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Mathilde Krim

Mathilde Krim (July 9, 1926 – January 15, 2018) was an Italian-born American biologist and philanthropist best known for founding the AIDS Medical Foundation in 1983, which merged into the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) in 1985, where she served as founding chairman until 2004, channeling private funds into HIV/AIDS research during the epidemic's early neglect by public institutions.^[1]^[2] Born Mathilde Galland in Como, Italy, to a Swiss father and Austrian mother, she earned a license in biology in 1948 and a Ph.D. in 1953 from the University of Geneva, then pursued cytogenetics research at Israel's Weizmann Institute from 1953 to 1957, contributing to early amniocentesis techniques.^[3] A convert to Judaism after marrying Israeli scientist David Danon in 1948, Krim engaged in Zionist activism, including Irgun efforts to smuggle arms and supplies into British Mandate Palestine amid the 1947–1948 war.^[3] After divorcing Danon and remarrying Hollywood executive Arthur Krim in 1958, she relocated to the United States, conducting virology and oncology research at institutions including Cornell University Medical College and Sloan Kettering Institute, where she directed the Interferon Laboratory from 1981 to 1985 and explored antiviral therapies.^[3]^[2] Recognizing the AIDS crisis's severity by 1981, particularly its disproportionate impact on marginalized groups, Krim leveraged her scientific expertise and social connections to advocate for urgent research funding, combat stigma, and influence policy, including testifying against placebo-controlled trials for promising treatments like AZT.^[1]^[2] Her efforts secured the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2000 and 16 honorary doctorates, cementing her legacy in bridging laboratory science with public health mobilization, though early enthusiasm for interferon drew skepticism from some peers who viewed it as overhyped.^[1]^[3]

Early life and education

Childhood and family background

Mathilde Galland was born on July 9, 1926, in Como, Italy, to Eugene Galland, a Swiss agronomist of Protestant background with Italian ancestry, and Elizabeth Galland, an Austrian whose family had roots in northern Czechoslovakia.^[4]^[5] The family environment was multinational and multireligious, with relatives speaking French, German, and Italian, and ties to both Protestant and Catholic traditions, though neither parent was initially Jewish.^[3] As the eldest of four children, Krim was raised in a close-knit household where she was particularly doted upon by her parents, amid the economic and political turbulence of interwar Europe.^[1] When she was six years old, the family relocated to Geneva, Switzerland, following her father's professional pursuits in agronomy, which shielded them from the most direct impacts of World War II as neutral Switzerland provided relative isolation from the conflict's devastation.^[6]^[5] This Geneva upbringing, in a stable yet intellectually stimulating setting, exposed young Mathilde to diverse European influences, fostering her early interest in science, though her family's non-Jewish origins contrasted with her later personal conversion to Judaism and Zionist commitments.^[3]^[7]

Academic training and early influences

Mathilde Krim was born on July 9, 1926, in Como, Italy, and raised in Geneva, Switzerland, in a Roman Catholic family. She enrolled at the University of Geneva to study biology and genetics, fields that aligned with her emerging intellectual curiosity about heredity and cellular processes. In 1948, she received her Bachelor of Science degree from the institution.^[3]^[7] Krim's academic pursuits were shaped by the post-World War II revelations of Nazi atrocities; in 1945, exposure to newsreels of concentration camps profoundly impacted her, fostering a commitment to Jewish causes that influenced her personal and professional trajectory. This led to her conversion to Judaism in 1948, coinciding with her undergraduate completion, and an encounter with Zionist activism through her future first husband, a biology researcher and Irgun member she met in Geneva.^[5]^[3] She continued her graduate studies at the University of Geneva, earning a Ph.D. in biology in 1953—a rarity for women in scientific fields at the time—focusing on areas that would later inform her work in cytogenetics. Her dissertation and early research emphasized experimental approaches to genetic mechanisms, reflecting the era's advances in microscopy and chromosomal analysis pioneered by figures like Theodosius Dobzhansky and Barbara McClintock, though Krim's specific mentors remain undocumented in primary accounts. Post-doctorate, these influences directed her toward cancer virology and reproductive genetics, prompting her relocation to Israel for research at the Weizmann Institute.^[1]^[6]^[3]

Personal life

First marriage and Zionist involvement

In Geneva, where she pursued her studies in biology during the late 1940s, Mathilde Krim became sympathetic to the Zionist cause amid the British Mandate's restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine and the ensuing conflict. She volunteered her services to the Irgun Zvai Leumi, a right-wing Zionist paramilitary organization, assisting in efforts to smuggle arms into Palestine to support the fight for Jewish statehood.^[3] This involvement reflected her alignment with militant Zionism, which sought to establish Israel through armed resistance against both British authorities and Arab forces, including controversial actions such as the 1946 King David Hotel bombing—though Krim's role was logistical and from abroad.^[8] Krim met David Danon, a Bulgarian-born Jewish medical student raised in Palestine and an active Irgun member, among a group of Israeli trainees she encountered. The couple married in the summer of 1948, shortly after Israel's declaration of independence on May 14, 1948, and Krim converted to Judaism as part of the union.^[3]^[9] They had one daughter, born during this period.^[8] In 1953, Krim and Danon relocated to the newly established State of Israel, where she began research in cytogenetics at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, focusing on cancer-related studies.^[4]^[3] The marriage dissolved shortly thereafter, amid reports of strains once the immediate pressures of establishing the state eased, with Krim later reflecting that harmony persisted "as long as the world was against us."^[10] Her time in Israel solidified her Zionist commitments, though she departed for the United States by the late 1950s.^[8]

Second marriage and family

In 1958, Mathilde Krim married Arthur B. Krim, a prominent American entertainment lawyer and executive who served as general counsel and president of United Artists.^[3] The couple had met the previous year through connections at the Weizmann Institute, where Arthur was a trustee.^[3] Following the marriage, Krim relocated from Israel to New York City with her daughter Daphna from her first marriage, integrating into American high society and academic circles.^[3] Arthur Krim, previously married with three children, brought his own family into the union, though the couple did not have children together.^[4] The Krims maintained a family life centered in New York, where Mathilde continued her scientific research while Arthur advanced his career in the film industry, eventually founding Orion Pictures.^[3] Their household included Daphna, who grew up in this blended environment, and the family enjoyed social prominence, hosting figures from politics and entertainment.^[1] Arthur Krim died in New York City on August 21, 1994, at age 84, after which Mathilde Krim carried forward their shared philanthropic interests.^[11] Daphna Krim later married Sergio Kapfer and resided in Bethesda, Maryland, surviving her mother along with grandchildren.^[1]

Scientific research career

Work in Israel and cytogenetics

In 1953, following the completion of her Ph.D. in genetics from the University of Geneva, Mathilde Krim relocated to Israel and began working at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot as a research assistant in cytogenetics.^[3] She advanced to the positions of junior scientist and research associate, focusing on chromosomal studies, cell culturing techniques, and electron micrography to examine cellular structures at a subcellular level.^[3] Her tenure at the institute, spanning 1953 to 1959, emphasized empirical analysis of chromosome morphology and function in mammalian cells, including the refinement of methods to visualize and culture cells for genetic evaluation.^[1]^[12] Krim collaborated extensively with cytogeneticist Leo Sachs at Weizmann, co-authoring more than a dozen peer-reviewed papers that advanced understanding of chromosomal abnormalities and their links to cellular pathology.^[3] These studies involved direct observation of sex chromatin bodies—dense aggregates of inactivated X chromosomes visible in interphase nuclei—which enabled non-invasive assessment of genetic sex in cultured cells derived from various tissues.^[3] Her techniques improved the reliability of cytogenetic diagnostics by optimizing cell fixation, staining, and microscopy protocols, reducing artifacts and enhancing resolution for detecting aneuploidies and other aberrations.^[3] Parallel to cytogenetics, Krim investigated oncogenic viruses, integrating viral infection models with chromosomal assays to trace how viral agents induced genetic instability in host cells, such as through observable karyotypic changes or mitotic disruptions.^[1] This interdisciplinary approach yielded data on virus-cell interactions, including the cytopathic effects of tumor viruses on chromosome integrity, published in journals like Nature and contributing to early causal models of viral carcinogenesis.^[3] Her work underscored the necessity of rigorous controls in cytogenetic experiments, prioritizing primary cell lines over transformed cultures to minimize confounding variables in viral studies.^[3] By 1959, Krim's Israeli research had established cytogenetics as a tool for probing both developmental genetics and oncogenesis, with her methodological innovations facilitating subsequent applications in human diagnostics.^[1] These efforts, grounded in direct empirical observation rather than speculative hypotheses, reflected a commitment to verifiable cellular mechanisms amid limited technological resources at the time.^[3]

Interferon research and US affiliations

In 1959, Mathilde Krim relocated to the United States and initially affiliated with Cornell University Medical College, where she conducted research until 1962.^[12] That year, she joined the Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research in New York as a research scientist, shifting her focus to interferon—a class of signaling proteins with antiviral activity first identified in 1957—and its potential role in combating virus-induced cancers.^[2] ^[13] Her work emphasized interferon's capacity to inhibit viral replication and modulate immune responses, exploring therapeutic applications for malignancies linked to oncogenic viruses.^[6] ^[4] By the 1970s, Krim had become a prominent advocate for interferon-based cancer therapies, earning the moniker "Interferon Queen" for her efforts to advance clinical trials and basic research into its antitumor effects.^[14] ^[6] She organized two international interferon conferences in New York City, held in 1975 and 1979, which facilitated global collaboration and highlighted emerging data on interferon's efficacy against certain leukemias and solid tumors.^[12] In 1977, she was elected a Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences, recognizing her contributions to virology and immunology.^[12] From 1981 to 1985, Krim directed the interferon laboratory at Sloan-Kettering, overseeing studies that integrated interferon with emerging insights into immune deficiencies, though clinical outcomes for broad cancer applications remained limited despite promising preclinical results.^[1] ^[12] Her tenure underscored persistent challenges, including interferon's side effects and variable potency, which tempered enthusiasm for widespread adoption despite her persistent advocacy for sustained funding and interdisciplinary approaches.^[3]

Contributions to fetal sex determination

During her time at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel from 1953 to 1959, Mathilde Krim (then known as Mathilde Danon) contributed to early cytogenetic research on prenatal diagnosis, focusing on determining fetal sex through analysis of amniotic fluid cells.^[15] Working in collaboration with Leo Sachs and D. M. Serr, she helped develop a method involving the aspiration of amniotic fluid via transabdominal amniocentesis, followed by examination of desquamated fetal cells for sex chromatin bodies—drumstick-like appendages on neutrophil nuclei indicative of female cells or the absence thereof in male cells—to reliably identify fetal sex as early as the 16th week of gestation.^[16] ^[15] This approach built on prior observations of sex chromatin in somatic cells and amniotic fluid cytology, enabling non-invasive (relative to the era's standards) sex determination with reported accuracy in initial cases, though limited by small sample sizes and procedural risks like infection or miscarriage.^[17] ^[15] Krim co-authored at least 10 papers on this topic between 1955 and 1958, establishing her as a key figure in the nascent field of prenatal cytogenetics.^[15] A preliminary report appeared in the Bulletin of the Research Council of Israel in 1955, followed by the landmark publication "Prenatal Diagnosis of Sex Using Cells from Amniotic Fluid" in Science on March 23, 1956, which detailed successful sex determinations in four pregnancies (two male, two female) confirmed post-delivery.^[18] ^[16] This Science article came just one month after a concurrent Danish study in Nature by Fritz Fuchs and Povl Riis, highlighting independent but parallel advancements in the technique across research groups.^[15] Additional corroborating publications included articles in Nature (July 1956), The Lancet (1956 and 1957), British Medical Journal (1956), and Genetica (1957), which expanded on cytological staining methods and clinical feasibility.^[15] In 1958, Krim published a monograph, The Sex Chromosomes and the Development of Human Intersexes, synthesizing findings on chromosomal basis of sex differentiation.^[15] These contributions marked a foundational step toward broader prenatal diagnostic capabilities, initially applied to prevent X-linked disorders like hemophilia by allowing selective termination of male fetuses at risk, though ethical concerns over accuracy, sampling errors, and abortion implications were noted even contemporaneously.^[15] The work's empirical basis—relying on direct microscopic evidence of cellular markers—contrasted with less reliable prior indirect methods, such as maternal hormone assays, and paved the way for later karyotyping advancements in the 1960s.^[19] ^[15] While Krim's role was collaborative rather than solitary invention, her cytogenetic expertise and prolific output during this period underscored the technique's viability, influencing global adoption despite institutional biases in early reproductive research toward eugenic applications.^[15] By 1959, over a dozen groups worldwide had replicated variants of the method, crediting the Israeli and Danish pioneers.^[15]

Founding of AIDS Medical Foundation and amfAR

In April 1983, Mathilde Krim co-founded the AIDS Medical Foundation (AMF) in New York City alongside physician Joseph Sonnabend and a small cadre of scientists and doctors alarmed by the emerging AIDS crisis.^[1]^[15] This initiative marked the inaugural private entity explicitly dedicated to funding and advancing AIDS research, emerging amid scant federal investment—U.S. government AIDS allocations totaled just $44 million in fiscal year 1983—and pervasive societal stigma that impeded scientific inquiry.^[2]^[1] Krim, leveraging her virology expertise and networks from prior roles at institutions like Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, positioned AMF to bridge gaps in public funding by soliciting private donations for targeted grants, initially disbursing $200,000 to early studies on viral etiology and epidemiology.^[2]^[15] AMF's formation reflected Krim's conviction, forged through her interferon and cytogenetics research, that AIDS demanded urgent, nonpartisan scientific mobilization; she had tracked the syndrome's initial reports since June 1981, when clusters of rare infections and cancers among gay men prompted CDC alerts.^[20]^[6] The foundation operated modestly from Krim's personal resources and contacts, including Hollywood figures via her husband Arthur Krim's agency ties, to underwrite investigator-initiated projects overlooked by traditional grantors wary of the disease's associations.^[1] By 1984, AMF had awarded grants exceeding $1 million, supporting pivotal work on retroviruses and immune dysregulation that complemented NIH efforts.^[15] In September 1985, AMF merged with the Los Angeles-based AIDS Foundation—another nascent nonprofit focused on research and public education—to establish the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR), consolidating resources to amplify impact amid escalating caseloads surpassing 10,000 U.S. diagnoses.^[1]^[21] Krim assumed the role of founding chairman, guiding amfAR's expansion into a national force that, by 1986, distributed over $5 million in grants annually while advocating for policy reforms like accelerated drug approvals.^[6]^[1] This union enhanced operational scale without diluting AMF's research primacy, enabling amfAR to pioneer private-sector responses to a pathogen later identified as HIV in 1983-1984 studies it helped fund.^[15]

Advocacy for research funding and patient access

Krim co-founded the AIDS Medical Foundation (AMF) in 1983, the first private entity dedicated to funding AIDS research, which awarded its initial grants in 1984 to accelerate scientific inquiry amid limited government response.^[22] This initiative merged into the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) in 1985, where she served as founding chairman, enabling $1.5 million in research grants by 1986 to support early investigations into HIV transmission, diagnostics, and therapies.^[22] Her fundraising leveraged personal networks, including an initial $100,000 donation from her husband Arthur Krim and an additional $550,000 raised within three months, prioritizing peer-reviewed projects to bridge gaps in public funding.^[6] In advocacy for federal resources, Krim testified before Congress and lobbied alongside figures like Elizabeth Taylor in 1986 to prioritize AIDS research investments, contributing to legislative milestones such as the Health Omnibus Program Extension (HOPE) Act of 1988, which facilitated compassionate use of experimental treatments; the Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act of 1990, allocating billions for patient care and support services; and the National Institutes of Health Revitalization Act of 1993, which boosted NIH AIDS allocations to over $1 billion annually by the mid-1990s.^[22] ^[23] These efforts countered initial federal underfunding, where U.S. AIDS research budgets stood at mere millions in the early 1980s, by emphasizing evidence-based needs over stigma-driven neglect.^[24] For patient access, Krim championed expanded availability of investigational drugs, advocating for streamlined FDA processes and establishing community-based clinical trial units in 1988, followed by a nationwide network in 1989 to expedite approvals and enroll diverse participants, thereby hastening therapies like zidovudine (AZT) rollout in 1987.^[22] ^[23] Through amfAR, she supported parallel track programs allowing non-trial access to promising agents, reducing barriers for underserved groups and influencing policy shifts toward faster compassionate use protocols amid the epidemic's urgency.^[2] Her approach integrated scientific rigor with pragmatic access, funding trials that informed scalable interventions while critiquing bureaucratic delays in government-led efforts.^[25]

Criticisms and scientific debates

Krim's opposition to placebo-controlled clinical trials for AZT in patients with advanced AIDS drew significant criticism from segments of the scientific community. In 1986 testimony before Congress, she argued that withholding potentially life-saving treatments from terminally ill individuals was unethical, advocating instead for historical or concurrent controls to evaluate efficacy.^[4] This stance, echoed in her protests against Burroughs Wellcome's proposed trial protocols, prioritized patient access over traditional double-blind methodologies, leading some researchers to accuse her of undermining scientific rigor and potentially biasing results.^[26] Despite the controversy, the pivotal AZT trial (ACTG 002) was terminated early in 1987 after interim data showed 19 deaths in the placebo arm versus one in the treatment group, prompting accelerated FDA approval; critics later highlighted AZT's toxicity at initial high doses (1,200 mg daily), though Krim maintained her position stemmed from evidence-based urgency rather than sentiment.^[27]^[28] Her early advocacy for interferon as a broad antiviral agent, particularly in cancer and later AIDS contexts, sparked debates over hype versus evidence. Dubbed the "interferon queen" at a 1975 Rockefeller conference, Krim was faulted by peers like Finnish virologist Kari Cantell for exerting undue influence on federal funding—securing $1 million each from the National Cancer Institute and Lasker Foundation—despite limited clinical successes and her perceived lack of specialized expertise.^[26] Detractors viewed her enthusiasm as promotional, with interferon failing to deliver as a panacea for viral diseases, though it gained FDA approval in 1986 for Kaposi's sarcoma in AIDS patients, vindicating some applications.^[27] Colleagues at Sloan Kettering dismissed her work as akin to "another lunatic cure," eroding her standing among virologists who saw her field shifts—from cytogenetics to interferon to AIDS—as dilettantism rather than focused inquiry.^[27] The AIDS Medical Foundation's 1985 publicity campaign emphasizing heterosexual transmission risks, including the Life magazine feature "Now No One Is Safe from AIDS," elicited backlash for allegedly exaggerating threats without sufficient epidemiological data at the time. Physician Joseph Sonnabend resigned from AMF, contending the effort lacked evidence and risked inciting panic among heterosexuals while stoking anti-gay violence.^[26] Army researcher Robert Redfield labeled it fear-mongering, noting U.S. heterosexual cases remained low (around 25% of total by later counts).^[26] Krim and AMF defended the approach as necessary to secure funding—ultimately boosting federal allocations—arguing underestimation perpetuated stigma and delayed response, though it strained relations with skeptics prioritizing behavioral risk factors in high-incidence groups.^[6] Krim's broader activism, including calls to close gay bathhouses to curb transmission, faced opposition from gay media outlets wary of perceived moralism, while some scientists critiqued her as a "gadfly" for bridging establishment research with activist demands, potentially compromising objectivity.^[27] These debates underscored tensions between urgent public health imperatives and methodological conservatism, with Krim's positions often prevailing in policy shifts toward expanded access and funding, amid ongoing scrutiny of their long-term scientific validity.^[29]

Other activism and philanthropy

Reproductive rights involvement

Mathilde Krim participated in pro-choice advocacy efforts, notably as a speaker at a 1989 fundraising dinner honoring Robin Chandler Duke, president emeritus of the National Abortion Rights Action League (NARAL). The event, held at the Plaza Hotel in New York City on April 13, 1989, drew approximately 300 guests paying $500 each to support print and television advertising campaigns promoting abortion access. Krim joined other prominent figures, including actors Morgan Fairchild and Joanne Woodward, historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr., and singer Judy Collins, in recognizing Duke's leadership in the movement.^[30] While Krim's primary activism centered on AIDS research and funding, her appearance at the NARAL event aligned with her broader commitments to civil liberties and public health initiatives, reflecting a pattern of engagement with progressive causes during the late 20th century. No records indicate leadership roles in reproductive rights organizations such as Planned Parenthood or NARAL, nor extensive public statements on abortion policy. Her involvement appears limited to supportive participation in high-profile pro-choice gatherings, consistent with her networks in Democratic Party circles and scientific philanthropy.^[30] Krim extended her philanthropic efforts beyond AIDS and reproductive health to support a range of health-related and social causes, donating millions of dollars to over one hundred organizations. These included initiatives focused on animal welfare, environmental protection, and advancements in women's rights, reflecting her commitment to multifaceted humanitarian priorities.^[15] In the realm of social justice, she and her husband Arthur Krim actively participated in the American civil rights movement during the 1960s, aligning with broader efforts to combat racial discrimination. Their involvement extended to advocacy for human rights concerning racial and sexual minorities, as well as support for independence movements in Africa and Asia. Krim's early activism for human rights, stemming from her experiences in post-World War II Europe and her time in Israel, underscored a lifelong dedication to addressing systemic inequities.^[7]^[15] Her board service further amplified these initiatives; appointed to the Rockefeller Foundation's Board of Trustees in 1971, Krim contributed to funding global health, science, and social development projects, leveraging her scientific expertise to guide investments in public welfare. Additionally, she received recognition from the United Hospital Fund in 2016 for contributions to improving health care access and equity, encompassing non-AIDS-related hospital and community health programs. These endeavors highlighted her role in bridging scientific philanthropy with social reform.^[31]^[32]

Awards and recognition

Major honors received

In August 2000, Krim received the Presidential Medal of Freedom from President Bill Clinton, the highest civilian honor awarded by the United States government, in recognition of her leadership in mobilizing support for AIDS research and advocacy.^[1]^[6]^[2] Krim was conferred 16 honorary doctorates (doctorates honoris causa) from various institutions throughout her career, reflecting acknowledgment of her contributions to biomedical research and public health initiatives.^[1]^[6]^[14] Among these, Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health awarded her an honorary degree in 1988.^[33]

Institutional legacies

Krim's most enduring institutional legacy is the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR), which she co-founded in 1985 through the merger of the AIDS Medical Foundation—established by her in 1983—and the National AIDS Research Foundation.^[22] As founding chairman, she positioned amfAR as a pivotal private funder of HIV/AIDS research, independent of government channels, emphasizing rapid grant distribution to accelerate scientific progress amid early neglect by public institutions.^[2] Since inception, amfAR has awarded more than 3,800 grants to research teams worldwide and invested over $635 million in programs supporting antiviral therapies, prevention strategies, and cure-focused initiatives, including contributions to antiretroviral drug development and reductions in mother-to-child transmission.^[34] ^[22] A key programmatic extension of Krim's vision is the Mathilde Krim Fellowships in Biomedical Research, launched by amfAR in 2008 to nurture independent careers among early-stage postdoctoral scientists pursuing innovative HIV/AIDS solutions.^[15] The fellowships provide up to two years of Phase 1 funding (maximum $180,000, including salary support and career development such as NIH grant-writing training) followed by an optional one-year Phase 2 transition grant (maximum $50,000) for recipients assuming independent roles.^[35] Competitive and limited in number, these awards have supported advancements in areas like stabilized envelope trimers for vaccine development, sustaining a pipeline of researchers aligned with amfAR's goal of eradicating the epidemic.^[15] Through such mechanisms, Krim's foundational efforts continue to influence global HIV research priorities, prioritizing empirical breakthroughs over bureaucratic delays.^[36]

Death and legacy

Circumstances of death

Mathilde Krim died on January 15, 2018, at her home in Kings Point, New York, at the age of 91.^[1]^[24] Her passing was confirmed by amfAR, the Foundation for AIDS Research, which she founded, and was described by the organization as peaceful.^[1] No official cause of death was disclosed in contemporaneous reports, with accounts emphasizing her death at home without reference to illness or other complicating factors.^[24]^[37] This aligns with the natural progression expected for an individual of advanced age, though specifics remained private as per family and institutional statements.^[1]

Posthumous impact and evaluations

Following her death on January 15, 2018, Mathilde Krim's foundational role in establishing the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) has sustained institutional momentum in HIV/AIDS research, with the organization continuing to fund grants and programs she initiated, including advocacy for accelerated access to experimental therapies and increased federal funding.^[22]^[23] In 2008, amfAR launched the Mathilde Krim Fellowships in Basic Biomedical Research to support early-career scientists investigating HIV pathogenesis and prevention, a program that has awarded grants annually post-2018, influencing advancements in virology and immunology by prioritizing underexplored basic science over applied treatments alone.^[15]^[22] Contemporary evaluations in scientific and medical communities have lauded Krim as a pivotal figure in destigmatizing AIDS during its early epidemic phase, crediting her with mobilizing over $100 million in private funding by the 1990s through high-profile partnerships and lobbying that pressured governments to prioritize research amid initial neglect.^[24]^[29] Tributes from researchers emphasize her interdisciplinary approach—spanning laboratory work on interferon to public advocacy—as instrumental in bridging elite scientific circles with patient needs, though some reflections note her emphasis on private philanthropy sometimes overshadowed critiques of regulatory delays in drug approvals.^[2]^[38] Her archived papers at Columbia University's Archives & Special Collections, spanning circa 1948–2016, have facilitated posthumous scholarly access to her correspondence on health policy, reproductive biology, and epidemiology, enabling evaluations of her broader influence on biomedical ethics and funding models.^[12] While mainstream assessments, including from UNAIDS and global health entities, affirm her legacy in fostering international collaboration against HIV, certain analyses highlight her pre-AIDS Zionist advocacy as a parallel thread in her career, influencing evaluations of her motivations in health activism without diminishing her empirical contributions to AIDS mitigation.^[39]^[40]

References

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[31]
New Foundation Trustees - The New York Times
They are Dr. Mathilde Krim, a genet icist at the Sloan‐Kettering In stitute for Cancer Research; Vernon E. Jordan Jr., the newly elected executive director of ...
[32]
Three Prominent Leaders Recognized by United Hospital Fund for ...
Sep 26, 2016 · Payson, John K. Castle, Mathilde Krim, PhD, Sanford I. Weill, and Maurice R. Greenberg. Scott B. Salmirs, president and CEO of ABM Industries ...
[33]
Columbia Acquires the Papers of AIDS Activist Mathilde Krim
Aug 6, 2018 · As a co-founder of the AIDS Medical Foundation in 1983, Krim was at the forefront of philanthropic and scientific responses to AIDS long before ...
[34]
Impact Report 2023 - amfAR, The Foundation for AIDS Research
Since 1985, amfAR has invested more than $635 million in its programs and has awarded more than 3,800 grants to research teams worldwide. $5.5 million in amfAR ...
[35]
Mathilde Krim Fellowships in Biomedical Research
Maximum Funding: $180,000 including maximum 15% indirect costs; Up to $130,000 (including indirect costs) may be allocated to salary support for the fellow for ...Missing: patient access
[36]
Remembering Mathilde Krim | International AIDS Society (IAS)
In 1983, Dr Krim created the AIDS Medical Foundation, a vehicle for raising private funding for AIDS research, which evolved to become amfAR in 1985. Since its ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[37]
Mathilde Krim, Inspirational Founding Chairman of AmfAR, Dies at 91
Jan 16, 2018 · From 1953-59, she pursued research in cytogenetics and cancer-causing viruses at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, where she ...<|separator|>
[38]
AIDS activist Mathilde Krim saved my life - STAT News
Jan 19, 2018 · Krim, the founding chair of what was then called the American Foundation for AIDS Research (now known as amfAR), was the face and voice of ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[39]
UNAIDS is saddened by the death of Mathilde Krim
Jan 17, 2018 · She was one of the Founding Chairmen of the Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR), an organization dedicated to AIDS research, HIV prevention, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
ICAP Remembers Global Health Champion Dr. Mathilde Krim
Jan 16, 2018 · “Mathilde Krim was an inspiration to everyone who works in the field of global health—and especially to those who work to control the HIV ...