adaptive foraging strategy for females in nutrient-scarce environments, where males serve as a high-value, accessible prey item during vulnerable mating periods. Another perspective involves sexual selection, where bolder males that successfully navigate risky courtships may sire more offspring, favoring traits like cautious signaling or physical prowess to evade attack. However, the behavior is not universal across mantis species; it varies by ecology and is absent or rare in many, challenging notions of it as an obligatory trait. Detailed observations in Tenodera sinensis reveal that cannibalism often occurs post-copulation, allowing sperm transfer before consumption, and is modulated by female condition—well-fed individuals rarely engage in it. This phenomenon has been amplified in popular media, fostering misconceptions that it is inevitable or emblematic of all mantis matings, whereas scientific evidence shows it as a context-specific adaptation rather than a rule.^[75]^[74]^[70]

Relationship with Humans

Cultural and Religious Significance

In ancient Greek culture, the praying mantis derived its name from the word mantis, meaning "prophet" or "seer," reflecting beliefs in its supernatural abilities to foretell events or guide the lost.^[76] This association stemmed from the insect's poised stance, interpreted as a gesture of divination. In Chinese tradition, the praying mantis symbolizes courage, precision, and martial prowess, serving as the inspiration for the Northern Praying Mantis style of kung fu. Developed in the 16th century by Wang Lang, this martial art mimics the insect's swift, calculated strikes and defensive postures observed during combat with larger foes.^[77] The mantis emblem embodies strategic patience and unyielding determination in the face of adversity.^[78] Among the San people of southern Africa, particularly the Kalahari Bushmen, the praying mantis holds profound spiritual reverence as an incarnation of God and the oldest symbol of divinity. In their folklore, it appears as the trickster deity ǀKaggen, a shape-shifter who acts as a messenger between the human and spiritual worlds, conveying wisdom and mediating creation myths.^[79] Encounters with the mantis are seen as omens or calls to introspection.^[80] The praying mantis features prominently in literature and art, often symbolizing contemplation or the natural world's intricacies. In Jean-Henri Fabre's Souvenirs Entomologiques (translated as Fabre's Book of Insects), detailed observations of the mantis's predatory habits and "prayer-like" posture blend scientific insight with poetic reflection on instinct and survival.^[81] Modern fables, inspired by Aesop's moral tales, recast the mantis as a teacher of resilience, as in Little Ant and the Mantis, where it imparts lessons on maintaining positivity amid hardship.^[82] In Japanese art, ukiyo-e prints by masters like Kitagawa Utamaro depict the mantis alongside grasshoppers or under the moon, capturing its elegance and transience in works such as Ehon mushi erami (Picture Book of Selected Insects).^[83] In various Indigenous beliefs, the praying mantis is sacred, representing stillness, patience, and mindfulness. Native American traditions view it as a pre-creation being that embodies the cycle of life and divine protection, encouraging balance and awareness.^[84] Similarly, some South African Indigenous groups regard its posture as a conduit for ancestral spirits and blessings.^[85] In 2025, Iranian researcher Mahmood Kolnegari described a new praying mantis species, Sinaiella azadi sp. nov., from the Zagros Mountains, naming it after the Persian word for "freedom" to symbolize the Iranian people's ongoing struggle for liberty amid political repression. This discovery, published in Zootaxa, highlights the insect's cryptic camouflage and draws global attention to biodiversity in the region.^[86]

Practical Uses and Interactions

Praying mantises are popular as exotic pets, particularly among insect enthusiasts, due to their striking appearance and predatory behavior. Species such as Sphodromantis lineola, the African mantis, are favored for their ease of care and manageable size, reaching 6-8 cm in length.^[87] These mantises thrive in terrariums at least three times their body length in height and twice in width to allow for molting and movement, with temperatures maintained between 70-80°F (21-27°C) and relative humidity of 50-70% achieved through regular misting.^[88]^[89] They require live prey, such as fruit flies or small crickets, to mimic their natural carnivorous diet and stimulate hunting instincts.^[90] In agriculture, praying mantises are employed for biological pest control, where they are released to prey on common garden pests like aphids and mosquitoes. Their efficacy is notable in controlled environments such as greenhouses, where they help reduce pest populations without chemical interventions, provided pesticide use is minimized to avoid harming the mantises.^[91]^[92] However, limitations arise in open fields, as mantises do not distinguish between pests and beneficial insects, potentially disrupting ecosystems, and their impact on flying pests like mosquitoes is reduced due to preferences for larger, slower-moving prey.^[93] Historically, mantis egg cases, known as Sang Piao Xiao in Traditional Chinese Medicine, have been used since ancient times, as documented in the Shennong Bencao Jing (circa 200-250 AD), to treat conditions like frequent urination and enuresis by tonifying kidney yang and restraining essence.^[94] In modern contexts, mantises are bred for educational purposes, with commercial kits allowing students and families to observe their life cycles from egg case hatching to adulthood, promoting awareness of entomology and ecology.^[95] Interactions between humans and mantises are generally benign, though occasional bites can occur if the insect feels threatened, such as when handled roughly; these bites are harmless, causing at most a minor pinch or slight redness without venom or infection risk.^[96] A 2025 study explored feeding adult black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens) to mantis species like Tenodera sinensis and Sphodromantis lineola as a sustainable alternative to traditional prey, noting high initial acceptance but ultimate incompatibility as a sole diet due to nutritional deficiencies leading to reduced survival and reproduction.^[97]

Inspirations in Science and Technology

The praying mantis (order Mantodea) has inspired advancements in robotics and machine vision due to its sophisticated visual and locomotor adaptations. Researchers have drawn from the insect's unique binocular vision, which enables stereopsis for 3D depth perception despite its compound eyes, to develop more efficient artificial vision systems for robots. This form of vision relies on overlapping fields of view between the left and right eyes, allowing precise distance estimation critical for predation and navigation.^[98] In 2024, engineers at the University of Virginia created stereoscopic artificial compound eyes that mimic the praying mantis's spatiotemporal perception capabilities. These bioinspired sensors integrate a wide field of view with binocular overlap, enabling 3D localization of objects in dynamic environments with lower computational demands than traditional stereo cameras. The system uses curved, multi-lens arrays to replicate the mantis's foveal regions, achieving depth accuracy within 5% error at distances up to 1 meter, which could enhance robotic applications in cluttered or low-light settings. Published in Science Robotics, this work demonstrates how mantis-like vision reduces energy use for machine perception by prioritizing motion parallax cues.^[98]^[99] Earlier studies on mantis vision, such as those from Newcastle University, revealed a motion-based stereopsis mechanism that activates 3D perception only for moving objects, simplifying neural processing compared to vertebrate binocular vision. This discovery, detailed in a 2018 Current Biology paper, used miniature 3D glasses on mantises to confirm that they detect depth via interocular velocity differences, a cue absent in static scenes. Such findings have informed robotic vision algorithms that incorporate motion-triggered depth mapping, potentially simplifying hardware complexity for autonomous drones and manipulators.^[100] Beyond vision, the praying mantis's jumping mechanics have guided designs for agile robotics. Juvenile mantises achieve precise, targeted leaps—covering distances up to 10 times their body length in under 0.1 seconds—by exchanging angular momentum among three body segments: the thorax, abdomen, and legs. A seminal 2015 study in Current Biology analyzed high-speed footage showing how mantises counter-rotate their abdomen to stabilize mid-air orientation, preventing unwanted spin and ensuring accurate landings. This tri-segmental control strategy has inspired jumping robots that use distributed actuators to mimic momentum transfer, improving stability in small-scale platforms for search-and-rescue operations.^[101] The mantis's raptorial forelegs and adaptive hind legs have also influenced landing and gripping technologies. In a 2025 Biomimetics paper, researchers developed a multi-quadrupole landing gear for micro aerial vehicles, emulating the mantis's passive leg adaptation to irregular surfaces via compliant, spine-like structures that distribute load and enhance grip. Prototypes demonstrated a 30% increase in stability on rough terrains compared to rigid designs, with applications in planetary rovers. Additionally, the insect's spined forelegs have informed soft robotic grippers that use compliant hooks for delicate object handling, though these remain in early prototyping stages.^[102]

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Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical climates. Approximately 1 family and 28 species in North America and 8 families and ~2,500 species worldwide ...
[14]
Evolutionary genomics of camouflage innovation in the orchid mantis
Aug 10, 2023 · Due to the highly camouflaged appearances of the orchid mantis and dead leaf mantis, they are rarely observed in the wild (Fig. 1A), resulting ...
[15]
Mantodea - Explore the Taxonomic Tree | FWS.gov
Class, Insecta. Subclass, Pterygota. Infraclass, Neoptera. Superorder, Polyneoptera. Order, Mantodea. Suborder, Mantodea. Family, Mantidae. Genus, Phyllovates ...
[16]
Mantodea home page - Species File
The MSF has full synonymic and taxonomic information for over 2,400 valid species. A future aim of this database is to provide images of the specimens deposited ...
[17]
[PDF] Updated Checklist and Distribution of Mantidae (Mantodea
There are 169 species of mantids, distributed under 71 genera from India [8]. Recently, 9 more species of mantids were described from Maharashtra but all are ...
[18]
Phylogeny of cockroaches (Insecta, Dictyoptera, Blattodea), with ...
Oct 14, 2011 · ... Mantodea, specifically testing the possible sister-group relationship. ... Mantodea was placed as sister to Blattodea. Polyphagidae and ...
[19]
Reconstructing the phylogeny of Blattodea: robust support ... - Nature
Jun 20, 2017 · Corydioidea was found as the sister group to the remaining Blattodea and considered as the basal split within Blattodea with high support ...
[20]
Phylogeny of Mantodea based on molecular data - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Mantoididae is sister group to the rest of the sampled mantid taxa. Lineages congruent with current subfamilial taxonomy include Paraoxypilinae, ...
[21]
Sinaiella azadi sp. nov. (Mantodea: Toxoderidae); a new praying ...
Feb 27, 2025 · Sinaiella azadi sp. nov. is a new praying mantis species from Western Asia, specifically Iran and Armenia.
[22]
An exceptionally preserved 110 million years old praying mantis ...
Jul 24, 2017 · The important phylogenetic position of the species within Mantodea as an early offshoot of the mantodean lineage was recognised early on ( ...Missing: Ameriglanoidea | Show results with:Ameriglanoidea
[23]
[PDF] Advanced stereopsis and predatory adaptation in a Cretaceous mantis
Feb 25, 2025 · Fossil records of mantodeans are relatively rare: 38 species have been described, 25 from the. Mesozoic and 13 from the Cenozoic (Delclňs et al.
[24]
[PDF] New Lower Cretaceous basal mantodean (Insecta) from the Crato ...
Abstract: Mantodea are very rare in the fossil record. 28 fossil species are reported since the earliest occurrence of mantodeans in the Upper Jurassic ...
[25]
Evidence for Carboniferous origin of the order Mantodea (Insecta
Overall about 34 species of Mantodea have been described based on fossils ... Many species descriptions of fossil dictyopterans are mostly based on the ...
[26]
Systematics of Mesozoic 'Arctic' polar cockroaches | Biologia
Dec 6, 2024 · Type locality: Karatau, Kazakhstan. Type horizon: ?Kimmeridgian Upper Jurassic Karabastau Formation. Composition: Cameloblatta Vishniakova, 1971 ...
[27]
Wasp Mantidfly | Department of Entomology
With their yellow and brown striping, triangular-shaped heads and raptorial (grasping) forelegs, they look like a cross between a praying mantis and a paper ...
[28]
Mantidfly - Field Guide to Common Texas Insects
Another unusual, closely-related group is the snakeflies (Neuroptera (Suborder Raphidiodea): Raphidiidae), appearing somewhat similar to mantispids because ...
[29]
Mantidflies (Mantis Flies) - Missouri Department of Conservation
Mantidflies, also called mantis flies or mantispids, look like a cross between a lacewing insect and a praying mantis. They are small, delicate creatures ...
[30]
Wasp Mantidfly – Field Station - UW-Milwaukee
Mar 4, 2020 · They're not related to praying mantises and they're not related to flies, either. Wasp/Brown Mantidflies (Climaciella brunnea), in the subfamily ...
[31]
The Patchwork Life of the Brown Wasp Mantidfly | The Outside Story
Jun 17, 2024 · Adult brown wasp mantidflies may look like wasps, but they hunt like praying mantises. Both insects have large, spiky grabbing forelegs that ...
[32]
Praying Mantids - Wisconsin Horticulture
All members of the Mantodea have the characteristic raptorial front legs. ; mantid-adult Mantids are insects with a distinctive appearance.
[33]
Grass-Like Mantid, American Grass Mantid, Thesprotia graminis ...
Adult Thesprotia graminis generally range between 47 and 56 mm in length (Figure 5), although much larger specimens have been collected, including a female from ...Description · Nymphs · Adults<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
A mantidfly in Cretaceous Spanish amber provides insights into the ...
Sep 13, 2019 · Multiple predatory insect lineages have developed a raptorial lifestyle by which they strike and hold prey using modified forelegs armed ...
[35]
The associated evolution of raptorial foreleg and mantispid ...
Nov 2, 2023 · Among them, Mantispidae have an evolutionary history fluctuating over 200 million years, along with their raptorial forelegs having transformed ...
[36]
Manual of praying mantis morphology, nomenclature, and practices ...
This study provides a comprehensive review of historical morphological nomenclature used for praying mantis (Mantodea) morphology.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
Journal of Morphology - Wiley Online Library
Dec 8, 2024 · The prehensile raptorial forelegs of praying mantises (Mantodea) are a prominent example of true multifunctionality since they are used for ...
[38]
Anatomy of the lobula complex in the brain of the praying mantis ...
The compound eyes are specialized for stereopsis in several ways. The eyes are large, forward‐directed and consist of about 9,000 ommatidia (Kral & Prete, 1999) ...
[39]
Spectral Sensitivity Studies on the Visual System of the Praying ...
In these studies a constant ERG response was used as a measure of visual sensitivity to different wavelengths of light.Missing: trichromatic | Show results with:trichromatic
[40]
The optomotor response of the praying mantis is driven ...
Dec 22, 2016 · Mantises are visually guided predators with unusually good acuity among insects. Specifically, they have a central foveal region with greater ...Missing: tracking | Show results with:tracking
[41]
Binocular Spatial Localization in the Praying Mantis
Jan 1, 1986 · The binocular field has a maximum overlap of about 70° in the frontal parts of the eyes. There is a distinct fovea in the forward looking eye ...
[42]
Ultrastructure of the antennal sensilla of the praying mantis ...
May 21, 2024 · They have various functions as mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and hygroreceptors [6–8]. The praying mantis is a group of ...Missing: vibration | Show results with:vibration
[43]
Vibration receptor organs in the insect leg - PubMed
Dec 19, 2023 · These vibrational behaviours are mediated by mechanoreceptor organs detecting and processing vibrational stimuli transmitted in the environment.Missing: praying mantis
[44]
A neuronal correlate of insect stereopsis | Nature Communications
Jun 28, 2019 · Praying mantids use stereopsis, the computation of distances from disparities between the two retinal images, to trigger a raptorial strike of ...
[45]
A Novel Form of Stereo Vision in the Praying Mantis - ScienceDirect
Feb 19, 2018 · Mantis stereopsis detects depth in random-dot images lacking interocular correlation. It does not rely on matching first-order local motion direction across ...
[46]
Praying Mantid (Mantis) | University of Maryland Extension
Mar 1, 2023 · They feed on a wide variety of other insects and even some small vertebrates ... praying mantids feed on many pest insects, they also feed ...
[47]
Bird Predation By Praying Mantises: A Global Perspective - BioOne
Jun 1, 2017 · We found 147 reports of predation (or predation attempts) on birds by mantids, of which fewer than one third had previously been published ( ...
[48]
The 1st fishing praying mantis | Blog
Sep 20, 2018 · Praying mantises have occasionally been observed to feed on vertebrates, including small birds, lizards, frogs, newts, mice, snakes and turtles.Missing: diet | Show results with:diet<|separator|>
[49]
Pollinator Deception in the Orchid Mantis | The American Naturalist
A nonexclusive alternative hypothesis may be that orchid mantis shape and coloration camouflages the insect among flowers for predator avoidance and/or ambush ...
[50]
Praying Mantises: More Deadly Than We Knew - The New York Times
May 14, 2020 · Rossoni and Dr. Niven found that the mantises did indeed adjust their strike speed, according to how quickly the target was moving. Most of that ...
[51]
Mantodea - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Nevertheless, it is probable that most of digestion occurs in their large crop by enzymes coming from the midgut. This is supported by ion and water transport ...Missing: enzymatic liquefaction
[52]
Comparisons across species, body masses, and meal sizes
Mantises consumed meals as large as 138% of their body mass and within 6–12 h of feeding and their metabolic rates doubled before gradually returning to ...
[53]
Predation efficiency of praying mantises as important natural ...
Sep 11, 2025 · Both final instars and adults of all five species of mantis were found to readily prey upon spotted lanternfly adults, and their feeding rates ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[54]
Biology, ecology, and biogeography of eremic praying mantis ...
Jan 29, 2024 · Distribution and ecological niche modelling. B. mendica is largely associated with dry grasslands, desert and semi-desert, and xeric shrublands ...
[55]
Praying Mantids: Friend or Foe in the Garden?
Mantids do kill harmful plant-eating pests, but as generalist, ambush predators, they also kill virtually everything else, including beneficial insects. “They ...
[56]
Crypsis by background matching and disruptive coloration as drivers ...
Nov 15, 2023 · Our results strongly suggest local and microhabitat adaptations between praying mantis body colour patterns and their trunk background.<|control11|><|separator|>
[57]
The evolution of startle displays: a case study in praying mantises
Sep 2, 2020 · Anti-predator defences are typically regarded as relatively static signals that conceal prey or advertise their unprofitability.Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[58]
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-018-2591-6
[59]
Sound generation in Mantis religiosa (Mantodea: Mantidae)
Jun 1, 2007 · Defensive sounds are generated via an abdominoalary mechanism involving contact between teeth found on the longitudinal veins of the metathoracic wings and ...
[60]
“Double-Trick” Visual and Chemical Mimicry by the Juvenile Orchid ...
Dec 1, 2014 · This suggests that the chemicals that juvenile orchid mantes secrete are of sufficient quantity to deceive solitary foragers of the oriental ...
[61]
Timing of praying mantis evasive responses during simulated bat ...
May 15, 2005 · These results suggest that a bat gradually increasing its PRR could `tip off' the mantis, enabling it to escape. Attack sequences contain ...
[62]
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009618
[63]
Different paths to sexual size dimorphism in two praying mantids ...
SSD is likely to be adaptive and the result of divergent selection on different size optima for males and females, given their different roles in reproduction.Missing: mantis | Show results with:mantis
[64]
[PDF] Reproductive Natural History of the American Grass Mantid ...
This sexual dimorphism in body mass is tied to reproductive roles, as females invest in ootheca production and males prioritize mobility for mate location.
[65]
Sexual deception in a cannibalistic mating system? Testing the ...
A typical praying mantid mating system involves active mate searching by males, which is guided by airborne sex pheromones in most species for which mate- ...Missing: displays | Show results with:displays
[66]
Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species, Tenodera aridifolia: INFORMATION
Sexual Dimorphism; female larger. Average mass: 3 g: 0.11 oz. Range length: 5.08 to ... Mate attraction by females in a sexually cannibalistic praying mantis.
[67]
Low Mate Encounter Rate Increases Male Risk Taking in a Sexually ...
Apr 25, 2012 · The male of the Chinese mantis Tenodera sinensis, in contrast, is no such willing victim. Mate attraction is guided by airborne pheromones ...
[68]
Mantids (Mantises) - Missouri Department of Conservation
Most people recognize mantids, or mantises, when they see them. They're large, elongated insects with triangular heads that can swivel around.
[69]
Coloration in a Praying Mantis: Color Change, Sexual Color ...
Jan 6, 2025 · The present study investigates color change, background choice, sexual color dimorphism, and movement rates in a praying mantis, Stagmomantis limbata.Missing: length | Show results with:length
[70]
Low Mate Encounter Rate Increases Male Risk Taking in a Sexually ...
Praying mantises are famously associated with sexual cannibalism – the consumption of a male by his mate before, during or after sex [1], [2].<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Sexual cannibalism increases male material investment in offspring
Jun 29, 2016 · In praying mantids that exhibit sexual cannibalism, it occurs in 13–28% of natural encounters in the field [4–5], thus imparting significant ...
[72]
Sexual cannibalism in the praying mantid, Mantis religiosa: a field ...
Sexual cannibalism occurred in 31% of matings observed in the wild. Growth (weight gain/age) was restricted in wild females. Males were attracted more to ...
[73]
Sexual Cannibalism Increases Female Egg Production in the ...
Jun 7, 2021 · Brown and Barry (2016) found that sexual cannibalism increased egg production in the mantid Tenodera sinensis but only when excluding the first ...
[74]
Sexual cannibalism increases male material investment in offspring
Jun 29, 2016 · Unlike some sexually cannibalistic spiders [6–10], male mantids can mate repeatedly and potentially fertilize multiple females during their ...Missing: dimorphism | Show results with:dimorphism
[75]
Female praying mantids use sexual cannibalism as a foraging ...
Mar 11, 2008 · Sexual cannibalism increased fecundity in female mantids, Hierodula membranacea (Birkhead et al. 1988), and increased egg sac mass in female ...
[76]
Praying Mantis Spiritual Meaning & Symbolism in Literature - Lesson
Nov 21, 2023 · Since the Greeks named them 'prophet' or 'seer,' they believed that praying mantises were oracles and could predict the future.Praying Mantis Meaning: What... · The Praying Mantis in Different...
[77]
A Deep Dive into the History of Praying Mantis Kung Fu
Jan 11, 2024 · Wang Lang is said to have been inspired by the movements of a praying mantis while observing it engage in combat with other insects.
[78]
Praying Mantis Symbolism and Cultural Significance - Facebook
Aug 24, 2025 · It is often seen as a symbol of good luck, peace, wisdom and spiritual awareness. In Christianity it represents prayer, piety and the presence ...Praying Mantis Meanings in the Realms of Animal SymbolismPraying mantis symbolism in different cultures - FacebookMore results from www.facebook.com
[79]
Praying Mantis Symbolism - USMANTIS
The Kalahari Bushmen in Africa worship and consider the Praying Mantis as the oldest symbol of God. They believed it to be an incarnation of God, and ...
[80]
Reflecting On The Praying Mantis - Springwolf Reflections
Sep 11, 2014 · Most prominent though are the tales of the praying mantis found within African lore. To the Kalihari Bushmen of Africa, Mantis was a Bushman.<|separator|>
[81]
Fabre's book of insects - Project Gutenberg
To the peasant's ignorance the insect seemed like a priestess or a nun, and so she came to be called the Praying Mantis. There was never a greater mistake!
[82]
Little Ant and the Mantis (Little Ant Books) - Amazon.com
Little Ant is having the worst day ever. Then he meets a praying mantis who is able to remain happy, even in the most difficult of circumstances.
[83]
Cone-headed Grasshopper or Locust, (batta); Praying Mantis (Tōrō ...
Ehon mushi erami (Picture Book of Crawling Creatures) is illustrated with fifteen designs of insects and other garden creatures by Utamaro.
[84]
Do Praying Mantis Sightings Have Meaning? - Birds and Blooms
May 3, 2024 · In Buddhism, the praying mantis represents patience and perseverance. The insect's predatory habits serve as a model for calm behavior and focus ...What Does It Mean When You... · Is a Praying Mantis Good Luck?
[85]
Praying Mantis in the Bible: Symbolism and Meaning
Jun 18, 2025 · In several cultures, the praying mantis is considered a symbol of protection, mirroring biblical assurances of God's safeguarding presence.
[86]
Freedom' praying mantis discovered in Iran
Mar 11, 2025 · Kolnegari found the new species, Sinaiella azadi, in the Zagros Mountains of Iran's Markazi province at an elevation of 2,130 meters. The insect ...
[87]
Sphodromantis lineola Giant African Mantis - USMANTIS
They range from 6-8 cm long and are bright green to dull brown. They are very easy to keep in captivity, provided correct food and shelter.
[88]
African Mantis - Sphodromantis lineola - Keeping Insects
As with all species of praying mantids, this species needs a cage that is at least 3 times the length of the animal in height, and at least 2x the length of the ...
[89]
Praying Mantis Care Guide - The Critter Depot
Rating 5.0 (3) Mar 29, 2022 · They should do well being kept anywhere between 65°F and 80°F. Ideally, humidity should stay in the range of 50% to 70% relative humidity (RH).
[90]
How to Care for Your African Mantis | Reptile Supply
Aug 16, 2021 · African mantises usually do well between 70-80°F, so they can be kept at room temperature. Avoid temperatures above 86°F and below 64°F.
[91]
Mantises in the Greenhouse - Dyck Arboretum
Jun 4, 2020 · This means limited use of pesticides and herbicides. Unfortunately, greenhouse pests flourish when uncontrolled and can lead to devastating crop ...Missing: biological mosquitoes efficacy
[92]
What Is a Praying Mantis? Facts, Benefits and Environmental Role
Scientific Classification and Origin Known scientifically as Mantis religiosa, this species of praying mantid hails from Europe, parts of Asia and Africa. It ...
[93]
Biological control of insect pests with praying mantis
Feb 23, 2023 · The main disadvantage is that the praying mantises do not discriminate between insect pests and beneficial insects when it comes to selecting ...Missing: efficacy | Show results with:efficacy
[94]
A minireview of the medicinal and edible insects from the traditional ...
Mar 16, 2023 · It has been recorded in the Chinese pharmacopeias that ESW has been widely used to treat blood stasis, cancers, septic joints, rheumatoid ...
[95]
Raising Praying Mantises : 5 Steps (with Pictures) - Instructables
Responsible care-giving is the first and foremost aspect to rearing a mantis. Tenodera sinensis, the Chinese mantis, can be raised with ease.
[96]
Do Praying Mantises Bite? Treatments for an Unlikely Scenario
May 9, 2019 · Praying mantises aren't generally known to bite humans, but it is possible. They could do it by accident if they see your finger as prey.
[97]
the incompatibility of adult black soldier flies as praying mantis feed
Mar 18, 2025 · Although natural capture behavior and high feed acceptance have been observed, adult BSF seem not to be suitable as sole feed for both mantises.Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[98]
Stereoscopic artificial compound eyes for spatiotemporal perception ...
May 15, 2024 · The praying mantis has an overlap in its field of view between its left and right eyes that generates binocular vision and is capable of ...
[99]
Research team designs biomimetic vision system based on praying ...
Jul 24, 2024 · A praying mantis's field of view also overlaps between its left and right eyes, creating binocular vision with depth perception in 3D space.
[100]
'Spectacular' finding: New 3D vision discovered in praying mantis
Feb 8, 2018 · Miniature glasses have revealed a new form of 3D vision in praying mantises that could lead to simpler visual processing for robots.Missing: biomimicry | Show results with:biomimicry
[101]
A Mantis-Inspired Multi-Quadrupole Adaptive Landing Gear Design ...
This paper investigates and designs an adaptive landing gear inspired by the passive adaptation mechanism of the praying mantis on intricate landing surfaces.Missing: biomimicry | Show results with:biomimicry