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Maund

The maund is a traditional unit of mass used in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and other parts of Asia, varying greatly by locality, typically ranging from about 25 to 82 pounds (11 to 37 kilograms).^[1] The English term derives from the Hindi word mān (मान), from Sanskrit māna (मान, meaning 'measure').^[2] It was widely used in British India for measuring commodities such as grains, spices, and textiles. One maund traditionally equaled 40 seers, with the seer being a smaller unit of about 0.933 kilograms in the standardized Indian system.^[3] The maund has largely been replaced by the metric system in official use since the Standards of Weights and Measures Act of 1956, but it persists in some informal rural and agricultural contexts.^[4]^[5]

Overview and Etymology

Definition

The maund is a traditional unit of mass originating in South Asia and adapted in parts of the Middle East and Central Asia, with its value varying widely by locality from as low as 25 pounds (11 kg) to as high as 160 pounds (72 kg).^[6] This variability reflects local customs and economic needs rather than a uniform standard.^[7] Common alternative names for the maund include "mun" and "mann," which appear in historical trade records across the region.^[8] In practice, the maund served as a key measure in Asian commerce, especially for bulk commodities such as grains, spices, and textiles, facilitating local and regional exchanges before widespread metric adoption.^[7] As a non-standardized traditional unit, the maund relied on local calibrations—often divided into 40 seers or similar subdivisions—rather than aligning with international systems like the metric kilogram, leading to inconsistencies in cross-border trade.^[7]^[6]

Origins of the Term

The term "maund," referring to a traditional unit of weight, entered the English language in the late 16th century through contact with South Asian trade, derived directly from the Hindi mān (मान), which itself stems from the Sanskrit māna (मान), denoting a measure or portion of quantity.^[9] This linguistic root reflects the unit's conceptual origin as a standardized portion for commodities, evolving from ancient systems where measures were tied to practical divisions of goods like grain or textiles. Parallel influences appear in Persian and related languages, where the equivalent term man (من) has deeper historical roots, traceable to Middle Persian mān and ultimately to the Akkadian manû, an early Mesopotamian unit of weight and capacity dating back to the 2nd millennium BCE.^[10] In medieval Persian trade contexts, such as those documented in Timurid and Safavid records, the man served as a key measure for bulk goods like silk, spices, and metals, often calibrated against smaller units like the mithqāl.^[10] Earliest recorded uses of the term in trade texts from India and Persia appear in medieval sources, including 14th- and 15th-century Persian commercial documents and the 16th-century Mughal administrative compilation Ain-i-Akbari, where the man (or maund in anglicized form) is described as a primary weight for mercantile transactions, frequently linked to basket-based systems for weighing and transporting produce.^[11] These systems relied on standardized baskets or containers to approximate the unit's mass, facilitating consistent exchange in caravan and port trade across the Indian Ocean and overland routes. The word's form in English also shows convergence with an unrelated indigenous term: the Old English mand (or maund), from Proto-Germanic mandō, originally meaning a basket or hand-held container used for carrying measures.^[12] This phonetic similarity likely influenced the spelling of the borrowed weight unit during British colonial encounters, blending European dialectal connotations of containment with the Asian measure's semantic focus on weight, though the two etymologies remained distinct.^[13]

Historical Evolution

Pre-Colonial Usage

During the Delhi Sultanate, the maund (also known as mann) emerged as an important unit for measuring bulk commodities in taxation and trade, particularly under Sultan Alauddin Khalji's market reforms in the early 14th century. These reforms, aimed at stabilizing prices and ensuring supply for the military and populace, fixed rates for grains such as wheat at 7.5 jitals per maund and barley at 4 jitals per maund, using the unit to regulate transactions in Delhi's markets. Historical estimates place the maund at approximately 15 kg during this period, reflecting local standards for weighing goods like cereals and fabrics.^[14] In the Mughal Empire, the maund underwent variations and reforms, with weights fluctuating based on imperial decrees and commodity types. Under Akbar (r. 1556–1605), the standard man-i Akbari was established at roughly 25.2 kg, as detailed in Abul Fazl's Ain-i-Akbari, serving as a benchmark for taxation, land revenue assessments, and trade in grains, cloth, and metals across the empire. Earlier standard reforms in the Mughal administration occasionally referenced a lighter maund of about 15.75 kg for specific purposes, though Akbar's era saw the heavier variant applied more broadly to commodities like salt and sugar. These measurements, derived from 40 seers per maund with the seer weighing around 630 grams, facilitated economic administration but allowed regional adjustments by provincial governors.^[14]^[15] The maund played a vital role in pre-colonial caravan trade routes linking South Asia to Persia and Arabia, functioning as a bulk measure for high-value goods such as silk, spices, and metals transported by camel caravans along the overland paths of the Silk Road and Incense Route. Merchants in these networks relied on the unit's familiarity across regions to negotiate exchanges of Indian textiles and spices for Arabian frankincense and Persian metals, ensuring consistent valuation despite minor local adaptations. Evidence from 16th- to 18th-century texts, including the Ain-i-Akbari and accounts by European travelers like François Bernier, illustrates the maund's fluctuations under local rulers' decrees, often varying by 10–20% based on provincial needs or commodity purity. For instance, in Bengal under Mughal subahdars, the maund was sometimes adjusted to 28–30 kg for rice trade, while Deccan rulers maintained lighter variants around 20 kg to accommodate caravan loads, highlighting the unit's adaptability amid decentralized authority.^[14]^[15]

British Colonial Standardization

During the early 19th century, the British East India Company sought to address the inconsistencies in indigenous weight systems that complicated trade and revenue collection across its territories. In 1821, the Company organized a comprehensive survey of local weights and measures, revealing substantial regional variations in the maund. In Bengal, the maund was recorded at 82.28 pounds avoirdupois (approximately 37.3 kg); in Central India, it averaged 40 pounds (18 kg); in Bombay, 28 pounds (12.75 kg); and in Madras, 25 pounds (11.33 kg). These discrepancies, often rooted in pre-colonial practices like those under Mughal rule, hindered uniform taxation and commerce, prompting colonial authorities to pursue standardization.^[16] To promote uniformity, particularly in the vital Bengal Presidency, the colonial administration enacted Regulation VII in 1833, defining the maund as exactly 100 troy pounds, equivalent to 82.28 pounds avoirdupois (37.324 kg). This standard, tied to the weight of the silver rupee coin (180 troy grains per tola), was intended to align local trade with British imperial systems while preserving elements of the prevalent bazaar maund for practicality. The regulation established the maund as comprising 40 seers, with each seer at 80 tolas, ensuring precise calibration for official use.^[17]^[18] Implementation occurred through a series of weights and measures acts and regulations, which mandated the adoption of standardized brass weights in government offices, markets, and ports. These measures directly influenced customs duties and taxation, as colonial officials recalibrated assessments for commodities like opium, cotton, and salt—key revenue sources—reducing opportunities for underreporting via variable units. For instance, uniform maunds facilitated more accurate levies on exported goods, boosting fiscal efficiency but enforcing stricter oversight on transactions.^[18] The standardization profoundly affected local economies by disrupting entrenched trading networks reliant on flexible, region-specific maunds, often leading to short-term disruptions in supply chains and pricing. Traders, accustomed to negotiating with variable units that allowed for local adaptations, mounted resistance, viewing the reforms as an overreach that eroded their autonomy and favored British merchants. In Bombay, for example, indigenous traders protested the imposition of new customs weights around 1832, arguing they inflated taxable values by 12-15% and integrated them into exploitative colonial commodity circuits, sparking broader tensions over commercial control.^[19]

Regional Variations

South Asian Standards

In South Asia, particularly under British colonial administration, the maund was standardized regionally with the common subdivision of 40 seers, though the actual mass varied significantly by province to accommodate local trade practices and commodity types. The Bengal maund, widely used in eastern India for commodities like opium and textiles, consisted of 40 seers, each weighing approximately 2.0625 pounds (0.935 kg), resulting in a total of 82.5 pounds (37.4 kg). This configuration reflected the East India Company's efforts to align with pre-existing Mughal-era weights while facilitating export calculations, as documented in early 19th-century metrological surveys.^[20] In contrast, the Punjab maund, prevalent in northwestern regions for grain and agricultural produce, totaled approximately 88 pounds (40 kg) with 40 seers. This standard emerged from local customs and was aligned with North Indian practices, as noted in historical metrology records.^[21] Regional adaptations in Gujarat and Bombay further diversified the maund, often fixed at 40 seers. In Gujarat, such as the Surat maund, it totaled 37 to 41 pounds (16.9 to 18.6 kg); in Bombay, it was 28 pounds (12.7 kg) for cotton and other bulk goods, equating to roughly 0.7 pounds per seer. These adjustments, rooted in local mercantile traditions, were formalized in the Bombay Presidency to simplify interactions with European traders, as noted in colonial commercial handbooks.^[20] Specialized subdivisions appeared for export-oriented trade, such as the factory maund in Madras, which weighed 25 pounds (11.3 kg) and was divided into 40 pollams or equivalent units for spices and indigo shipments; this lighter variant, slightly adjusted from 24.5 pounds (11.1 kg) in some records, optimized port logistics and aligned with British avoirdupois systems without disrupting indigenous retail practices.^[22]

Middle Eastern and Central Asian Adaptations

In Persia, the traditional unit known as the man (or mann) served as a key measure of weight in trade and commerce, with regional variations reflecting local economic needs. The mann-e Tabriz, a common variant, weighed approximately 2.9 kg and was widely used for commodities such as textiles, silk, and agricultural products like sugar. This unit facilitated precise transactions in markets, where bundles of fabric or processed goods were quantified to ensure fair exchange. For high-value exports like opium, a larger variant, the mann-e šāh at about 5.8 kg, was employed, as evidenced by 19th-century production records showing yields and trade volumes in these terms. The man often subdivided into smaller units, such as the charak (approximately 0.75 kg), allowing for granular measurements in everyday trade.^[23] In Afghanistan, the maund adapted to the rugged terrain and diverse markets of Central Asia, showing influences from longstanding Mughal trade routes that linked Kabul to Indian commercial networks. In 19th-century Kabul markets, the maund typically ranged from 80 to 95 pounds (36 to 43 kg), used primarily for grains, wool, and spices transported via caravan paths. This variation stemmed from local customs, where the unit aligned with the seer (about 0.93 kg) as a base, with 40 seers often equating to one maund, enabling efficient bulk handling in bazaars influenced by cross-regional exchanges. Mughal-era connections introduced standardized weighing practices that persisted, distinguishing Afghan adaptations from purely local systems by incorporating elements of South Asian fractional divisions.^[24] Arabian variants of the maund, prevalent in ports along the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, emphasized bulk commodities under Ottoman administrative influences, reaching up to 160 pounds (72 kg) in some contexts for heavy goods like dates and pearls. In Yemen and adjacent trading hubs, large-scale measures were used for date shipments, reflecting the need for maritime export. Pearl trade, a cornerstone of Gulf economies, utilized subdivided maunds to assess yields from diving expeditions, with Ottoman oversight standardizing weights for consistency in regional commerce. These adaptations interconnected through Silk Road networks, where the maund often equated to fractions of a camel's standard load—typically 400 to 500 pounds (181 to 227 kg)—facilitating overland transport of goods from Persian textiles to Afghan spices and Arabian dates across shared routes. South Asian influences appeared in fractional systems, but Middle Eastern and Central Asian forms prioritized autonomous scales tied to local trade goods like opium and pearls.

Modern Equivalents and Usage

Post-Independence Definitions

Following the partition of British India in 1947, newly independent nations undertook legal reforms to standardize the maund unit in alignment with the metric system, while accommodating regional traditions. In India, the Standards of Weights and Measures Act of 1956 formally defined the maund as exactly 37.3242 kilograms, equivalent to the pre-independence Bengal maund of 40 seers, thereby integrating the traditional unit into the national metric framework effective from 1958.^[25] This definition was further codified in subsequent amendments to promote uniformity in trade and commerce.^[26] In Pakistan, the Weights and Measures (International System) Act of 1967 established the legal maund at 37.3242 kilograms to conform with international metric standards.^[27] However, for practical purposes in agricultural produce, a 40-kilogram maund was retained as the operational standard, reflecting colonial-era conventions adapted for local farming and market transactions.^[28] Bangladesh and Nepal similarly pursued metric alignment post-independence. Bangladesh's adoption of the metric system in 1982, under the Standards of Weights and Measures Ordinance, set the official maund at 37.3242 kilograms.^[29] In Nepal, the maund is approximately 37.32 kilograms in the Terai region, consistent with South Asian metric transitions.^[25] In both countries, the 40-kilogram measure prevails in plains regions for agricultural output, with local variations in Nepal's hilly areas to account for terrain-specific trade practices.^[25] International efforts to recognize traditional units like the maund have focused on documentation for global trade, as outlined in United Nations standards from 1966, which cataloged regional equivalents without incorporating them into the ISO International System of Units (SI).^[25] These initiatives aimed to facilitate cross-border commerce by providing metric conversions, though formal ISO adoption remains limited to SI-derived units.

Current Applications and Legacy

In Pakistan, the maund remains a prevalent unit in wholesale markets for commodities such as rice and cotton, even as the government promotes the metric system through official standards. For instance, cotton prices in Balochistan are frequently quoted at Rs 15,300 to Rs 16,000 per maund (as of 2025), reflecting its role in daily trading activities.^[30] Similarly, rice prices in Punjab are often listed per 40 kg maund during post-harvest seasons. This usage underscores the maund's practical utility in agricultural commerce, where it facilitates quick transactions among traders and farmers. The cultural legacy of the maund endures in India and Bangladesh through proverbs and idiomatic expressions that reference its weight as a symbol of substantial loads or quantities, embedding it in everyday language and folklore. In Kashmiri traditions, sayings like "Hani truk mand ranih, Tcachal trult karih nah leehh" illustrate how a person with tact can manage a maund's worth of cooking, while the ignorant accomplishes nothing, highlighting resourcefulness. Another proverb, "To take account of every cowrie, but to give away money by the maund," contrasts meticulousness with lavish generosity, using the maund (approximately 80 lbs) to denote abundance. Such references preserve the unit's conceptual role in moral and practical wisdom, though direct ties to festivals are less documented.^[31] Despite the adoption of the International System of Units (SI) in India (1956), Pakistan (1960s), and Bangladesh (1982), the maund has declined in formal sectors but persists in rural and informal economies across South Asia. In rural Bangladesh, for example, mungbean marketing involves quotations per maund, rice yields are assessed in maunds per bigha, and jute trading relies on maund pricing, with raw jute reaching Tk 4,000 per maund in 2025.^[32]^[33] This tenacity stems from familiarity and convenience in non-industrial settings, where metric conversion is often nominal. In legacy contexts, 1 maund approximates 37.32 kg or 82.28 lbs, serving as a bridge to modern equivalents like the 40 kg standard in Pakistan.

References

[1]
MAUND Definition & Meaning - Dictionary.com
noun. a unit of weight in India and other parts of Asia, varying greatly according to locality: in India, from about 25 to 82.286 pounds (11 to 37.4 kilograms) ...
[2]
MAUND definition in American English - Collins Dictionary
a unit of weight in India and other parts of Asia, varying greatly according to locality: in India, from about 25 to 82.286 pounds (11 to 37.4 kilograms) ...
[3]
Maund - Definition, Meaning & Synonyms - Vocabulary.com
noun a unit of weight used in Asia; has different values in different countries “the official maund in India is 82.6 pounds avoirdupois”
[4]
Weights and Measures - The Gazetteers Department - AMRAVATI
The following conversion table shows the relation between the old and the new units. Weights. ... 1 tola = 180 grains = 11.6638 gm. 80 tolas = 1 seer = 933.10 gm.
[5]
Maund Definition & Meaning - YourDictionary
Maund definition: A unit of weight varying in different countries of Asia from 11.2 to 37.4 kilograms (24.8 to 82.6 pounds) avoirdupois, the latter being ...
[6]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004753334/BP000006.pdf
[7]
[PDF] Report Weights And Measures Committee
... maund varies throughout India from the Bengal or rnilway maund of 82^ ibs. to the Madras maund of 24 or 26 ibs., the Bombay maund being 28 lbs. and the factory ...
[8]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004752719/BP000006.pdf
[9]
MAUND Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
1. now dialectal British : a handbasket : hamper 2. now dialectal British : a measure, varying in quantity
[10]
BĀTMAN - Encyclopaedia Iranica
In Bukhara, two groups of manns, or bātmans, existed originally: (a) units of “small weight,” based on a meṯqāl of 4.8 g: mann-e šarīʿ = 180 meṯqāl = 0.864 kg ...Missing: man medieval
[11]
What is the unit called a seer? - Sizes
Jun 30, 2015 · The weights in ordinary use are ⅛, ¼, ½ of a ser; 1, 2, 5, 10 sér; ½, 1 man which consists of 40 sér. Abul Fazl 'Allami. H.S. Jarrett, trans.
[12]
maund - Wiktionary, the free dictionary
Noun · A wicker basket. · A unit of capacity with various specific local values. · (regional) A handbasket with two lids. Derived terms.
[13]
https://brill.com/display/book/9789004752719/BP000005.pdf
[14]
Prices and wages in India (1200–1800): Source material ...
This study explores the economic history of India from 1200 to 1800, focusing on the sources and historiography of prices and wages.
[15]
Useful Tables Illustrative Of The Coins, Weights, And Measures Of ...
Jan 20, 2017 · Useful Tables Illustrative Of The Coins, Weights, And Measures Of British India. by: Thomas, Edward Ed. Publication date: 1858. Topics: C-DAK.Missing: Prinsep | Show results with:Prinsep
[16]
Units of mass in British India - Sizes
Intended to be 10% heavier than factory weight. Units in yellow were primarily used for gold and silver. bazaar maund.
[17]
[PDF] Rethinking Metrology, Nationalism, and Development in India (1833 ...
This article shows that enforcement of standardised weights and measures in India was tied to shifting normative notions of planned economic development.Missing: fluctuations | Show results with:fluctuations
[18]
https://research.manchester.ac.uk/files/65152126/Past_Present_Author_Accepted_Version.pdf
[19]
maund in India - Sizes
Feb 27, 2014 · (n) “maund means an Indian maund of 82²⁄₇ pounds avoirdupois weight.” The Bombay Salt Act, 1890. H. M. Birdwood and H. J. Parsons, editors ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[20]
[PDF] Untitled - Victorian Voices
The maund = 28 pounds avoirdupois. 40 seers = 1 maund;. 20 maunds = 1 candy. The candy = 24.5 bushels. Madras. The maund = 25 pounds avoirdupois. 40 pollams ...
[21]
maund - Sizes
Aug 12, 2020 · 28 pounds av. (approximately 12.7 kilograms). “In the early part of 1913 the price of Mathari [coffee] has been $5.50 per maund of 28 pounds.Missing: largest historical Asia Middle
[22]
Metrication in other countries
Aug 3, 2020 · 1 maund = 40 seers = 37.29 kg. In 1956 the Government of India fixed the value of the seer at 0.9331 kg exactly. Similar native measures also ...By Hector Vera · Metrication In India · By Sujay Rao Mandavilli
[23]
The Weights and Measures (International System) Act, 1967
Mar 30, 2016 · 1 cwt __ 50.802 kilograms. 1 ton __ 1016.05 kilograms. 1 tola __ 0.0116638 kilogram. 1 seer __ 0.93310 kilogram. 1 maund __ 37.3242 kilograms.
[24]
[PDF] Key Challenges Facing Pakistan Agriculture: How Best Can Policy ...
In Pakistan in its formative years after independence in 1947 the process of ... 3 A metric ton (1000 kg) is equivalent to 25 maunds with 1 maund = 40 kg.
[25]
[PDF] METRIC SYSTEM OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
1 Lb. = 0.4536 kg. 1 Kg. = 2.205 lbs. 1 Maund. = 82.29 lb.—37.3261 kg. 1 Seer. = 2.05725 lb.—0.9331 kg. 1 Tola. = 180 grains troy—11.6625 gram. 1 Chhatak.
[26]
Land Measurement in Nepal
Weight measurement in Nepal ; 1 Seer. 0.9331 KG ; 1 Dharni. 12 Pau = 2.3934 KG ; 1 Maund. 37.3242 KG ; 1 gm. 8.573 Lal ; 1 Pound. 0.4536 KG ...
[27]
http://nasirlawsite.com/laws/wmisa.htm
[28]
[PDF] RICE PADDY POLICY ANALYSIS FOR 2022-23 CROP
4.3. The wholesale market prices of seed cotton during the post-harvest months of. 2021-22 in the main producer area markets have averaged at Rs 5996 per 40 kgs.
[29]
[PDF] A dictionary of Kashmiri proverbs & sayings
Ohandan chhik nah harah noli. " The quarrelsome people of Ahalamar. They havenot a rice-grain in their pots. They have not a cowrie in their pockets.".
[30]
Dr Razzaque: Extension of rice over 30 maund yield per bigha is ...
Oct 2, 2022 · The government is now trying to enhance newly invented high-yielding rice varieties with a yielding capacity of more than 30 maunds per bigha.
[31]
[PDF] J Bangladesh Agril Univ 19(2): 168–177, 2021 - CABI Digital Library
Dec 31, 2021 · Value addition of arathder and wholesaler was Tk 80/maund and Tk. 190/maund respectively and value addition of retailer was Tk 410/maund. In the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[32]
Jute price tops Tk 4000 per maund in Rajshahi
Oct 9, 2025 · On Thursday, the price of raw jute reached a record high at Tk 4,000 per maund across several local markets - the highest in recent memory. The ...