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Maximum takeoff weight

Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW), also referred to as maximum takeoff mass (MTOM), is the maximum allowable weight of an aircraft at the start of its takeoff roll, including the aircraft's empty weight, fuel, passengers, cargo, and all other loaded items.^[1] This certified limit is established by the aircraft manufacturer during the type certification process and approved by aviation regulatory authorities to ensure structural integrity, aerodynamic performance, and safe operation under standard conditions.^[2] Exceeding the MTOW is prohibited, as it can lead to insufficient climb performance, runway overrun risks, or structural failure during takeoff.^[1] The MTOW is distinct from other weight limitations, such as the maximum ramp weight (which allows for additional fuel before engine start) and the maximum landing weight (typically lower to account for fuel consumption during flight).^[1] It is determined through rigorous testing and analysis, considering the aircraft's design strengths, engine thrust, and intended operational envelope, with values varying widely by aircraft type—from 1,320 pounds for traditional light-sport aircraft (though FAA rules as of 2025 allow higher weights under the MOSAIC expansion) to over 1.2 million pounds for large commercial jets.^[3]^[4] Regulatory bodies like the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) use MTOW thresholds to categorize aircraft, for example, defining small aircraft as those with an MTOW of 12,500 pounds or less.^[5] In practice, the actual takeoff weight may be restricted below the certified MTOW due to environmental and operational factors, including runway length, altitude, temperature, wind conditions, and obstacles, which affect acceleration, climb gradient, and engine performance.^[6] Pilots and operators must perform pre-flight weight and balance calculations, often using performance software or charts from the aircraft's flight manual, to confirm compliance and adjust payload or fuel as needed for safe departure.^[7] Accurate adherence to MTOW limits is essential for aviation safety. International standards from ICAO Annex 6 apply to commercial operations of aircraft exceeding 5,700 kg MTOW, where accident rates have been reduced as reported in safety analyses.^[8]

Definition and Fundamentals

Definition

The maximum takeoff weight (MTOW), also known as the maximum certificated takeoff weight, is defined as the maximum allowable weight of an aircraft at the start of the takeoff roll, as certified by aviation authorities under standard atmospheric conditions at sea level. This limit ensures the aircraft meets all airworthiness and performance requirements for safe takeoff, including structural integrity, engine thrust, and control authority. MTOW encompasses the total mass of the aircraft, including its structure, systems, crew, passengers, cargo, fuel, and other consumables, and is a critical parameter in aircraft design and operation.^[1] Key components contributing to MTOW include the operating empty weight (OEW), which comprises the basic empty weight of the airframe and fixed equipment plus operational items such as crew, catering, and unusable fuel and oil; the payload, consisting of passengers, baggage, and cargo; and the usable fuel load required for the flight. The maximum zero-fuel weight (MZFW) serves as an intermediate limit, representing the maximum allowable weight of the OEW plus payload, excluding all usable fuel, to protect the airframe from excessive bending stresses during flight. These components are balanced such that the sum of MZFW and maximum fuel does not exceed MTOW, with payload and fuel loads adjusted based on mission requirements while respecting regulatory limits.^[7]^[9] MTOW is typically expressed in kilograms (kg) in metric countries or pounds (lb) in others, reflecting international aviation standards. For instance, the Boeing 747-8, a wide-body passenger and freighter aircraft, has an MTOW of 447,700 kg (987,000 lb), illustrating the scale for large commercial jets.^[10] The concept and terminology of MTOW were standardized in civil aviation regulations during the post-World War II era, coinciding with the expansion of commercial air travel and the certification of early jet aircraft in the 1950s, as outlined in evolving U.S. Civil Air Regulations (CAR) and subsequent Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR).

Importance and Applications

The maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) plays a pivotal role in ensuring aircraft safety by establishing limits that protect structural integrity, engine performance, and flight control during critical phases like takeoff and initial climb. Operating within MTOW prevents excessive stress on the airframe, which could lead to structural failure, while also guaranteeing sufficient thrust for acceleration and climb rates needed to clear obstacles or respond to engine failures. Exceeding MTOW can result in longer takeoff distances, reduced climb performance, and diminished margins for maneuvering, increasing the risk of runway excursions or loss of control, as highlighted in aviation safety analyses. For instance, overloaded aircraft exhibit slower acceleration and higher stall speeds, compromising the ability to maintain safe flight paths under adverse conditions such as high temperatures or short runways.^[1]^[11]^[12] In operational contexts, MTOW guides critical trade-offs between payload, fuel, and range, directly influencing airline route planning and overall economics. Airlines select aircraft variants with specific MTOW ratings to optimize for network demands; a higher MTOW enables greater payload capacity or extended range on long-haul routes but requires more fuel, elevating direct operating costs per flight. This balancing act affects scheduling and fleet utilization, as operators must adjust loads to comply with MTOW while maximizing revenue from passengers or cargo, particularly on routes with varying airport constraints. For example, on transatlantic flights, carriers might reduce payload to stay under MTOW limits imposed by departure runways, thereby shaping profitable route selections and fuel efficiency strategies.^[13]^[14]^[15] During aircraft design, MTOW serves as a foundational parameter that manufacturers use to balance performance metrics like wing loading and thrust-to-weight ratios, ensuring the airframe meets operational and regulatory requirements. Wing loading, calculated as MTOW divided by wing area, influences takeoff and landing distances as well as gust response; designers adjust wing size to achieve optimal loading for efficiency without compromising stability. Similarly, the thrust-to-weight ratio, tied to MTOW, determines acceleration and climb capabilities, with higher ratios needed for heavier designs to maintain performance across mission profiles. These choices, informed by MTOW, enable trade-offs between speed, fuel economy, and payload, as seen in the evolution of wide-body jets where increased MTOW correlates with refined aerodynamic and propulsion systems.^[16]^[17]^[18] Economically, MTOW affects leasing agreements, insurance premiums, and airport fees, categorizing aircraft into weight classes that dictate operational costs. Leasing terms often reference MTOW to classify aircraft as light or heavy, influencing contract structures and responsibilities for maintenance or upgrades in dry-lease arrangements. Insurance rates rise with higher MTOW due to increased hull value and liability exposure from larger aircraft sizes. Airport charges, such as landing fees, are typically scaled by MTOW to recover infrastructure costs, with heavier aircraft incurring higher rates—for instance, fees proportional to the square root of MTOW in many systems—to reflect greater wear on runways and aprons. These factors collectively shape airline budgeting and fleet decisions, prioritizing MTOW variants that minimize total ownership costs.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]

Certification and Regulatory Framework

Certification Standards

The certification of an aircraft's maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) requires demonstration of compliance with airworthiness standards through a combination of ground, flight, and analytical tests, ensuring the aircraft can safely operate at that weight under specified conditions. Under the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) 14 CFR Part 25, MTOW is established as the highest weight that does not exceed the applicant's selected value or the weight proven through structural loading and flight performance requirements, with compliance shown via tests addressing loads, flutter clearance, and takeoff capabilities. Similarly, the European Union Aviation Safety Agency's (EASA) Certification Specifications (CS-25) align closely with these, requiring equivalent demonstrations for large aeroplanes, where MTOW must support safe takeoff paths, speeds, and climb gradients across operational envelopes. These standards emphasize that MTOW certification integrates structural integrity under limit loads (e.g., per §25.301 or CS 25.301) and flutter-free operation up to 1.15 times the dive speed at MTOW (e.g., §25.629 or CS 25.629), verified through ground vibration testing, wind tunnel data, and in-flight flutter excitation tests. Test requirements for MTOW certification focus on validating takeoff performance under critical scenarios, typically conducted at or near MTOW for standard day conditions (15°C, sea level pressure) on smooth, dry runways, with data extrapolated for other environments. Key demonstrations include establishing takeoff speeds (V1, VR, V2) and distances via full-scale flight tests, where the aircraft accelerates from brake release to liftoff, incorporating engine failure at VEF (critical engine failure speed) to confirm obstacle clearance over a 35-foot height and positive climb gradients for the first segment and at least 2.4 percent for the second segment (to 400 feet above the takeoff surface) for twin-engine aircraft.^[23] Engine-out scenarios mandate one-engine-inoperative (OEI) takeoffs at MTOW, with lateral control tests requiring a 30-degree bank turn within 11 seconds post-failure, while ground runs assess performance on various surfaces like wet, contaminated, or unpaved runways through multiple replicate tests as required by certification guidance.^[24] Flutter tests at MTOW involve exciting the structure with control surface oscillations or atmospheric turbulence to confirm no aeroelastic instabilities, and structural load surveys during takeoff maneuvers verify that wing, fuselage, and landing gear stresses remain within certified limits. These tests, guided by FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 25-7D, often use segmented paths or continuous takeoffs, with results calibrated for airspeed errors (≤3 knots) and wind effects (50% credit for headwinds, 150% penalty for tailwinds). Aircraft certification standards for MTOW have evolved significantly since the 1950s, transitioning from basic airworthiness rules under Civil Air Regulations (CAR) Part 4b to the more comprehensive FAR Part 25 (effective 1965) and its EASA counterpart CS-25 (initial issue 2003, with ongoing amendments), incorporating advancements in performance modeling and safety margins. Early standards emphasized structural and basic flight demonstrations, but amendments from the 1970s onward integrated environmental constraints, influenced by ICAO Annex 16 Volume I (adopted 1971, effective 1973), which introduced noise certification limits that indirectly affect MTOW by constraining engine thrust and airframe design choices. Subsequent updates, such as FAR/CS-25 Amendment 25 (1980s) for improved takeoff climb requirements and Amendment 36 (1990s) for Stage 3 noise standards, extended to emissions via Annex 16 Volume II (first standards 1981, expanded 1993 for smoke and hydrocarbons), ensuring modern certifications balance MTOW with reduced noise footprints (e.g., Stage 5 limits since 2017) and CO2 emissions metrics that limit heavier configurations without efficiency penalties. Certification documentation for MTOW includes approved Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM) and supplements that specify weight limits for type variants or modifications, ensuring operational compliance. These supplements, required under 14 CFR §25.1583 or CS 25.1583, detail MTOW variations for different configurations (e.g., high-density seating or extended-range fuel), approved by the relevant Aircraft Certification Office, and must be carried aboard the aircraft to define certified limits, performance data, and any restrictions like runway-specific adjustments.

Regulatory Bodies and Processes

The primary regulatory bodies overseeing the certification of maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) for civil aircraft are the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in the United States and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) in Europe. The FAA issues type certificates for aircraft under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Part 21, which include approved MTOW limits as part of the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS) to ensure compliance with airworthiness standards in 14 CFR Part 25. Similarly, EASA approves MTOW through type certification under Regulation (EU) No 748/2012, incorporating limits into its Type-Certificate Data Sheet based on Certification Specifications (CS-25) for large aeroplanes. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) facilitates global harmonization by establishing baseline airworthiness standards in Annex 8 to the Chicago Convention, which national authorities like the FAA and EASA adapt for MTOW certification without directly issuing certificates itself.^[25]^[26]^[27] The certification process for MTOW involves a structured sequence of steps managed by these bodies. For the FAA, an applicant submits a type certificate application under FAA Order 8110.4C, followed by design data review for structural integrity and performance at proposed MTOW levels, prototype ground and flight testing to validate limits, and final issuance of the type certificate specifying the certified MTOW. EASA follows a comparable four-step process under its certification guidelines: establishing the certification basis upon application, approving the applicant's compliance program, verifying demonstrations through analysis, ground tests, and flight trials (often spanning several years for complex aircraft), and issuing the type certificate with MTOW embedded in the data sheet. Modifications that alter MTOW, such as structural enhancements, require supplemental type certificates (STCs) from either authority, involving similar reviews to ensure ongoing compliance with original standards.^[28]^[26] To promote consistency across jurisdictions, bilateral agreements enable harmonized MTOW approvals. The FAA and EASA operate under the Bilateral Aviation Safety Agreement (BASA) of 2003, supplemented by Technical Implementation Procedures (TIP) that allow reciprocal validation of type certificates, minimizing redundant testing and aligning MTOW standards for aircraft certified in one region for use in the other. These arrangements, detailed in FAA-EASA working procedures, cover design approvals and ensure that MTOW limits certified by one authority are recognized by the other, supporting international trade in aeronautical products. ICAO supports this through its standards, encouraging member states to adopt compatible rules for seamless global operations.^[29]^[30] Post-certification, regulatory bodies maintain oversight to address emerging safety issues that may necessitate MTOW adjustments for in-service fleets. The FAA issues Airworthiness Directives (ADs) under 14 CFR Part 39, which are mandatory and can impose temporary or permanent MTOW reductions; for example, in 2023, an AD for Saab AB Model 340B airplanes required revising the flight manual to limit MTOW to 29,000 pounds due to controllability concerns at higher weights. EASA similarly promulgates ADs under Commission Regulation (EU) No 1321/2014, potentially adjusting MTOW through operational limitations, as seen in directives revising aircraft flight manuals for weight-related safety. These directives ensure continued airworthiness, with compliance monitored through surveillance programs.^[31]

Determination and Limiting Factors

Structural and Design Limits

The maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of an aircraft is primarily constrained by the structural capabilities of its key components, including the wings, fuselage, and landing gear, which must endure elevated loads during takeoff without risking failure or deformation. These loads encompass inertial forces from acceleration, aerodynamic pressures on lifting surfaces, and thrust-induced stresses, all amplified by dynamic maneuvers. Engineers perform comprehensive stress analysis—often using finite element modeling and beam theory—to quantify the peak stresses and ensure they remain below material yield limits under limit load conditions, with an additional safety factor applied for ultimate loads.^[1]^[32] Several design factors directly influence these structural limits, such as wing area, which helps distribute lift-induced bending moments across the span to minimize localized stresses, and material properties that dictate overall load-bearing capacity. Advanced composites, like carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), offer higher tensile strength and lower density than aluminum alloys, enabling greater MTOW by allowing thinner, lighter structures that still resist fatigue and buckling. The center of gravity (CG) envelope further caps MTOW, as shifts beyond design bounds can induce uneven loading on the airframe, potentially exceeding structural tolerances during takeoff rotation.^[33]^[34]^[3] A foundational equation from aircraft design principles establishes the structural limit as:

\text{MTOW} \leq \frac{\text{Structural strength}}{\text{Load factor}} \times \text{Safety margin}

Here, structural strength represents the maximum allowable load (e.g., derived from material ultimate stress times cross-sectional area), the load factor typically equals 1.5 for ultimate maneuvering conditions at MTOW per certification rules, and the safety margin accounts for uncertainties like manufacturing variations. This approach, outlined in regulatory and design references, ensures compliance with standards that prevent overload during takeoff.^[35]^[3] For the Airbus A380, the MTOW of 575,000 kg is determined by the structural limits of its wings, particularly the CFRP central wing box, which is engineered to withstand the extreme bending and shear forces from the aircraft's mass and takeoff dynamics while maintaining overall airframe integrity.^[36]^[37]

Performance and Environmental Limits

Performance limits on maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) arise from regulatory requirements ensuring safe takeoff and initial climb, particularly under one-engine-inoperative (OEI) conditions. For transport-category airplanes, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations in 14 CFR Part 25 mandate a minimum gross climb gradient of 2.4% for the second segment of takeoff climb with the critical engine inoperative, at a height of 400 feet above the takeoff surface, which directly constrains the allowable MTOW to achieve this performance. Similarly, the accelerate-stop distance—the runway length required to accelerate to decision speed (V1) and then brake to a stop—must not exceed the available runway plus stopway, limiting MTOW based on brake energy absorption and tire speed ratings as demonstrated in flight tests with no more than 10% wear margin.^[38] Environmental factors significantly influence these performance limits by altering air density, which affects engine thrust, lift generation, and propeller or jet efficiency. High temperatures and pressure altitudes increase density altitude, reducing air density and thereby decreasing available thrust and lift, which necessitates MTOW reductions to maintain required climb gradients and stopping distances; for instance, at hot-and-high airports like Denver International Airport (elevation 5,431 feet), summer temperatures can elevate density altitude above 8,000 feet, potentially requiring payload or fuel reductions of 10-20% on aircraft like the Boeing 737.^[39] Wind effects further modify these limits, with headwinds effectively shortening required runway distances and tailwinds lengthening them, while humidity indirectly impacts performance through its minor role in density calculations.^[40] Pilots and operators determine performance-limited MTOW using aircraft flight manual (AFM) performance charts or specialized software that integrate runway length, obstacle clearances, and environmental data. These tools interpolate maximum allowable weights ensuring the takeoff path clears obstacles by at least 35 feet at the 50-foot point for all-engines-operating conditions or meets OEI climb requirements, often plotting MTOW against variables like outside air temperature and pressure altitude.^[41] For climb-limited scenarios, the governing relationship derives from the steady climb approximation, where the climb gradient \gamma satisfies:

\sin \gamma \approx \gamma = \frac{T - D}{W}

rearranged to yield climb-limited MTOW as W = \frac{T - D}{\gamma}, with T as available thrust, D as drag, and \gamma as the required gradient (e.g., 0.024 for 2.4%).^[42] In real-world operations, adjustments such as engine derating—permanently reducing certified thrust output—or assumed temperature methods for reduced thrust takeoffs allow compliance with performance limits while preserving engine life and meeting noise restrictions, particularly when environmental conditions permit runway margins exceeding regulatory minima.^[43] These techniques simulate higher ambient temperatures to justify lower thrust settings, ensuring the aircraft stays within climb and accelerate-stop envelopes without exceeding structural baselines.^[44]

Operational Variations

Multiple MTOW Configurations

Aircraft manufacturers certify multiple maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) configurations to accommodate diverse operational needs, such as short-haul versus long-range missions or compliance with regional regulations. These variants allow operators to tailor aircraft performance to specific route profiles, where lower MTOW options prioritize efficiency on shorter flights with reduced fuel and payload requirements, while higher MTOW enables greater range or capacity for extended operations.^[45]^[46] Each MTOW variant undergoes separate certification to ensure compliance with airworthiness standards, often incorporating optional structural enhancements like reinforced landing gear or wing components to support increased loads. Regulatory bodies such as the FAA and EASA approve these through type certificate amendments or supplemental type certificates, verifying that the modifications maintain structural integrity and safety margins.^[26]^[45] Operationally, airlines select MTOW configurations based on network demands; for instance, a higher MTOW variant facilitates transatlantic routes by allowing more fuel and payload, whereas a standard configuration suits regional services to minimize landing fees tied to declared weights. This flexibility also helps optimize costs, as many airports and air navigation services charge based on the certified MTOW.^[45]^[46] The Boeing 737 MAX family exemplifies this approach, with the 737-8 certified at 82,190 kg MTOW and the 737-9 at 88,314 kg, enabling operators to choose variants suited to market segments from domestic to intercontinental flights. Similarly, the Airbus A320neo offers three primary MTOW classes—73,500 kg, 77,000 kg, and 79,000 kg—which directly influence maximum range (up to 3,400 nautical miles) and payload capacity, allowing airlines to balance efficiency and versatility across global operations.^[47]^[48]

Field and Runway Limited Weights

Field-limited weights arise from broader airport infrastructure constraints that may restrict the maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) below the aircraft's certified structural limit to prevent damage or ensure safety. Pavement strength, rated using metrics like the Pavement Classification Number (PCN), determines the maximum allowable aircraft weight to avoid excessive stress on runways, taxiways, and aprons; if the aircraft's ACN exceeds the airport's PCN, operations are limited or prohibited.^[49] Similarly, obstacle clearance requirements around the airport, such as terrain or buildings in the departure path, can impose weight reductions to maintain adequate climb gradients and vertical separation.^[50] These field limits are typically assessed during airport planning and communicated via NOTAMs or airport analysis data, ensuring the MTOW does not compromise pavement integrity or navigational safety.^[51] Runway-limited weights focus on site-specific factors like runway length, slope, elevation, and surface condition, which directly influence the aircraft's ability to accelerate and become airborne within the available distance. Pilots calculate this limit using Takeoff Distance Required (TODR) charts or performance software from the aircraft flight manual, interpolating based on variables such as outside air temperature, pressure altitude, and wind to find the highest safe weight.^[52] For example, a short runway with an uphill slope increases the required takeoff distance, potentially reducing MTOW by thousands of kilograms compared to a longer, level surface; wet or contaminated surfaces further degrade performance by reducing tire traction and braking efficiency.^[53] The determination process involves pilots integrating real-time airport data—such as declared distances (TORA, TODA)—with aircraft-specific performance tools to compute the runway-limited MTOW before each flight. At airports like London City, the combination of a short 1,508 m runway (with usable takeoff run limited to 1,199 m) and a steep 5.5° approach path—requiring special steep approach certification—severely constrained operations formerly operated by the Airbus A318 (until 2020), limiting fuel load to approximately 4.5 tonnes with a full passenger complement to accommodate noise abatement and obstacle clearance.^[54] Safety margins are embedded in these calculations, including a regulatory 15% addition to the accelerate-stop distance on wet runways to account for hydroplaning and reduced friction, as mandated by FAA and EASA guidelines.^[55]^[56] This ensures the planned weight provides a buffer against degraded conditions without exceeding available runway length.

Maximum Permissible Takeoff Weight

The maximum permissible takeoff weight (MPTOW), also referred to as the maximum allowable takeoff weight, represents the highest operational weight at which an aircraft may safely initiate takeoff for a specific flight, constrained by the lowest applicable limit among certified, performance, and regulatory factors. Unlike the fixed maximum takeoff weight (MTOW), which is a static certification value set by the manufacturer based on structural and airworthiness standards, the MPTOW is dynamic and mission-specific, ensuring compliance with real-time conditions without exceeding the aircraft's inherent capabilities.^[57] The MPTOW is calculated as the intersection of key limiting factors, including the certified MTOW, performance-based constraints such as climb gradients and runway length availability, and field-specific adjustments. This is typically expressed as the minimum value among these elements; for example,

\text{MPTOW} = \min(\text{Certified MTOW}, \text{Runway-limited TOW}, \text{Climb-limited TOW})

where runway-limited TOW accounts for available distance and surface conditions, and climb-limited TOW ensures adequate engine-out performance. These limits are derived from aircraft-specific data in flight manuals, prioritizing safety margins over maximum capacity.^[58] Pre-flight determination of MPTOW is performed by flight crews and dispatchers using the Quick Reference Handbook (QRH), which provides tabulated performance data for inputs like outside air temperature, pressure altitude, and configuration settings. This process influences fuel load, payload, and overall dispatch decisions, with cross-verification against electronic tools or load sheets to confirm the weight does not exceed any limit. For instance, in the ATR Flight Crew Training Manual, crews crosscheck takeoff weights and speeds directly from QRH tables during cockpit preparation.^[59]^[60]

Regulated Takeoff Weight

The regulated takeoff weight (RTOW) represents the maximum allowable takeoff weight for a given flight, derived from the maximum permissible takeoff weight (MPTOW) by incorporating additional operational constraints from regulations such as noise abatement.^[61] This adjustment ensures compliance with airport-specific limits while maintaining safety margins for performance.^[61] Key regulations governing RTOW include the noise certification standards outlined in ICAO Annex 16, Volume I, particularly Chapters 3 and 4, which establish effective perceived noise decibel (EPNdB) limits for takeoff, sideline, and approach phases.^[62] These standards limit engine thrust usage to curb noise propagation, especially at sensitive airports, often necessitating a reduction in RTOW to achieve the required climb profiles without exceeding noise thresholds; for example, compliance with Chapter 4 at such locations can constrain weights for older four-engine jets like the Boeing 747-100 to approximately 97% of MTOW to meet daytime limits of 94 dBA.^[63] In the United States, harmonized rules under 14 CFR Part 36 enforce similar Chapter 4 requirements, tying noise levels directly to operational weights and thrust settings.^[64] Operators achieve RTOW compliance through procedures like the assumed temperature method, which simulates higher ambient temperatures to derate engine thrust (typically by 10-25%), or fixed derates applied at specific altitudes, reducing noise by up to 4 dB(A) during initial climb while preserving engine life. At airports like Heathrow, these techniques are routinely applied for quieter aircraft such as the Airbus A319 or A380 under noise abatement departure procedures (NADP), such as ICAO Procedure A with cutback at 1,000-1,500 ft, to align with local ordinances and avoid payload penalties from excessive weight reductions.^[63] RTOW also integrates environmental considerations beyond noise, such as the ICAO Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), which applies to aircraft with a maximum takeoff weight above 5,700 kilograms and requires operators to offset CO2 emissions based on actual fuel consumption, indirectly encouraging weight management to minimize fuel burn and emissions.^[65]

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Jan 13, 2020 · This AC describes acceptable methods and guidelines for developing takeoff and initial climbout airport obstacle analyses and in-flight ...
[38]
High Density Altitude - National Weather Service
Reduced Power (engine ingests less air to support combustion) · Reduced Thrust (propeller has less "grip" and jet exhausts less mass) · Reduced Lift (air exerts ...
[39]
Runway Analysis Support - ForeFlight
If a rejected takeoff (stop) is chosen, the maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) solution ensures sufficient stopping distance for the available runway exists, while ...
[40]
Chapter 5. Altitude Change: Climb and Glide
If the thrust is constant the maximum difference between thrust and drag and, hence, the maximum angle of climb, must occur when the drag is minimum. Once ...Missing: MTOW | Show results with:MTOW
[41]
[PDF] REDUCED AND DERATED ,TAKEOFF '- 5/4/88 AC No
May 4, 1988 · When operating with a reduced takeoff thrust, the thrust setting parameter which establishes thrust for takeoff is not considered a takeoff.
[42]
Reduced Thrust Takeoff | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
A reduced thrust takeoff is a takeoff that is accomplished utilising less thrust than the engines are capable of producing under the existing conditions.
[43]
Weight Variant | Airbus
Airlines can easily change their aircraft's weight variants to better match their current load factors and routes, and reduce their airport and navigation fees.
[44]
What Are Aircraft Weight Variants & How Can They Help Operators ...
Jun 24, 2023 · Airlines can alter their aircraft's weight variants to better match their current load factors and routes and reduce airport and navigation fees ...
[45]
[PDF] 737 MAX Airplane Characteristics for Airport Planning - Boeing
The. 737 MAX airplanes include 737-7, 737-8, 737-8-200, 737-9, 737-10, and the Business Jet versions. The 737 MAX series airplanes have improved fuel ...
[46]
[PDF] a320 aircraft characteristics airport and maintenance planning ac
Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW). 73 500 kg. (162 040 lb). 75 500 kg. (166 449 lb). 77 000 kg. (169 756 lb). Maximum Landing Weight (MLW). 64 500 kg. (142 198 lb).
[47]
[PDF] 150/5320-6G, Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation, June 7, 2021
Jun 7, 2021 · This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance to the public on the design and evaluation of pavements used by aircraft at civil airports. For ...
[48]
What limits are considered for takeoff? - Aircraft Performance Group
Takeoff limits include MTOW, climb, field length, obstacle, brake energy, and tire speed for safe aircraft performance.
[49]
[PDF] 150/5335-5D, Standardized Method of Reporting Airport Pavement ...
Jan 6, 2025 · This advisory circular (AC) provides guidance for the reporting of runway, taxiway and apron pavement strength in accordance with standardized ...
[50]
[PDF] Getting to Grips with Aircraft Performance - SKYbrary
Jan 15, 2002 · additional certification tests. From a ... on airplane certification (JAR 25 / FAR 25) and on operational constraints defined in.
[51]
[PDF] Using the Payload/Range and Takeoff Field Length Charts ... - Boeing
To Determine Runway Length: This runway length is the balanced field length, meaning that the takeoff run available (TORA), takeoff distance available (TODA), ...Missing: limited MTOW TODR surface
[52]
None
### Summary of A318 MTOW at London City Airport
[53]
[PDF] Advisory Circular 91-79B - Federal Aviation Administration
Aug 28, 2023 · Once the operational landing distance is determined, an additional safety margin of at least 15 percent should be added to that distance. Except ...
[54]
Wet and Contaminated Runway Performance Planning for Aviation
Jun 30, 2025 · For instance, the FAA recommends (and Part 135 requires) that operators apply at least a 15% wet runway factor to landing distances. This means ...Missing: extra | Show results with:extra
[55]
[PDF] AC 150/5325-4B, Runway Length Requirements for Airport Design
Jul 1, 2005 · Although a number of regional jets have an MTOW less than. 60,000 pounds (27,200 kg), the exception acknowledges the long range capability of ...
[56]
Maximum Take-off Weight [Aviation Law] Law and Legal Definition
A different weight the "maximum permissible takeoff weight", or "regulated takeoff weight", varies according to flap setting, altitude, air temperature ...
[57]
Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) | SKYbrary Aviation Safety
The Quick Reference Handbook (QRH) contains all the procedures applicable for abnormal and emergency conditions in an easy-to-use format.Missing: takeoff weight determination
[58]
[PDF] FLIGHT CREW TRAINING MANUAL - TheAirlinePilots.com
Take-off weight selection ... All operational data shall be crosschecked by crew using relevant documentation (QRH, Take-off.
[59]
[PDF] Getting to Grips with Aircraft Noise - TheAirlinePilots.com
Applying procedure 1 with regulatory take-off weight does not permit to comply with the enforced rule. This would mean for the airline to reduce the TOW until ...Missing: RTOW | Show results with:RTOW
[60]
[PDF] Volume 2 Aircraft Performance - GOV.UK
(6). Noise abatement regulations. ... A significant percentage of take-offs are at weights close enough to the RTOW not to warrant the use of reduced thrust.
[61]
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5e18869f40f0b65dc3d48f26/Volume_02_Aircraft_Performance.pdf
[62]
[PDF] Effects of Take-off Weight and Operating Procedure on Noise ...
This report reviews departure noise limits at Heathrow, Gatwick, and Stansted, examining 'far-out noise displacement' and proposed limits of 94 dBA (day) and ...
[63]
14 CFR Part 36 -- Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness ...
(d) For airplanes with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 121,254 pounds (55,000 kg) or more, type certification applications on or after December 31, ...Flyover Noise Requirements... · Title 14 · Appendix A to PartMissing: RTOW | Show results with:RTOW
[64]
[PDF] Aviation, Air Pollution, and Climate Change - Congress.gov
Feb 24, 2023 · CO2 emissions targets vary by aircraft type and are set as a function of the aircraft's maximum takeoff weight. In accordance with the ICAO ...<|control11|><|separator|>