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Stigma

Stigma is a social attribute or mark of disgrace that discredits individuals or groups perceived as deviating from societal norms, often resulting in their separation, status loss, and discrimination.^[1] The term derives from the ancient Greek stígma, denoting a brand or tattoo applied to slaves, criminals, or traitors to signify inferiority and warn others of their status.^[2] In contemporary sociology and psychology, stigma involves a co-occurrence of labeling human differences, linking them to undesirable stereotypes, and enforcing power imbalances that perpetuate exclusion.^[3] Pioneered by sociologist Erving Goffman in his 1963 work, the concept encompasses physical, behavioral, and tribal deviations that spoil one's social identity, prompting avoidance or hostility from others.^[4] Empirically, stigma manifests in domains like mental illness, where negative beliefs hinder treatment adherence, or infectious diseases, where it signals potential contagion risks.^[5]^[6] From an evolutionary standpoint, stigmatization functions adaptively by facilitating social exclusion of threats, such as norm violators or disease carriers, thereby enhancing group survival and cohesion through mechanisms like stereotype activation and expectancy confirmation.^[7]^[8] While interventions aim to reduce stigma to mitigate harms like diminished self-esteem, evidence indicates that certain stigmas, such as those against substance abuse or unhealthy behaviors, correlate with decreased prevalence by deterring risky actions and reinforcing adaptive norms.^[9]^[10] Controversies arise over destigmatization efforts, as overly aggressive campaigns may overlook stigma's role in causal deterrence, potentially increasing societal costs from unchecked deviations.^[11]

Etymology and Historical Development

Origins in Ancient Societies

The term stigma derives from the Ancient Greek noun στίγμα (stígma), denoting a pointed mark or brand, rooted in the verb στίζω (stízō), meaning "to prick" or "to tattoo" with a sharp instrument.^[12] This physical act served to indelibly identify individuals deemed socially inferior or deviant, embedding disgrace visibly on the body to enforce exclusion and deter recurrence.^[13] In Greek society from at least the 5th century BCE, stigmatization targeted slaves, who were often tattooed with the letter delta (Δ), the initial of doûlos (δoῦλος, "slave"), on the forehead or limbs; criminals convicted of serious offenses like treason; and prisoners of war or traitors, rendering reintegration impossible and signaling perpetual inferiority.^[14] Literary evidence, including references in Herodotus' Histories to punitive markings on captives and runaways, underscores this as a tool for social control, with the mark functioning causally to perpetuate hierarchical order by making deviance immediately recognizable.^[15] The Romans adapted and systematized Greek stigmatization, applying brands or tattoos to slaves, gladiators, and fugitives to prevent escape and advertise ownership or condemnation, often using irons heated to sear symbols like the master's initials or punitive motifs.^[16] This practice extended to debtors in cases of insolvency, where visible marks complemented legal enslavement, as regulated in early codes like the Twelve Tables (circa 450 BCE), which outlined debt bondage and permitted sale into slavery for unpaid obligations, thereby integrating physical stigma with juridical penalties to deter economic deviance.^[17] Roman expansion of the custom emphasized deterrence: branded gladiators, many of whom were enslaved convicts, bore marks affirming their degraded status in arenas and labor contexts, with historical accounts confirming widespread use from the Republic onward to maintain public order amid high slave populations.^[18] Cross-cultural parallels appear in contemporaneous Near Eastern societies, where branding enforced exclusion of outcasts; in ancient Mesopotamia, cuneiform records from the Neo-Assyrian period (circa 911–609 BCE) describe searing marks on rebels and slaves to signify dishonor and prevent social mobility, mirroring the causal role in upholding communal hierarchies. Egyptian practices similarly involved inking or burning identifiers on criminals and foreign captives during the New Kingdom (circa 1550–1070 BCE), as evidenced by tomb reliefs and papyri detailing punishments that rendered the marked unfit for elite society, thus preserving pharaonic order through embodied shame. These applications across civilizations highlight stigma's foundational function as a literal, irreversible deterrent, predating abstract social disapproval.

Evolution of the Concept Through History

During the medieval period in Europe, the ancient practice of physical branding evolved into a metaphorical association between bodily marks or deviations and moral corruption, where conditions like leprosy or mental afflictions were interpreted as divine punishments or signs of sin, leading to ritualistic exclusion and segregation to protect communal purity.^[19] This shift reflected a causal link in religious thought between visible or perceived abnormalities and spiritual failing, extending social disapproval beyond the mark itself to the person's character.^[20] By the early modern era, particularly amid the 16th-century witch hunts, accusations of deviance served as intangible stigmata, branding individuals—predominantly women—as threats to social and religious norms through unsubstantiated claims of pact with the devil or maleficium, enforcing conformity via public trials, torture, and execution.^[21] These persecutions, peaking between 1560 and 1630 in regions like the Holy Roman Empire and Scotland, resulted in an estimated 40,000 to 50,000 deaths and illustrated how metaphorical marking facilitated causal mechanisms of norm enforcement, where suspicion alone spoiled identity and justified ostracism independent of physical evidence.^[22] The Enlightenment brought rational scrutiny to supernatural explanations, yet reframed stigma in terms of moral weakness or environmental causes, paving the way for 19th-century scientific appropriation in degeneration theory.^[19] Bénédict Morel's 1857 Traité des dégénérescences physiques, intellectuelles et morales de l'espèce humaine posited hereditary "stigmata" as observable physical and behavioral markers of progressive societal decay from an environmental insult, linking individual traits to inherited inferiority.^[23] Emil Kraepelin built on this in psychiatry, classifying disorders like dementia praecox as exhibiting "stigmata of degeneracy" in his clinical descriptions and 1908 essay Über die Frage der Degeneration, attributing them to constitutional weaknesses rather than mere moral lapses, though retaining a deterministic view of social exclusion.^[24]^[25] In the 20th century, sociologist Erving Goffman abstracted the concept further from biological or moral determinism to a relational social process in his 1963 Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity, defining it as "an attribute that is deeply discrediting" which reduces the bearer "from a whole and usual person to a tainted, discounted one."^[3] This formulation emphasized perception and identity management over inherent marks, marking a pivotal intellectual milestone in viewing stigma as a dynamic attribute spoiling social interactions, corroborated by empirical observations of how discrepancies between virtual and actual identity provoke disapproval.^[26]

Definition and Core Components

Social stigma constitutes a multifaceted social process characterized by the recognition and labeling of human differences as deviant or undesirable, followed by the application of negative stereotypes to those labeled, resulting in cognitive separation between "us" and "them," loss of social status, and active discrimination against the affected individuals or groups. This conceptualization, articulated by Link and Phelan in their 2001 framework, posits that stigma emerges only when these components co-occur, with the exercise of power by the labeling group being essential to translate attitudes into tangible disadvantages for the stigmatized.^[27] The process enforces conformity to group norms through imposed social and material costs, such as exclusion from resources or opportunities, rather than arising solely from isolated beliefs.^[28] Unlike prejudice, which primarily denotes negative attitudes or beliefs toward out-groups without necessitating action, stigma incorporates relational power dynamics that enable the stigmatizers to enact harm, distinguishing it as a mechanism of social control rather than mere affective bias.^[29] Empirical evidence demonstrates how these elements produce observable exclusion; for example, meta-analyses of hiring experiments reveal that applicants disclosing stigmatized traits, such as mental illness histories, receive 26-40% fewer interview callbacks compared to non-disclosing counterparts, reflecting the discriminatory endpoint of the stigma process.^[30] Such outcomes underscore the causal pathway from labeling to behavioral penalties, contingent on the dominant group's authority.^[31] Stigma's components are quantifiable through validated instruments that assess underlying attitudes predictive of separation and discrimination. The Bogardus Social Distance Scale, originally developed in 1925, measures willingness to interact with differing groups on a continuum from close kinship to exclusion, providing an early empirical tool to gauge the intensity of "us versus them" divisions often preceding status loss.^[32]^[33] Updated adaptations of this scale, applied in studies of stigmatized populations, correlate higher social distance scores with reduced behavioral inclusion, offering a metric for the attitudinal precursors to enacted stigma without assuming universality across contexts.^[34] This measurement approach prioritizes observable relational patterns over subjective self-reports, aligning with causal analyses of how stigma perpetuates inequality through enforced norms. Public stigma encompasses the prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory actions directed by society at large toward individuals or groups perceived as deviant or undesirable, often resulting in tangible barriers such as exclusion from employment or housing. For instance, formerly incarcerated individuals face significant public stigma, with an estimated 60 percent remaining unemployed one year after release, compared to much lower rates in the general population, as documented in analyses of Bureau of Justice Statistics data and reentry studies.^[35] ^[36] This form of stigma operates through stereotypes that label ex-offenders as untrustworthy, perpetuating cycles of recidivism via limited opportunities. Self-stigma arises when members of stigmatized groups internalize public prejudices, leading to diminished self-esteem, reduced help-seeking, and avoidance of treatment or support services. Meta-analytic reviews of mental health literature indicate that self-stigma correlates with lower self-efficacy and increased treatment avoidance, as individuals apply negative stereotypes to themselves, exacerbating isolation and poor outcomes in conditions like schizophrenia or depression.^[37] ^[38] Empirical studies, including those synthesizing data from thousands of participants, confirm this internalization process hinders recovery by fostering shame and secrecy.^[39] Structural stigma refers to the embedding of discriminatory biases within institutional policies, laws, and societal structures that systematically disadvantage certain groups without overt individual prejudice. In the United States, historical welfare policies under the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program, which disproportionately served single mothers from 1935 to 1996, reinforced stereotypes of dependency and moral failure, contributing to disparate health and economic impacts such as higher poverty rates among recipients compared to two-parent families.^[40] These policies, by design or effect, limited access to resources and perpetuated cycles of disadvantage, with studies showing elevated stigma perceptions linked to poorer self-reported health outcomes regardless of state-level variations.^[41] Associative stigma, also termed courtesy stigma, extends public disapproval to individuals associated with the stigmatized person, such as family members or close contacts, due to perceived guilt by affiliation. Originating from Erving Goffman's 1963 framework, this phenomenon has been validated in family studies of addiction and mental illness, where relatives of those with substance use disorders report social withdrawal, blame, and relational strain from others' assumptions of shared deviance.^[42] ^[43] For example, mothers of children with opioid addiction experience heightened parent-blame and courtesy stigma, leading to avoidance of support networks and compounded emotional distress, as evidenced in qualitative accounts from affected families.^[44]

Evolutionary and Functional Roles

From an evolutionary psychological perspective, stigma functions as a mechanism for social exclusion that promotes group fitness by addressing recurrent adaptive problems in ancestral environments, such as pathogen transmission, exploitation by non-cooperators, and deviation from group norms.^[7] This view posits that stigmatization is not arbitrary but arises from psychological adaptations that detect and respond to cues indicating potential costs to the group, including visible markers of disease or behavioral deviance.^[7]^[45] One primary function involves disease avoidance, where stigma activates the behavioral immune system to heuristically minimize infection risk. In environments with high pathogen prevalence, excluding individuals displaying symptoms like deformities or lesions—cues historically linked to contagious illness—reduced transmission rates among kin and cooperators, as evidenced by cross-species parallels in avoidance behaviors and human disgust responses to such markers.^[45] Empirical studies confirm that stigma toward visible illnesses correlates with heightened disgust sensitivity, a proximate mechanism evolved to prioritize survival over inclusivity in uncertain conditions.^[45] Stigma also enforces social norms by deterring free-riding and deviance, thereby sustaining cooperation essential for group-level success under kin selection pressures. By imposing reputational costs on norm violators, it incentivizes conformity; for instance, intensified stigmatization of smoking following 1960s public revelations of health risks contributed to a sharp decline in U.S. adult prevalence from 42.4% in 1965 to 12.5% in 2020.^[7]^[46] This normative role aligns with evolutionary models where exclusion of cheaters or low-contributors preserves resource pools and hierarchies.^[7] Cross-cultural evidence underscores stigma's role in fostering social cohesion, as patterns of exclusion for mental disorders and deviance persist across non-Western societies, reflecting universal adaptations for maintaining ingroup integrity rather than culture-specific artifacts.^[47] Interpretations framing stigma solely as a maladaptive vestige overlook these functions; for example, the erosion of body weight stigma amid positivity movements temporally correlates with global adult obesity rates nearly tripling between 1975 and 2016, potentially amplifying health burdens from unchecked deviance.^[48] Such dynamics suggest stigma's persistence serves causal purposes in balancing individual costs against collective benefits.^[7]

Historical Manifestations

In ancient Greece, mental illnesses were frequently attributed to divine punishment or supernatural intervention, serving to stigmatize affected individuals as morally culpable or possessed, thereby regulating social boundaries by isolating them from communal life. For instance, accounts of figures like King Cleomenes I of Sparta linked madness to wrathful gods, reinforcing the view that such conditions warranted exclusion or ritual appeasement rather than integration.^[49] This perspective complemented emerging humoral theories, where imbalances in bodily fluids were seen as manifestations of imbalance in cosmic order, further embedding stigma through associations with personal failing or cosmic disharmony.^[50] By the 19th century, European asylums exemplified stigma's role in class-based social control, confining the "insane poor" as threats to public order and moral hygiene. London's Bethlem Royal Hospital (Bedlam), operational since the medieval period but intensified under Victorian reforms, housed indigent patients deemed dangerous or burdensome, with records documenting their exhibition to visitors as spectacles of deviance, which perpetuated exclusionary practices tied to economic and state power dynamics.^[51] Michel Foucault's analysis of such institutions highlights how 17th- to 19th-century confinement shifted from religious to secular rationales, yet retained stigmatizing functions by pathologizing poverty-linked behaviors to justify segregation and deter vagrancy among the lower classes.^[52] Pseudoscientific racial theories in the 18th and 19th centuries invoked "racial stigmata"—supposed physiological markers of inferiority—to legitimize slavery and colonial hierarchies, framing non-European peoples as inherently deviant or subhuman. Proponents like Samuel Morton, through craniometry studies published in Crania Americana (1839), measured skull capacities to argue for innate intellectual hierarchies, with smaller averages among Africans purportedly evidencing suitability for enslavement; these claims, disseminated via transatlantic scientific networks, reinforced legal and social exclusion until challenged by mid-19th-century empirical critiques, including those questioning measurement biases.^[53] Such stigmata functioned regulatorily by naturalizing exploitation, as seen in American and British justifications for the slave trade, where anatomical "defects" were cited to deny full humanity and agency.^[54] Victorian-era stigma against unmarried mothers enforced gender norms by institutionalizing "fallen women" as moral pollutants, with Ireland's Magdalene Laundries exemplifying punitive confinement from the late 18th century onward, peaking in the 20th but rooted in 19th-century attitudes. These Catholic-run facilities detained women for perceived sexual deviance, subjecting them to unpaid labor as atonement; records indicate at least 10,000 women passed through from 1922 to 1996, many transferred from earlier Victorian workhouses, highlighting stigma's regulatory mechanism in preserving patriarchal family structures through enforced penance and erasure of illegitimate offspring.^[55]

Modern Examples and Empirical Impacts

In the domain of public health, stigma associated with HIV has empirically reduced testing and diagnosis rates. Anticipated HIV stigma correlates with decreased likelihood of testing according to CDC guidelines, as higher stigma scores predict avoidance of recommended screening.^[56] Globally, HIV-related stigma contributes to insufficient engagement with prevention and treatment programs, exacerbating gaps where approximately 9.2 million people living with HIV were not receiving antiretroviral therapy in 2022.^[57] In contrast, stigma in addiction contexts can facilitate recovery when internalized as a catalyst for behavioral change; for instance, Alcoholics Anonymous's first step—admitting powerlessness over alcohol—aligns with confronting the stigmatized reality of addiction, and participation in such programs has been linked to sustained abstinence in longitudinal studies of recovery outcomes.^[58] Socioeconomic stigma against obesity demonstrates measurable psychological harms, with individuals experiencing weight bias facing elevated risks of depression and related mental health disorders. Systematic reviews indicate that weight stigma contributes to poorer mental health, including a heightened likelihood of depressive symptoms among those with higher BMI who internalize negative stereotypes.^[59] However, cross-cultural data reveal correlations between stronger societal stigma against obesity and lower population-level BMI, as observed in regions with pronounced anti-obesity norms that incentivize weight management behaviors over time.^[60] In criminal justice, public sex offender registries impose employment barriers that hinder reintegration and may elevate recidivism risks by limiting access to stable jobs and housing.^[61] Empirical analyses of registry effects highlight collateral consequences like social isolation, which undermine desistance from crime despite the policy's intent to enhance public safety.^[62] Conversely, reputational stigma following corporate scandals has demonstrated deterrent benefits, prompting firms to bolster internal compliance programs and reduce future violations, as evidenced by meta-analyses of post-scandal behavioral shifts toward ethical risk management.^[63]

Interventions, Anti-Stigma Campaigns, and Their Evaluations

Efforts to reduce social stigma have primarily targeted mental health conditions through large-scale initiatives, such as the World Health Organization's mental health gap action program launched in 2008, which included anti-stigma components aimed at improving public attitudes and reducing discrimination. Evaluations of such programs, including a systematic review of 72 randomized controlled trials, indicate short-term improvements in knowledge and attitudes, particularly via social contact interventions where participants interact with affected individuals, but limited evidence for sustained behavioral changes like increased willingness to employ or socialize with those experiencing mental illness.^[64] Behavior change remains under-represented in outcomes, with long-term effects often negligible due to methodological weaknesses in follow-up assessments.^[65] Meta-analyses comparing intervention strategies reveal that interpersonal contact outperforms educational approaches, which provide factual information about conditions, and protest methods, which challenge stereotypes through advocacy.^[66] For instance, a meta-analysis of outcome studies found contact-based programs yielded the largest effect sizes in reducing prejudice (Cohen's d ≈ 0.40), while protest strategies sometimes provoked backlash, reinforcing negative views among audiences perceiving them as overly confrontational.^[39] Educational interventions show modest gains in knowledge but fail to alter deep-seated biases, as they rarely address emotional or experiential barriers.^[67] Anti-stigma campaigns have produced unintended consequences, including heightened self-stigma among targeted groups, where individuals internalize public narratives of vulnerability, leading to reduced self-efficacy and help-seeking.^[68] In mental health contexts, emphasis on shared experiences without accountability for behaviors can normalize dysfunction, potentially exacerbating isolation rather than integration.^[69] For obesity, efforts to diminish weight-based stigma, such as body positivity initiatives, coincide with rising youth obesity rates, as reduced social pressure may diminish incentives for lifestyle changes, though causal links remain debated; correlational data from longitudinal studies link perceived stigma reduction to sustained or increased weight gain via diminished motivation.^[70] These effects highlight risks of campaigns that prioritize acceptance over behavioral responsibility. In contrast, selective stigmatization of harmful behaviors, as in tobacco control, has demonstrated public health successes. Denormalization campaigns since the 1990s, portraying smoking as irresponsible and socially unacceptable, contributed to U.S. adult smoking prevalence dropping from 42% in 1965 to 12.5% by 2020, by leveraging stigma as a deterrent without broadly condemning smokers' identity.^[71] Such approaches yield better outcomes than blanket anti-stigma efforts, as they target modifiable actions rather than immutable traits, fostering accountability while minimizing self-stigma backlash.^[72] Critics note potential downsides, like delayed quitting among highly stigmatized smokers, but overall reductions in initiation and prevalence affirm efficacy.^[73]

Biological and Scientific Meanings

Botanical Stigma

The stigma constitutes the distal receptive apex of the gynoecium's carpellary structure, known as the pistil, in angiosperm flowers, where it serves as the primary site for pollen capture and adhesion.^[74] This region typically exhibits specialized surface features, such as unicellular papillae that produce adhesive secretions or elongate into feathery, plumose extensions, enhancing pollen interception from airborne dispersal or pollinator vectors.^[75] These adaptations emerged with the evolutionary radiation of angiosperms approximately 140 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous, coinciding with the development of enclosed ovules and double fertilization mechanisms that distinguished flowering plants from gymnosperms.^[76] Functionally, the stigma facilitates pollen hydration, germination, and the subsequent penetration of pollen tubes into the underlying style tissue, enabling sperm cell delivery to ovules for fertilization.^[77] Pollen-stigma interactions enforce species-specific compatibility, with molecular recognition systems rejecting incompatible pollen to promote outcrossing; for instance, self-incompatibility (SI) alleles at the S-locus trigger biochemical barriers like protein degradation or cytoskeletal disruption in self-pollen, as detailed in genetic models of gametophytic and sporophytic SI.^[78] Charles Darwin documented such rejection mechanisms in his 1876 experiments on cross- and self-fertilization, observing diminished fertility in self-pollinations across numerous species, a pattern later quantified in surveys indicating SI prevalence in over 50% of angiosperm species to avert inbreeding depression.^[79] Stigmatic diversity manifests in wet and dry morphologies, with wet stigmas exuding a protein-rich fluid that supports pollen imbibition but risks pathogen entry, contrasted by dry stigmas featuring rigid, non-secretory papillae that provide a stable hydration interface via stylar exudates.^[80] Empirical pollination assays demonstrate that dry stigmas correlate with elevated pollen tube growth rates and seed set efficiency, as mismatched pollen adhesion on wet surfaces can reduce fertilization success by 20-50% under controlled cross-pollinations, underscoring adaptive trade-offs in reproductive assurance.^[81]^[82]

Stigma in Other Biological Contexts

In unicellular eukaryotes such as Euglena gracilis, the stigma refers to the eyespot apparatus, a cluster of carotenoid-rich globules that functions as a photoreceptive structure enabling phototaxis by shading the paraflagellar body, the actual light-sensing organelle.^[83] This stigma absorbs light in the 380-500 nm range, appearing as a dark spot under microscopy, and facilitates directional swimming toward light sources through periodic shading as the cell rotates during locomotion.^[84] The structure's role in phototaxis is linked to early eukaryotic evolution, predating complex eyes, and relies on pigments like flavins and pterins for screening incident light.^[85]^[86] In arthropods, the term stigma denotes the external openings of respiratory systems, known as spiracles in insects and stigmata in arachnids, which connect the tracheal or book-lung networks to the atmosphere for gas exchange via diffusion.^[87] In insects, these stigmata allow oxygen delivery directly to tissues without circulatory involvement, with their surface area influencing diffusion rates—typically comprising about one-tenth of the tracheal system's maximum cross-section—and regulated by muscular valves to minimize water loss.^[87]^[88] In scorpions, atrial chamber stigmata ventilate book lungs by admitting air that aerates lamellate leaflets, supporting terrestrial respiration in these chelicerates.^[89] These structures are morphologically distinct from sensory organs, emphasizing passive diffusion over active pumping, with total wall area optimized for efficient O₂ uptake in small-bodied invertebrates.^[87]

Cultural and Symbolic Uses

Religious and Symbolic Interpretations

In Christian tradition, stigmata represent a divine marking through spontaneous wounds corresponding to the crucifixion injuries of Jesus Christ, first historically recorded in the case of Francis of Assisi on September 17, 1224, during a vision on Mount La Verna.^[90] Approximately 400 to 500 cases have been reported since then, primarily among devout Catholics, with the wounds manifesting as piercings in the hands, feet, and side, often accompanied by bleeding and pain without evident external cause.^[91] A prominent 20th-century example is Padre Pio of Pietrelcina, who received visible stigmata on September 20, 1918, which persisted until his death on September 23, 1968, drawing both pilgrims and scrutiny from medical examiners who documented the wounds' resistance to healing.^[92] Theological interpretations view stigmata as miraculous signs of union with Christ's passion, endorsed by the Catholic Church in canonized cases, while medical analyses frequently attribute them to psychosomatic origins or autosuggestion, as seen in case studies of self-induced or hysteria-linked wounds lacking supernatural verification.^[93] The biblical "mark of Cain" in Genesis 4:15 exemplifies an earlier symbolic interpretation of stigma as a divine sign, placed by God on Cain after his murder of Abel to protect him from vengeance, stating that "whoever kills Cain will suffer a sevenfold vengeance." This mark functioned not as punitive visibility of sin but as a safeguard ensuring Cain's survival despite his exile, influencing medieval Christian theology to regard visible signs of transgression as potentially merciful divine interventions rather than mere badges of shame.^[94] Theologians emphasize its role in demonstrating God's restraint on human retribution, preserving life amid judgment, though later interpretations sometimes conflated it with enduring shame, diverging from the text's protective intent.^[95] Cross-culturally, symbolic markings contrast with Western Christian associations of stigma often tied to suffering or sin's visibility; in Hinduism, the tilak—a forehead mark applied with vermilion, sandalwood, or clay—serves as a positive emblem of devotion, spiritual awakening, and protection, representing the third eye of insight and alignment with deities like Shiva or Vishnu depending on shape and color.^[96] Unlike punitive or wounding stigmas, tilak signifies purity, auspiciousness, and communal religious identity, worn daily or ritually to invoke blessings and ward off negativity, highlighting a framework where bodily signs affirm sanctity rather than replicate affliction.^[97]

Usage in Writing and Language

The term stigma originates from the ancient Greek word στίγμα (stígma), denoting a mark made by a pointed instrument, such as a brand or tattoo applied to slaves, criminals, or outcasts to signify disgrace.^[2] In classical Greek literature, this literal marking extended rhetorically to denote social branding through language, as seen in texts describing punitive tattoos (stigmata) on Thracian captives or disgraced soldiers, where the word evoked enduring shame via descriptive narrative.^[14] Satirical works, including those of Aristophanes, employed analogous verbal tactics to "brand" public figures—such as portraying Socrates as a sophist or Cleon as a demagogue—using exaggerated invective to impose metaphorical stigmas that influenced audience perceptions without physical marks.^[98] By the late 16th century, English adoption of stigma from Latin retained the physical connotation but began shifting toward abstract usage, with the Oxford English Dictionary recording its earliest appearance in 1596 in John Harington's writings as a visible blemish symbolizing moral fault.^[99] This evolution reflected a broader linguistic transition: from denoting tangible brands (e.g., in medical or punitive contexts) to metaphorical applications in prose and poetry, where authors invoked stigma to rhetorically impute infamy, as in 17th-century theological texts decrying sins as indelible "stigmata of the soul."^[100] Dictionary entries, such as those in Merriam-Webster, trace this persistence, noting by the 19th century the term's dominance in figurative senses for social reproach, enabling writers to deploy it as a concise device for critiquing character or conduct.^[101] In modern linguistic analysis, stigma functions as a metaphor in discourse studies, where language constructs salience around discrediting attributes to shape interpretations, akin to framing mechanisms that amplify negative schemas.^[102] Robert Entman's 1993 framework elucidates this rhetorical process: texts select and highlight "problematic" traits (e.g., via loaded descriptors) to diagnose and morally evaluate, fostering stigmatizing narratives that embed causal attributions of fault in readers' cognition.^[103] Such usage persists in academic writing, where analysts dissect how euphemistic or dysphemistic phrasing—opposites of neutral terms—rhetorically stigmatizes by associating conditions with inherent flaws, influencing persuasive efficacy without overt argumentation.^[104] This device underscores language's power to perpetuate abstract brands, distinct from physical origins yet rooted in the same etymological imperative to mark deviance.^[105]

Representations in Arts, Media, and Sports

Literature and Books

Erving Goffman's Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity, published in 1963 by Prentice-Hall, established a foundational framework for understanding stigma as a process whereby individuals manage identities perceived as tainted or discreditable in social contexts, drawing on ethnographic observations of physical deformities, mental illness, and racial differences.^[106] The book, spanning 147 pages, categorizes stigmas into abominations of the body, blemishes of individual character, and tribal stigmas of race or nation, influencing subsequent sociological analyses.^[107] In fiction, Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter (1850) exemplifies early literary engagement with stigma through the Puritan community's ostracism of Hester Prynne, who wears a scarlet "A" for adultery, exploring themes of guilt, shame, and societal judgment as mechanisms of moral enforcement.^[108] The narrative depicts stigma not merely as punishment but as a psychological burden that alters personal identity and community dynamics, prefiguring modern treatments of spoiled identities.^[109] Yi Mun-yŏl's Our Twisted Hero (1987), originally published in Korean and translated into English in 2001, centers on a protagonist confronting authoritarian conformity in a school setting under dictatorship, where deviation incurs social exclusion and enforced loyalty, allegorizing stigma's role in suppressing dissent during Korea's authoritarian era from the 1950s to 1980s.^[110] The novella critiques how collective stigma enforces hierarchy, with the class leader embodying normalized tyranny that stigmatizes independence as betrayal.^[111] Post-2000 non-fiction includes Imogen Tyler's Stigma: The Machinery of Inequality (2020, Zed Books), a 288-page analysis linking stigma to systemic inequality across contexts like austerity, borders, and penal policies, arguing it functions as a political tool to naturalize class and racial hierarchies through public shaming.^[112] Tyler draws on historical and contemporary cases, such as UK welfare reforms, to demonstrate stigma's causal role in perpetuating disadvantage rather than mere social prejudice.^[113]

Film, Television, and Music

The 1972 American film Stigma, directed by David E. Durston, portrays social exclusion faced by a man with epilepsy in a rural community, emphasizing interpersonal discrimination and isolation as central themes. The 1977 British television film Stigma, part of the BBC's A Ghost Story for Christmas anthology and directed by Lawrence Gordon Clark, depicts a family disturbed by an ancient curse after relocating a menhir within a stone circle, with the title evoking a supernatural mark of affliction leading to psychological torment and familial breakdown. The 1982 Greek film Stigma, directed by Pavlos Tasios, explores themes of moral and social ostracism in a contemporary setting, drawing on cultural tensions around deviance and community judgment.^[114] In television, the 2012 HBO documentary segment Stigma: The Human Cost of Obesity from The Weight of the Nation series examines empirical data on weight-based discrimination, including studies showing correlations between stigma and worsened health outcomes like increased cortisol levels and avoidance of medical care.^[115] Episodes of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, such as season 14's "Lessons Learned" (aired November 21, 2012), illustrate legal ramifications of stigma surrounding child sexual abuse, where victims face institutional doubt and delayed reporting due to shame, based on real-world patterns documented in prosecutorial records.^[116] In music, Ministry's "Stigmata," released as the lead single from their 1988 album The Land of Rape and Honey on October 1, 1988, uses aggressive industrial rhythms to convey themes of inflicted suffering and religious symbolism, peaking at number 22 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart in 1989. BTS's "Stigma," from their 2016 compilation album The Most Beautiful Moment in Life: Young Forever released May 2, 2016, addresses personal and societal burdens of hidden flaws through introspective lyrics, contributing to the album's sales of over 520,000 copies in its first week in South Korea.^[117] Tom Walker's "Stigma," released September 27, 2024, critiques judgment in relationships amid mental health struggles, reflecting broader data on how stigma exacerbates relational breakdowns.^[118]

Sports and Competitions

In competitive sports, stigma often manifests around mental health challenges, where athletes confronting anxiety, depression, or burnout risk being perceived as lacking the requisite mental toughness demanded by elite performance culture. Research indicates that 5% to 35% of elite athletes experience mental health disorders, yet many avoid seeking help due to fears of judgment from coaches, teammates, or fans, which could jeopardize playing time or selection for competitions.^[119] ^[120] This reluctance stems from a longstanding sports ethos equating vulnerability with weakness, as evidenced by surveys showing internalized stigma among athletes who view mental health issues as reflective of personal failure rather than treatable conditions.^[121] Notable cases underscore this dynamic in high-stakes competitions. During the 2020 Tokyo Olympics (held in 2021), gymnast Simone Biles withdrew from multiple events citing mental health struggles, including "twisties" exacerbated by pressure, sparking widespread debate on the tolerance for such disclosures amid the stigma of perceived quitting.^[122] Similarly, tennis player Naomi Osaka's 2021 French Open withdrawal for mental health reasons highlighted media scrutiny and privacy invasions that amplify stigma, with athletes facing backlash for prioritizing well-being over participation.^[123] These incidents, while prompting some cultural shifts toward openness, reveal persistent barriers, as studies note that coaches' "tough it out" attitudes reinforce negative perceptions, particularly among college and professional athletes.^[124] Stigma also attaches to failure in competitions, where underperformance invites shame and social ostracism, fostering fear-driven behaviors like tentative play or overtraining. Elite athletes report elevated rates of failure-based depression, with self-criticism and rumination following losses impairing recovery and future contests.^[125] This pressure is acute in zero-sum environments like the Olympics or professional leagues, where public narratives often frame defeat as character flaws rather than strategic or circumstantial outcomes.^[126] In doping contexts, athletes testing positive endure profound reputational stigma, leading to competition bans and career-ending disgrace under World Anti-Doping Agency protocols. For instance, U.S. elite athletes face estimated doping prevalence of 6.5% to 9.2%, but detection results in moral condemnation that hinders reintegration, as stigmatization overshadows nuanced discussions of unintentional use or systemic incentives.^[127] ^[128] Proposals like the Enhanced Games, which would permit performance-enhancing substances, have met resistance precisely due to entrenched anti-doping stigma, viewed by critics as undermining fair competition integrity.^[129]

References

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On the definition of stigma - PMC - NIH
In the first component, people distinguish and label human differences. In the second, dominant cultural beliefs link labeled persons to undesirable ...
[2]
Stigma - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating from Greek stigma meaning "mark of a pointed instrument," the word stigma denotes a mark made on skin by burning, reflecting its original sense ...
[3]
[PDF] Stigma - Harvard University
Stigma is an attribute that conveys devalued stereotypes, involving labeling, stereotyping, separation, and status loss.
[4]
9. The Social Psychology of Stigma
Stigma is a process by which the reaction of others spoils a normal identity. ~Erving Goffman (1963), a famous sociologist who studied social stigma.
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Mental Health Stigma - CDC
Jun 9, 2025 · Stigma refers to negative attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes people may hold towards those who experience mental health conditions.
[6]
The Health Stigma and Discrimination Framework: a global ...
Feb 15, 2019 · Stigma is a well-documented barrier to health seeking behavior, engagement in care and adherence to treatment across a range of health ...
[7]
Evolutionary origins of stigmatization: the functions of social exclusion
The evolutionary view contributes to the current conceptualization of stigma by providing an account of the ultimate function of stigmatization and helping ...Missing: perspective | Show results with:perspective
[8]
https://oxfordre.com/psychology/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.001.0001/acrefore-9780190236557-e-442
[9]
Managing Stigma Effectively: What Social Psychology and ... - NIH
The course draws upon social neuroscience research demonstrating that stigma is a normal function of normal brains resulting from evolutionary processes in ...Abstract · Fig. 1 · Seminar Outcome Assessment
[10]
(PDF) The Social Psychology of Stigma - ResearchGate
Aug 5, 2025 · Stigma directly affects the stigmatized via mechanisms of discrimination, expectancy confirmation, and automatic stereotype activation, and ...
[11]
The Stigma Stability Framework: An Integrated Theory of How and ...
Mar 23, 2025 · On the one hand, society uses stigma to uphold existing hierarchies, enforce norms, and ensure social cohesion. On the other hand, society seeks ...
[12]
‎[Greek] στίγμα (stigma), [Latin] stigmata – Resounding The Faith
Apr 26, 2018 · The man who bore the stigma, a sign of dishonor since antiquity, was given to robbers, criminals, slaves, and prisoners. ... mark of slavery and ...Missing: stizein Herodotus archaeological evidence<|separator|>
[13]
The ancient penal history of stigma - Professor Imogen Tyler
Jan 20, 2020 · As the classics scholarship suggests, the meaning of stigma is entwined with slavery, with the punishment of the enslaved and with the capture ...
[14]
Dermatostiksia (tattooing): An act of stigmatization in ancient Greek ...
Slaves in particular, used to be tattooed with the letter delta (δέλτα), the first letter of the word 'δoῦλoς', standing for 'slave'. Prisoners condemned for ...Missing: stizein | Show results with:stizein
[15]
The Archaeology of Greek and Roman Slavery 9781472540928 ...
Herodotus stigmatized the trade in castrated slaves as 'wicked ... The practice of the close cropping of the hair of slaves, prisoners and criminals ...
[16]
A history of… tattoos (Part 1) - by Paul Lenz
Jul 25, 2025 · The Romans would also tattoo slaves, criminals and gladiators, but additionally it played a significant role in their army. Tattoos on hands and ...
[17]
The Twelve Tables of Roman Law: Foundations, Influence, and ...
Oct 17, 2024 · Consequences for unpaid debts, including imprisonment and sale into slavery. Guidelines for the division of a debtor's property among creditors.Missing: branding gladiators
[18]
Slaves, damnati and freedmen in Ancient Rome - Alison Morton
Jun 29, 2024 · In the Late Republic, around half the gladiators who fought in Roman arenas were slaves, the remainder free volunteers. Successful slave ...
[19]
The stigma of mental disorders: A millennia‐long history of social ...
Jul 28, 2016 · During the Middle Ages, mental illness was regarded as a punishment from God: sufferers were thought to be possessed by the devil and were ...
[20]
Diagnostic Medievalism: The Case of Leprosy's Stigma - dsq-sds.org
Aug 30, 2019 · Possibly more so than any other disease, leprosy in the Western mindset has been burdened with negative moral connotations since the Middle Ages ...
[21]
Witch-hunts in early modern Europe (circa 1450-1750) - Gendercide
Although both men and women were accused and executed for witchcraft in Europe during this era, roughly 75%-80% of those exposed to trial and execution were ...
[22]
They weren't witches; they were women: The witch-hunts and their ...
Sep 6, 2024 · Accusations of witchcraft were often based on unfounded rumours, superstitions, and even personal grudges. Individuals accused of witchcraft ...
[23]
What Became of the Degenerate? A Brief History of a Concept - jstor
The physical stigmata of degeneracy. 4. The degenerative psychosis. In biology, the concept of degeneration was applied to a clearly stated biological ...
[24]
[PDF] `On the Question of Degeneration' by Emil Kraepelin (1908)1 - HAL
Mar 1, 2011 · Keywords: degeneration; Emil Kraepelin; eugenics; neo-Lamarckism; ... influential in the debates around moral insanity and degeneracy.
[25]
Kraepelin and degeneration theory - PubMed
Kraepelin, on the one hand, accepted and implemented degeneration theory into the debate on etiology and pathogenesis of mental disorders.
[26]
Stigma - PMC - NIH
Apr 1, 2008 · The term 'stigma' describes the 'situation of the individual who is disqualified from full social acceptance'.
[27]
Conceptualizing Stigma - jstor
In response to these criticisms, we define stigma as the co-occurrence of its components-labeling, stereotyping, sep- aration, status loss, and discrimination- ...
[28]
Stigma, prejudice, discrimination and health - PMC - PubMed Central
While the root causes of stigma and prejudice stem from exploitation and dominance, the rationales used to stigmatize further extend to norm enforcement and to ...
[29]
“Stigma and Prejudice: One Animal or Two?” - PMC - PubMed Central
Stigma models place somewhat more emphasis on targets, particularly in terms of stereotypes/expectations, identity and emotions (Column 3). Prejudice models pay ...
[30]
Impacts of stigma and discrimination in the workplace on people ...
Participants reported diverse impacts of stigma and discrimination on job-seeking including general work avoidance and avoidance of employment support services.
[31]
Stigma, prejudice, discrimination and health - ScienceDirect.com
Prejudice and discrimination are believed to be important contributors to the production of health disparities (IOM, 2002).
[32]
Emory S. Bogardus: Measuring Social Distance - Brock University
Feb 22, 2010 · The measurement of social distances is to be viewed simply as a means for securing adequate interpretations of the varying degrees and grades ...Missing: stigma | Show results with:stigma<|separator|>
[33]
Emory Bogardus and the Origins of the Social Distance Scale
Aug 5, 2025 · The scale was developed by Emory Bogardus in 1924 and is still widely used in measuring prejudice.
[34]
Social distance from the stigmatized: A test of two theories
Perceived social distance was measured by a modified Bogardus Scale. Respondents expressed greater social distance from deviants such as alcoholics and drug ...
[35]
Ex-Prisoners Face Headwinds as Job Seekers, Even as Openings ...
Jul 6, 2023 · Ex-Prisoners Face Headwinds as Job Seekers, Even as Openings Abound. An estimated 60 percent of those leaving prison are unemployed a year later ...
[36]
Out of Prison & Out of Work: Unemployment among formerly ...
Using data from the National Former Prisoner Survey (NFPS), this report fills that gap by estimating a standard unemployment rate among formerly incarcerated ...
[37]
The Impact of Mental Illness Stigma on Seeking and Participating in ...
Stigma is a complex construct that includes public, self, and structural components. It directly affects people with mental illness, as well as their support ...
[38]
Mental Health Stigma: Society, Individuals, and the Profession - PMC
Social stigma is structural in society and can create barriers for persons with a mental or behavioral disorder. Structural means that stigma is a belief held ...
[39]
Challenging the Public Stigma of Mental Illness: A Meta-Analysis of ...
Stigma associated with mental illness has malignant effects on the lives of people with serious mental illnesses. Many strategies have been used to combat ...
[40]
The intersection of welfare stigma, state contexts and health among ...
Stigma is shown to impact health through structural mechanisms as well which include social conditions, cultural norms, and policies that potentially restrict ...Missing: disparate | Show results with:disparate
[41]
The intersection of welfare stigma, state contexts and health among ...
May 9, 2022 · Findings show experiences and perceptions of welfare stigma are significantly linked to poor health regardless of state contexts, and outcomes ...Missing: disparate | Show results with:disparate
[42]
[PDF] Associative stigma among families of alcohol and other drug users
In his seminal writings on stigma, Goffman referred to this as “courtesy stigma” (p. 30). Others have referred to this phenomenon as associative stigma ...
[43]
Stigma by association | The British Journal of Psychiatry
Jan 2, 2018 · Stigma by association was greater in relatives experiencing mental health problems of their own, and was unaffected by patient background characteristics.Missing: addiction | Show results with:addiction
[44]
Mothers' experiences of stigma and blame: The views of mothers of ...
Oct 3, 2024 · This research has explored the experience of courtesy stigma and parent-blame among mothers of children who use substances.Missing: associative | Show results with:associative
[45]
Disease avoidance as a functional basis for stigmatization - PMC
We propose that many forms of stigmatization reflect the activation of this disease-avoidance system, which is prone to respond to visible signs and labels ...
[46]
Tobacco Product Use Among Adults — United States, 2020 | MMWR
Mar 18, 2022 · In 2020, 12.5% of U.S. adults aged ≥18 years smoked cigarettes, the lowest prevalence since data became available starting in 1965 (1).
[47]
Psychiatric stigma in non-Western societies - PubMed
Factors bearing on social stigma in persons with a psychiatric illness are the subject of this review of the literature. The review concentrates on material ...
[48]
A 2022 update on the epidemiology of obesity and a call to action
The worldwide prevalence of obesity has nearly tripled between 1975 and 2016 and has now reached pandemic dimensions [14]. Specifically, the global obesity ...
[49]
Sacred psychiatry in ancient Greece - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Apr 12, 2014 · Some Greeks believed that the cause of Cleomenes' madness was the divine punishment ... Attitudes towards mental illness in antiquity. Aust N Z J ...
[50]
Greek and Roman Perspectives on Mental Illness - Psychology Town
Jul 21, 2024 · Explore ancient Greek & Roman views on mental illness: Humoral theory, treatments, classifications & their lasting influence on modern ...
[51]
Bedlam · Stigma and Mental Illness
The most infamous asylum is London's Bethlem Royal Hospital, colloquially known as “Bedlam.” Even centuries later, the word “Bedlam” is still used to denote ...Missing: 19th Foucault analysis
[52]
A history of stigma | BPS - British Psychological Society
Jul 29, 2019 · We can understand how the stigma of mental illness evolved from the fear of confinement and the moral and individual failing that accompanied it.
[53]
How the racist study of skulls gripped Victorian Britain's scientists
Aug 21, 2025 · Craniometry, the study of skull measurements, was widely taught in medical schools in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.Missing: stigmata pseudoscience slavery justification
[54]
Skulls in print: scientific racism in the transatlantic world
Mar 19, 2014 · People often associate Crania Americana with slavery. But, according to Poskett, this is a mistake. It wasn't until later in the century that ...Missing: stigmata | Show results with:stigmata
[55]
About the Magdalene Laundries
From the foundation of the Irish Free State in 1922 until 1996, at least 10,000 (see below) girls and women were imprisoned, forced to carry out unpaid labour ...
[56]
The Impact of Anticipated HIV Stigma on Delays in HIV Testing ... - NIH
In this study, higher scores on an anticipated stigma scale were associated with decreased likelihood of HIV testing according to CDC guidelines (i.e., in the ...
[57]
[PDF] The path that ends AIDS: UNAIDS Global AIDS Update 2023
May 11, 2023 · levels of HIV-related stigma, fear of deportation, and limited access to services have led to insufficient engagement with HIV programmes.
[58]
Alcoholics Anonymous at 90: Still a powerful force in alcohol recovery?
Jul 22, 2025 · Within AA, members can challenge or resolve self-stigma, and use this experience to bolster their recovery capital. For instance, one ...
[59]
Obesity Stigma: Causes, Consequences, and Potential Solutions
Strong evidence supports obesity stigma as an important contributor to poor mental health outcomes for people living with obesity, who are 32% more likely to ...
[60]
Pervasiveness, impact and implications of weight stigma - The Lancet
Apr 21, 2022 · Likewise, in some cultures, women living with overweight or obesity ... Weight stigma mediates the association between BMI and self-reported ...
[61]
[PDF] Do Sex Offender Registries Make Us Less Safe?
The public can, in theory, reduce sex offender recidivism by avoiding convicted offenders and reporting suspicious behavior. Since the late 1980s and early ...
[62]
[PDF] Evaluating the Effectiveness of Sex Offender Registration and ...
But sex offender registration is required for all criminals with a felony sex offense conviction regardless of their risk for future recidivism, despite ...
[63]
(PDF) The Deterrent Effects of Ethics Codes for Corporate Crime
control compliance-based programs discussed in the theory section. ... Evidence-Based Crime Prevention (pp. 13-21). New. York, NY: Routledge. Fimbel ...
[64]
Evidence for effective interventions to reduce mental-health-related ...
Mar 12, 2016 · We found that social contact is the most effective type of intervention to improve stigma-related knowledge and attitudes in the short term.
[65]
Evidence for effective interventions to reduce mental health-related ...
We have seen in this review that behaviour is under-represented in stigma intervention outcomes, for example changes in behaviour of others rated by patients or ...
[66]
Challenging the public stigma of mental illness: a meta ... - PubMed
This article reports on a meta-analysis that examined the effects of antistigma approaches that included protest or social activism, education of the public, ...
[67]
Approaches to Reducing Stigma - NCBI
Corrigan and colleagues (2012) observed that across all studies included in their meta-analysis, education was more effective than contact-base interventions in ...
[68]
Adverse unintended effects of antistigma campaigns ... - APA PsycNet
Antistigma campaigns and intervention messages have the potential to reduce the harmful stigmatization of various conditions (e.g., HIV/AIDS, mental ...
[69]
Lessons learned from unintended consequences about erasing the ...
Despite the promise of normalcy campaigns, there may be unintended effects. ... There is one unintended lesson worth learning in terms of tackling self‐stigma.
[70]
Weight Labeling and Obesity: A Longitudinal Study of Girls Aged 10 ...
Apr 28, 2014 · Weight stigma may contribute to weight gain by increasing obesogenic stress processes and triggering weight-promoting coping behaviors like ...
[71]
Tobacco Control, Stigma, and Public Health: Rethinking the Relations
Oct 10, 2011 · The antitobacco movement has fostered a social transformation that involves the stigmatization of smokers.
[72]
Stigma and Smoking: The Consequences of Our Good Intentions
Stigmas may function as a source of social control, contributing to smokers' decisions to quit in order to avoid stigmatization and social exclusion. However, ...The Smoking Case · Results · Prevalence Of Stigma, Social...
[73]
Decreasing Smoking but Increasing Stigma? Anti-tobacco ...
While effective in decreasing smoking rates, hard-hitting anti-tobacco public health campaigns might increase the third kind of stigma. That is, internalization ...
[74]
[PDF] Pollen and Stigma Structure and Function: The Role of Diversity in ...
Angiosperm reproduction is highly selective. Female tissues are able to discriminate between pollen grains, recognizing pollen from the appropriate species ...
[75]
Stigma characteristics and angiosperm taxonomy - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · By forming plumose, outreaching structures, many stigma are able to greatly increase their surface area to catch pollen grains from the air ( ...
[76]
The evolution of floral biology in basal angiosperms - PMC
Floral evolution proceeds along certain trajectories shaped by organizational and architectural traits. In different major angiosperm groups they are different ...
[77]
Seed Plants: Angiosperms – Introductory Biology: Evolutionary and ...
A long, thin structure called a style leads from the sticky stigma, where pollen is deposited, to the ovary enclosed in the carpel. The ovary houses one or more ...91 Seed Plants: Angiosperms · Visual Connection · Diversity Of Angiosperms<|separator|>
[78]
Self-(In)compatibility Systems: Target Traits for Crop-Production ...
Self-incompatibility (SI) mechanisms prevent self-fertilization in flowering plants based on specific discrimination between self- and non-self pollen.
[79]
Darwin, C. R. 1876. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the ...
Aug 18, 2023 · few plants seem to be invariably self-fertilised; yet even these retain traces of having been formerly adapted for cross-fertilisation.
[80]
The Balance between Different ROS on Tobacco Stigma during ...
The stigmas of flowering plants can be divided into two main types: dry and wet [2]; wet stigmas are covered with a viscous liquid—the exudate —on which ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[81]
POLLEN TUBE GROWTH IN ASSOCIATION WITH A DRY-TYPE
The extracellular matrix. (ECM) of both wet- and dry-type stigmas are characterized by ... increasing efficiency of seed set (Williams et al., 1993) in a fashion ...
[82]
Structural analysis of stigma development in relation with pollen ...
Dry stigmas are, thus, considered to be more efficient and evolutionarily more advanced over the wet stigmas for pollen–stigma interaction (Dickinson, 1995).
[83]
Carotenoids in the eyespot apparatus are required for triggering ...
The eyespot apparatus (EA) of Euglena gracilis consists of a cluster of cytosolic carotenoid‐rich globules, called the eyespot, and the actual photoreceptive ...
[84]
The eyespot of Euglena gracilis: a microspectrophotometric study
When viewed with light in the region of 380-500 nm, the stigma appeared as a dark spot. Adjacent to this was a second spot, not seen with white light, but which ...
[85]
Chapter 11 Phototaxis of Euglena gracilis—flavins and pterins
The role of the stigma, a red structure located close to the PAB is, according to the model, a screening device which absorbs light when the cell has a certain ...
[86]
Phototactic Response of Euglena gracilis to Polarized Light - Nature
Euglena rotates about its long axis as it swims, and thus in the presence of light from one side the photoreceptor will be periodically shaded by the eyespot.
[87]
SOME PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INSECT RESPIRATION
The areas at the stigma and at the beginning of the tracheoles are the same-about one-tenth of the maximum value. Nunome found that total wall area of the ...
[88]
THE RESPIRATION OF INSECTS - WIGGLESWORTH - 1931
The exchange of gases in the tracheal system is effected primarily by diffusion. This is modified by opening and closure of the spiracles (“ diffusion control ”) ...
[89]
Book Lung of Scorpion (With Diagram) | Zoology - Biology Discussion
The atrial chamber communicates outside through stigmata or stigma. 8. Air enters the atrial chamber through stigma and after aerating the leaflets goes out ...Missing: biological term
[90]
The Mystery of the Five Wounds - Smithsonian Magazine
Nov 18, 2011 · The first case of stigmata—the appearance of marks or actual wounds like those Christ received during the Crucifixion—was recorded in 1224.
[91]
Bearing the Wounds of Christ: Meet the Stigmatists
Sep 3, 2024 · Perhaps the best we can say is that there seem to have been hundreds of cases since the time of St. Francis, probably about 400 to 500.
[92]
The Stigmata of Padre Pio - EWTN
On the morning of the 20th September 1918, after having celebrated Holy Mass, the priest Padre Pio retired to the choir stalls for his usual thanksgiving.
[93]
Religious stigmata as malingering artifact: Report of a case and ...
Dec 9, 2016 · We report the case of a 42-year-old woman who, for 3 consecutive years, showed religious stigmata on the forehead and on the dorsal surface of hands and feet.
[94]
What was the mark that God put on Cain (Genesis 4:15)?
Jan 29, 2024 · It was a sign/indicator that Cain was not to be killed. Some propose that the mark was a scar, or some kind of tattoo.
[95]
Don Stewart What Was the Mark of Cain? - Blue Letter Bible
And the Lord set a mark on Cain, lest anyone finding him should kill him (Genesis 4:15). God's mark of protection on Cain was to help provide for his safety.
[96]
5 things to know about tilak - Hindu American Foundation
Jan 28, 2021 · Wearing tilak every day also acts as a reminder to others who see you of their own spiritual goals. It is a symbolic magnet that helps to pull ...
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https://www.religionfacts.com/tilak
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https://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/53676
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stigma, n. meanings, etymology and more - Oxford English Dictionary
OED's earliest evidence for stigma is from 1596, in the writing of John Harington, courtier and author. stigma is a borrowing from Latin. Etymons: Latin stigma.
[100]
Stigma - INHN
The Latin word stigma is derived from the Greek στίγμα (“mark made by a pointed instrument, brand”). The root of this word is in turn, *stig-, in Greek στίζειν ...
[101]
STIGMA Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Stigma was borrowed from Latin stigmat- , stigma, meaning "mark, brand," and ultimately comes from Greek stizein, meaning "to tattoo." Earliest English use hews ...
[102]
[PDF] Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm
Robert M. Entman is an associate professor of communication studies, journalism, and po- litical science and chair of the program in Communications, Media, and ...Missing: stigma | Show results with:stigma
[103]
(PDF) Framing: Toward Clarification of A Fractured Paradigm
Aug 6, 2025 · Framing Theory (Entman, 1993) posits that media frames highlight certain aspects of reality while omitting others. Satirical programs use irony, ...Missing: stigma | Show results with:stigma
[104]
Understanding Dysphemism: The Powerful Rhetorical Device That ...
Aug 27, 2024 · While dysphemism can be effective in persuasion, its use raises ethical questions. Using harsh language can lead to the stigmatization of groups ...
[105]
The power of stigma - PMC - NIH
Stigma comes from the Greek word στγμα, 'mark', which is related to the word στζειυ, i.e., to tattoo, to prick, to puncture. In Latin it became instigare, 'to ...<|separator|>
[106]
Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity - Erving Goffman
Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. Front Cover. Erving Goffman. Touchstone, 1963 - Psychology - 168 pages.
[107]
Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. By Erving ...
Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. By Erving Goffman. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963. 147 pp. Cloth, $4.50; paper, $1.95.Missing: details | Show results with:details
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Themes in The Scarlet Letter with Analysis - Literary Devices
This sense of sin in the case of Dimmesdale becomes a psychological stigma. He goes through severe depression and trauma to stay silent and to save his skin.
[109]
The Scarlet Letter: Study Guide - SparkNotes
The novel delves into themes of sin, guilt, and societal expectations, offering a compelling exploration of human nature and morality.
[110]
Review of Yi Mun-yol's “Our Twisted Hero” |
May 18, 2012 · Our Twisted Hero is both the story of a new student dealing with a classroom bully and a political allegory with hints of Orwell's Animal Farm, ...
[111]
Our Twisted Hero Summary - SuperSummary
Set sometime between the 1950s and 1980s, it is an allegory of Korea's dictatorship and widespread political corruption during this period.
[112]
Stigma: The Machinery of Inequality - Bloomsbury Publishing
Free delivery over $35Apr 15, 2020 · Imogen Tyler's passionate book brings out the enduring power of stigma to mark inequality on the body in profound, searing ways. This will be a ...
[113]
Stigma by Imogen Tyler - The Sociological Review
Nov 26, 2020 · Stigma: The Machinery of Inequality is a book that connects a variety of contexts, including penal power, black power, borders, and austerity, through the use ...
[114]
Stigma (1972 film) - Wikipedia
Stigma is a 1972 American drama film. Produced by Charles Moss, [1] while it was both written and directed by David E. Durston.
[115]
Stigma (1982) directed by Pavlos Tasios • Reviews, film + cast
Poster for Stigma (1982) Stigma (1982). 82 · 50 · 21. Where to watch. Amazon Amazon ... Greek Film Centre Pavlos Tasios Productions. Country. Greece. Language.
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The Weight of the Nation: Stigma - The Human Cost of Obesity (HBO ...
May 14, 2012 · Subscribe to HBO Docs: http://itsh.bo/10r45k3 To win, we have to lose. The four-part HBO Documentary Films series ... Stigma - The Human Cost of ...Missing: television | Show results with:television
[117]
Special Victims Unit" Lessons Learned (TV Episode 2012) - IMDb
Rating 8/10 (1,058) Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. S14.E8. All episodesAll · Cast & crew · User reviews · Trivia · IMDbPro. All topics. Lessons Learned. Episode aired Nov 21, ...Full cast & crew · Dreams Deferred · Detective Amanda Rollins · Plot
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Stigmata (song) - Wikipedia
Written by frontman Al Jourgensen, it is the opening track and the only single released from their third studio album, 1988's The Land of Rape and Honey. The ...Missing: Cure | Show results with:Cure
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Stigma - song and lyrics by BTS - Spotify
Stigma · Lyrics · Recommended based on this song · Popular Tracks by BTS · Popular Releases by BTS · Popular Albums by BTS · Popular Singles and EPs by BTS.Missing: titled | Show results with:titled
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Tom Walker - Stigma (Official Audio) - YouTube
Sep 24, 2024 · Music video by Tom Walker performing Stigma (Official Audio).(C) ... Top 10 Best Selling Songs Each Year (2010-2020). Music Here•33M ...Missing: titled | Show results with:titled
[121]
Mental Health in Athletes: Breaking the Stigma
Jul 22, 2024 · Research shows that between 5% and 35% of elite athletes report a mental health disorder. Numbers are even higher among college athletes.
[122]
The stigma of mental health in athletes
Mental toughness and mental health are seen as contradictory terms in the world of elite performance. Sports culture has been slow to respond to athletes ...Brief History · Sport Culture Regarding... · Changing Sport CultureMissing: competitions | Show results with:competitions
[123]
Athlete Mental Health: Stigma, Culture, and Resources
Oct 16, 2024 · Moreover, the study notes that athletes frequently experience internalized stigma by believing it reflects poorly on their mental toughness. The ...
[124]
16 Times Athletes Opened Up About Their Mental Health - People.com
Aug 14, 2024 · From Simone Biles to Michael Phelps, these athletes are challenging the stigma of mental illness and opening up about how they take care of their mental health.
[125]
With Her Candor, Osaka Adds to Conversation About Mental Health
Jul 30, 2021 · He noted that sports were rife with problems, including racism, homophobia, sexism and perfectionism, that can contribute to struggles with ...
[126]
Study: College Athletes Experience High Rates of Mental Health ...
Sep 7, 2023 · A study in the Journal of Sport and Social Issues highlighting college athletes' mental health literacy and how to reduce stigmas around mental health ...Missing: competitions | Show results with:competitions
[127]
The Mental Health of Elite Athletes: A Narrative Systematic Review
The prevalence of failure-based depression among elite athletes. Clin J Sport Med. 2013;23(4):273–277. doi: 10.1097/JSM.0b013e318287b870. [DOI] [PubMed] ...
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Fear of Failure – Part I - Dr. Jim Taylor
At the heart of fear of failure is the belief held by young athletes that if they fail, in sports or any other activity, then bad things will happen. The ...
[129]
Doping Prevalence among U.S. Elite Athletes Subject to Drug ... - NIH
May 20, 2024 · Estimated doping prevalence among U.S. elite athletes ranged from 6.5 to 9.2%, with 4.2% for in-competition use of cannabinoids.
[130]
The Experience of Competition Ban Following a Positive Doping ...
World Anti-Doping Association (WADA) is responsible for doping-free sporting contests and is the only sporting body posing relevant competition sanctions.
[131]
Will the Enhanced Games survive the stigma around doping in sports?
Jan 13, 2024 · The Enhanced Games would not even be the first organization to turn a blind eye to doping: Pro wrestling, mixed martial arts, and some sections ...