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Median sternotomy

Median sternotomy is a surgical incision made along the midline of the sternum (breastbone) to provide direct access to the heart, mediastinum, and adjacent thoracic structures, serving as the gold standard approach in cardiac and certain thoracic surgeries.^[1]^[2] First proposed by Herbert M. N. Milton in 1897 and reintroduced by Oscar C. Julian and colleagues in 1957, it enables precise visualization and manipulation during procedures such as coronary artery bypass grafting, valve repairs, and congenital heart defect corrections.^[2]^[3] The procedure typically begins with the patient positioned supine under general anesthesia, followed by a vertical skin incision from the sternal notch to the xiphoid process, approximately 6 to 8 inches long.^[1]^[2] The sternum is then divided longitudinally using a specialized saw, with careful retraction to avoid injury to underlying pleura, pericardium, or vascular structures, allowing the surgeon to perform the necessary cardiac or thoracic intervention.^[2] Closure involves approximating the sternal edges and securing them with 4 to 8 stainless steel wires, often supplemented by layered suturing of the soft tissues and skin.^[1]^[2] This technique offers advantages including rapid execution, excellent exposure of all cardiac chambers and major vessels, and low rates of intraoperative complications, contributing to its widespread adoption since the advent of open-heart surgery in the mid-20th century.^[2] Indications for median sternotomy encompass a broad range of conditions, primarily acquired and congenital heart diseases requiring open-heart procedures, as well as mediastinal tumor resections, bilateral lung surgeries, and interventions on the lower trachea or main bronchi.^[2] In the United States alone, over 700,000 sternotomies for cardiac and thoracic procedures are performed annually, underscoring its role in treating ischemic heart disease and other cardiac pathologies.^[1] While minimally invasive alternatives exist for select cases, median sternotomy remains preferred for its comprehensive access and proven long-term outcomes.^[2] Despite its efficacy, median sternotomy carries risks, including hardware-related issues such as sternal wire fracture (incidence 2–3%) or migration, osseous complications like nonunion (0.5–3%) or fracture (up to 13%), and soft-tissue problems including hematoma (3–6%), mediastinitis, or sternal osteomyelitis (1–5%).^[4] Superficial wound infections occur in 3–8% of cases, while deep sternal wound infections (mediastinitis) affect 1–3%, with mortality rates up to 10–35% in severe instances.^[2]^[4] Recovery generally spans 6–8 weeks, involving sternal precautions to avoid heavy lifting (>10 pounds) or strenuous arm movements, with most patients resuming driving after about one month and full activities by 8–12 weeks post-surgery.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Anatomy

A median sternotomy is defined as a longitudinal incision along the midline of the sternum, dividing the bone to grant access to the mediastinum, with particular emphasis on the heart and great vessels.^[5] This approach is widely regarded as the gold standard for accessing central thoracic structures due to its established efficacy and low complication rates.^[2] The sternum, or breastbone, is a flat, elongated structure in the anterior thorax composed of three primary parts: the manubrium superiorly, the body centrally, and the xiphoid process inferiorly.^[6] The manubrium articulates with the clavicles via the sternoclavicular joints and with the costal cartilages of the first two ribs, while the body connects to the costal cartilages of ribs 2 through 7, and the xiphoid process may attach to the seventh or eighth rib's cartilage.^[7] Beneath the sternum lies the mediastinum, which encompasses vital contents including the heart encased in the pericardium, remnants of the thymus gland (often reduced to fatty tissue in adults), and major vessels such as the ascending aorta, superior and inferior vena cavae.^[8] The rationale for the midline approach stems from the sternum's central anatomical position, which facilitates broad exposure of mediastinal organs while minimizing disruption to surrounding respiratory muscles, in contrast to lateral incisions that require dividing larger muscle groups like the latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior.^[9] This positioning allows for efficient visualization and manipulation of thoracic contents without compromising chest wall integrity to the same extent as alternative approaches.^[2] Variations in incision length adapt to specific anatomical needs: a full median sternotomy extends from the sternal notch to the xiphoid process for comprehensive access, whereas partial variants, such as an upper hemisternotomy (approximately 8-10 cm from the sternal notch to the angle of Louis) or lower hemisternotomy, target superior or inferior structures respectively.^[5] It is commonly employed in cardiac surgery to reach these mediastinal elements.^[2]

Historical Context

The median sternotomy was first proposed by Herbert Milton in 1897 as a vertical incision through the sternum to provide access to the thoracic cavity, initially demonstrated in experimental animals and applied in human cases for excising tuberculous mediastinal nodes.^[10] This approach offered superior exposure to the heart and great vessels compared to lateral thoracotomies but saw limited early adoption due to the era's technical constraints, including the absence of effective ventilators and cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), which restricted safe intracardiac interventions.^[11] Prior to the 1950s, the procedure's use remained sporadic and primarily confined to non-cardiac thoracic applications, such as thymectomy and resection of anterior mediastinal masses, as high postoperative infection risks—exacerbated by the lack of modern antibiotics—posed significant threats to patient survival.^[12]^[11] The introduction of penicillin and other antibiotics in the 1940s began to mitigate these infection concerns, but without CPB, median sternotomy was not viable for most cardiac surgeries, leading to its underutilization in favor of less invasive or alternative incisions.^[13] A transformative shift occurred in 1953 when John H. Gibbon, Jr., achieved the first successful open-heart surgery using extracorporeal circulation on a patient with an atrial septal defect, enabling direct visualization and repair of intracardiac structures.^[14] This milestone coincided with the revival of median sternotomy for cardiac procedures, as Owen C. Julian and colleagues detailed its advantages in a 1957 publication, emphasizing its rapid access, minimal blood loss, and optimal exposure during CPB-supported operations, which propelled it to prominence in cardiothoracic surgery.^[15] Post-1960s advancements in anesthesia, prophylactic antibiotics, and sterile techniques standardized median sternotomy as the preferred incision for the majority of open-heart procedures, dramatically reducing infection rates and improving outcomes.^[16] Mid-20th-century innovations, such as the introduction of stainless steel wire cerclage for sternal closure, enhanced stability and minimized dehiscence, further solidifying its reliability.^[17] By the 1970s, it became routinely integrated into coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), the era's burgeoning procedure for ischemic heart disease, with the technique's adoption accelerating alongside the procedure's widespread clinical use following René Favaloro's refinements in 1968.^[18] The 1990s marked an evolution toward minimally invasive variants, including partial sternotomies, which shortened incisions while preserving access for select cardiac interventions.^[19]

Indications

Cardiac Surgery Applications

Median sternotomy serves as the primary surgical access for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), which is the most common indication, addressing ischemic heart disease in cases of left main stem or triple vessel coronary artery disease.^[16] It is also essential for aortic and mitral valve repairs or replacements, particularly in severe aortic stenosis with a valve area less than 1 cm² or significant mitral regurgitation with a vena contracta greater than 7 mm.^[16] Additionally, this approach is indicated for correcting congenital heart defects such as atrial septal defects, ventricular septal defects, and tetralogy of Fallot in older children and adults.^[16] Heart transplantation represents another key application, enabling access for end-stage heart failure patients unresponsive to medical therapy.^[16] The rationale for employing median sternotomy in these procedures lies in its provision of unobstructed visualization and access to all four heart chambers, the great vessels, and the coronary arteries, which is critical for surgeries requiring cardiopulmonary bypass.^[20] This incision facilitates the integration of extracorporeal circulation systems, allowing safe temporary cessation of cardiac activity during intricate repairs.^[16] In CABG specifically, it enables optimal exposure for harvesting the internal mammary artery as a graft conduit, enhancing long-term patency rates.^[1] Patient selection for median sternotomy typically includes adults and older children with stable hemodynamics, determined through preoperative imaging such as echocardiography and computed tomography, alongside risk stratification using tools like the Society of Thoracic Surgeons (STS) score or EUROScore.^[16] Relative contraindications encompass severe obesity, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, prior chest radiation therapy, and cardiomegaly, which may elevate complication risks and prompt consideration of alternative minimally invasive approaches.^[5]

Non-Cardiac Thoracic Applications

Median sternotomy provides central access to the mediastinum and bilateral thoracic structures, making it suitable for various non-cardiac thoracic procedures where wide exposure is required without compromising pulmonary mechanics.^[21] Although primarily associated with cardiac surgery, it is employed in select non-cardiac contexts to address pathologies involving the thymus, mediastinum, airways, and lungs.^[5] Key indications include thymectomy for myasthenia gravis, where median sternotomy facilitates complete en bloc resection of the thymus and surrounding mediastinal tissue, as demonstrated in randomized trials showing improved clinical outcomes compared to medical therapy alone.^[22] It is also used for mediastinal tumor resections, particularly anterior compartment masses such as thymomas, allowing for safe removal of large lesions through direct visualization and minimal manipulation of adjacent structures.^[23] For tracheal or bronchial surgeries, such as carinal resection or intrathoracic tracheal tumor excision, the approach offers optimal exposure while preserving recurrent laryngeal nerve integrity and blood supply.^[24] In select lung procedures, like bilateral pulmonary metastasectomy, median sternotomy enables simultaneous access to both hemithoraces for wedge resections or lobectomies, particularly in patients with multiple metastases.^[25] The advantages of median sternotomy in these non-cardiac applications include symmetrical access to bilateral structures, which reduces the need for repositioning or additional incisions during bilateral procedures.^[26] Compared to lateral thoracotomy, it preserves lung function by avoiding unilateral collapse and retraction, resulting in less postoperative pulmonary decline and shorter hospital stays.^[21] Specific scenarios where median sternotomy is indicated include emergency management of mediastinal hematomas, where rapid evacuation via this central incision can address life-threatening compression without delaying intervention.^[27] The role of median sternotomy in non-cardiac thoracic surgery has evolved, becoming less common with the rise of video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) and robotic alternatives for thymectomy and tumor resections, which offer reduced morbidity.^[28]

Surgical Procedure

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for median sternotomy begins with a thorough patient assessment to evaluate anatomical and physiological suitability, particularly in cardiac surgery where this incision is most commonly employed. Imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are utilized to delineate thoracic anatomy, identify potential adhesions from prior surgeries, and assess the proximity of cardiac structures to the sternum, which is crucial for risk stratification in procedures like coronary artery bypass grafting or valve repair.^[29] Cardiac catheterization may be indicated to map coronary anatomy and graft positions if redo surgery is anticipated, while pulmonary function tests are performed to gauge respiratory reserve, especially in patients with underlying lung disease.^[30] Risk stratification tools, such as the EuroSCORE II, are applied to quantify perioperative mortality and morbidity, incorporating factors like age, comorbidities, and surgical urgency to guide informed consent and resource allocation.^[29] Optimization protocols aim to mitigate modifiable risk factors and enhance patient resilience prior to incision. Smoking cessation is recommended at least four weeks before elective surgery to reduce the incidence of postoperative pulmonary complications and surgical site infections, with hazardous alcohol use screening and abstinence similarly advised.^[31] Diabetes management involves preoperative hemoglobin A1c measurement and glycemic control to levels below 7-8% where feasible, as elevated values correlate with increased infection and renal risks.^[31] Antibiotic prophylaxis, typically with cefazolin administered within 60 minutes of incision, is standard to prevent sternal wound infections, with vancomycin added for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization after nasal screening.^[30] For malnourished patients, identified via low preoperative albumin levels (<3.0 g/dL), nutritional support through oral supplements or enteral feeding is implemented to correct deficiencies and improve wound healing outcomes.^[31] Prehabilitation programs, including exercise and inspiratory muscle training, are considered for frail or deconditioned individuals to optimize functional status.^[30] Anesthesia considerations emphasize hemodynamic stability and organ protection during the procedure. General endotracheal anesthesia is induced, often with a double-lumen tube to facilitate lung isolation and one-lung ventilation if non-cardiac thoracic access is required.^[29] Invasive monitoring is established pre-induction, including radial arterial lines for continuous blood pressure tracking and central venous catheters for fluid management; a Swan-Ganz pulmonary artery catheter may be placed in high-risk cases to monitor cardiac output and pulmonary pressures.^[29] Patients are allowed clear liquids up to two hours preoperatively in low-aspiration-risk scenarios to minimize dehydration, and preoperative carbohydrate loading can be considered to attenuate insulin resistance.^[31] For those on antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy, discontinuation follows guideline-based protocols, with bridging if thrombotic risk is elevated.^[30] Surgical planning involves meticulous coordination to ensure procedural efficiency and safety. The midline incision line is marked along the sternum under sterile conditions, with potential saphenous vein harvest sites identified and prepared if bypass grafting is planned.^[29] A multidisciplinary team briefing reviews the cardiopulmonary bypass setup, including cannulation strategy (e.g., peripheral access for redo cases to avoid sternal injury), blood conservation measures like tranexamic acid administration, and contingency plans for massive bleeding or hemodynamic instability.^[31] Preoperative anemia is addressed through iron supplementation or erythropoietin to target hemoglobin above 13 g/dL in men and 12 g/dL in women, reducing transfusion needs.^[30] Transesophageal echocardiography is routinely employed for real-time anatomical confirmation in moderate- to high-risk patients.^[30]

Intraoperative Technique

The median sternotomy begins with the patient positioned supine and the surgical field prepared under sterile conditions. A vertical midline incision is made using a scalpel, extending from the sternal notch to the xiphoid process, typically 20-25 cm in length to provide adequate access to the mediastinum.^[2] This incision is deepened through the subcutaneous tissue and pectoralis major fascia using electrocautery at low power to achieve hemostasis and minimize tissue trauma.^[5] The midline is identified by the decussation of the pectoral muscle fibers and palpation of the sternal edges to ensure precise alignment.^[32] Once the periosteum is exposed, it is incised longitudinally along the sternum's midline using a scalpel or electrocautery, followed by elevation with a periosteal elevator on both sides to protect the underlying pleura, pericardium, and internal mammary arteries.^[2] The sternum is then divided using an oscillating saw or pneumatic sternal saw, starting from the manubrium downward or in the reverse direction based on surgeon preference, with the patient's ventilation paused to reduce the risk of pleural injury. The saw blade is directed medially, pulling upward to avoid damaging adjacent structures such as the innominate vein, brachiocephalic artery, or ectatic aorta; in redo procedures or pediatric cases, a finer oscillating saw is preferred to minimize bone loss.^[5] At the xiphoid, the linea alba is incised, and any attachments to the diaphragm are divided digitally or with scissors, while clipping or cauterizing the transverse thoracic vein to control bleeding.^[2] Following division, a Finochietto retractor is inserted into the sternal edges and gradually opened to expose the mediastinum, starting inferiorly to prevent brachial plexus strain or sternal fracture, particularly in osteoporotic patients. Thymic remnants are excised or divided with electrocautery if they obstruct access, and the pericardium is opened longitudinally if needed for initial exposure, though it may be left intact initially in some procedures.^[2] Hemostasis is secured using pinpoint electrocautery for soft tissue bleeding and bone wax sparingly on sternal marrow to avoid infection risk, with towels placed along the edges for additional control.^[32] This exposure facilitates immediate integration with the core procedure, such as cannulation of the ascending aorta and right atrial appendage for cardiopulmonary bypass, which is performed under direct visualization once the mediastinum is fully retracted. Variations include partial sternotomies, such as a J-shaped lower sternotomy for isolated mitral valve procedures, where the incision curves laterally at the fourth intercostal space using the same saw technique to limit access while preserving cosmesis.^[5]

Closure and Immediate Postoperative Steps

Following the completion of the surgical procedure, closure of the median sternotomy begins with the approximation of the sternal edges using stainless steel wires, typically 4 to 8 in total arranged in a figure-of-eight pattern to ensure stable fixation and minimize movement during healing. Layered closure of the soft tissues follows, employing absorbable sutures for the periosteum, muscle layers, and subcutaneous tissue, with the skin closed using subcuticular sutures or staples to promote optimal wound healing. Hemodynamic stabilization is achieved by gradually weaning the patient from cardiopulmonary bypass, administering protamine to reverse the effects of heparin anticoagulation, and placing temporary epicardial pacing wires if atrial or ventricular pacing is required postoperatively. These steps help restore normal cardiac rhythm and circulation prior to leaving the operating room. Immediate postoperative checks include the insertion of chest tubes into the mediastinum and pleural spaces for drainage of potential blood or fluid accumulations, as well as verification of hemostasis through transesophageal echocardiography to detect any residual bleeding or valve dysfunction. In high-risk patients, such as those with osteoporosis, variations like rigid plate fixation may be employed instead of wires to enhance sternal stability and reduce dehiscence risk.

Complications

Intraoperative and Early Postoperative Risks

During median sternotomy, intraoperative risks include significant bleeding, often from injury to the internal mammary artery, which can arise during dissection or mobilization of the vessel for grafting.^[5] This complication occurs in approximately 5% of cardiac surgery cases, potentially necessitating emergent re-exploration if blood loss exceeds 500 mL in 30 minutes or 7 mL/kg in 1 hour.^[5] Sternal fracture may also develop during the sawing phase, particularly in patients with underlying osteoporosis, leading to instability and requiring immediate wire fixation to ensure proper approximation. Air embolism represents another acute hazard during exposure of the mediastinum, where negative pressure gradients allow air entry into venous structures, with risks heightened in off-pump procedures or during cardiopulmonary bypass initiation.^[33] In the early postoperative period (0-48 hours), complications such as mediastinitis from intraoperative contamination can emerge, with deep sternal wound infection rates ranging from 1-2% in standard cases, though overall sternotomy complications affect 0.5-5% of patients.^[34] Cardiac tamponade due to retrosternal hematoma formation compresses the heart, occurring in about 5% of initial operations and demanding prompt surgical evacuation via re-sternotomy.^[5] Arrhythmias, including atrial fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia, frequently arise post-bypass, with incidences up to 40% for atrial fibrillation, often triggered by inflammatory responses or electrolyte shifts.^[35] Prevention of these risks emphasizes meticulous intraoperative techniques, such as atraumatic dissection to avoid vascular injury and careful saw use with preoperative bone density assessment.^[34] Strict sterile protocols, including chlorhexidine showers and intranasal mupirocin, reduce contamination risks, while prophylactic topical vancomycin applied to sternal edges lowers deep infection rates by up to fivefold in high-risk patients.^[36] Hemodynamic monitoring with a Swan-Ganz catheter aids in detecting early tamponade or arrhythmia precursors by tracking pulmonary artery pressures and cardiac output during and immediately after surgery.^[5]

Late Complications and Management

Late complications of median sternotomy, occurring weeks to years after surgery, primarily involve sternal healing failures and hardware-related issues, with an overall incidence of sternal wound complications ranging from 0.5% to 5%.^[37] Sternal nonunion, defined as failure of bony fusion more than one year postoperatively, affects approximately 0.5% to 3% of patients and manifests as persistent instability, often presenting with chronic pain or a palpable sternal click during movement.^[4] Sternal dehiscence, the partial or complete separation of the sternal edges, occurs in 1% to 3% of cases and may lead to wound drainage or exposed hardware if associated with late infection.^[4] Chronic pain from nerve entrapment or musculoskeletal strain is a common sequela of nonunion, while wire migration or fracture, seen in 2% to 3% of patients, can cause tissue erosion or, rarely, penetration into adjacent structures like the aorta.^[4]^[38] Diagnosis of these late complications relies on a combination of clinical evaluation and imaging. Patients often report anterior chest pain exacerbated by activity or a clicking sensation, with physical examination revealing sternal instability or tenderness.^[39] Multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) is the primary imaging modality, demonstrating sternal gapping greater than 4 mm in nonunion (with well-corticated edges) or focal discontinuities in fractured wires, while also assessing for soft-tissue involvement or erosion.^[4] For suspected late infection or osteomyelitis, bone scintigraphy with technetium-99m methylene diphosphonate (99mTc-MDP) or positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) can identify increased uptake indicative of active inflammation.^[38] Management strategies prioritize conservative approaches for asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic cases, escalating to surgical intervention based on severity. For minor sternal instability or nonunion without infection, bracing and pain management with analgesics or physical therapy may suffice, though evidence for long-term efficacy is limited.^[4] Symptomatic nonunion, particularly with chronic pain, typically requires surgical revision involving thorough debridement of nonviable bone and fibrous tissue, followed by rigid fixation using plates (e.g., titanium sternal plating systems like SternaLock or KLS Martin), wires in a Robicsek weave configuration, or cables, which achieve union rates exceeding 90% in reported series.^[39] Muscle flap coverage, such as pectoralis major advancement, is often incorporated to enhance stability and soft-tissue healing. For dehiscence with drainage or infection, initial debridement and vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) therapy promote granulation and control contamination, bridging to definitive rewiring or plating, with studies showing reduced mortality and complication rates compared to primary closure alone.^[40] Wire migration or fracture is managed conservatively with monitoring if asymptomatic, but erosion necessitates prompt surgical removal and repair to prevent vascular or cardiac injury.^[38] Key risk factors for these late complications include patient-related elements such as diabetes mellitus, obesity (body mass index >30 kg/m²), osteoporosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which impair wound healing and increase mechanical stress on the sternum.^[39] Surgical factors, notably bilateral internal mammary artery harvesting during coronary artery bypass grafting, elevate risk by disrupting sternal blood supply, with odds ratios for nonunion up to 2.5 times higher in such cases.^[4]^[41] Advanced age (>60 years) and technical errors like paramedian incision or inadequate initial closure further contribute to instability and delayed healing.^[39] Early recognition of these risks allows for preventive measures, such as optimized glycemic control and selective use of bilateral grafting in high-risk patients.^[42]

Recovery and Outcomes

Postoperative Care Protocols

Following median sternotomy, patients typically require intensive monitoring in the intensive care unit (ICU) for 24-48 hours to assess hemodynamic stability and detect early complications, though Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocols may facilitate shorter stays in select cases.^[30] Vital signs, including blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen saturation, are continuously monitored, alongside chest tube output to evaluate for excessive bleeding (generally <100-200 mL/hour initially). Transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography is routinely performed to assess cardiac function, valve integrity, and ventricular performance, particularly in cases of suspected low cardiac output.^[43]^[44] Pain management employs a multimodal approach to minimize opioid use and facilitate recovery, as emphasized in ERAS guidelines. Intravenous paracetamol and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, are administered intraoperatively and continued postoperatively unless contraindicated by renal impairment or bleeding risk. Opioids like morphine are reserved for breakthrough pain, often delivered via patient-controlled analgesia pumps during the initial ICU phase. Adjuncts such as intravenous magnesium or dexmedetomidine may be considered for enhanced analgesia, while regional techniques like parasternal blocks provide targeted relief to the sternal incision site.^[45]^[46]^[30] Mobility protocols emphasize progressive sternal precautions to promote bone healing while preventing respiratory complications, with current guidelines (as of 2024) favoring individualized approaches over traditional strict restrictions. Starting on postoperative day 1, patients are encouraged to sit upright and dangle legs at the bedside, progressing to assisted ambulation by day 2, using strategies like "Keep Your Move in the Tube" (arms close to body for load-bearing activities, unrestricted non-load-bearing motion). Lifting is limited to 5 kg (11 pounds) bilaterally initially, with early upper extremity exercises encouraged to avoid deconditioning. Incentive spirometry is initiated immediately to encourage deep breathing and prevent atelectasis, with patients performing 10 breaths hourly while awake.^[1]^[47]^[48]^[49] Wound care involves daily inspections of the sternal incision for signs of infection, such as erythema or drainage, with sterile dressing changes as needed. Prophylactic antibiotics, typically cefazolin or vancomycin for methicillin-resistant coverage, are continued until chest tubes are removed, usually within 1-2 days if output is minimal and no signs of infection are present.^[34]^[50] Discharge criteria generally include stable hemodynamics without inotropic support, adequate pain control on oral medications, independent ambulation for short distances, and removal of chest tubes, typically achieved by postoperative day 4-7 for uncomplicated cases, potentially earlier with ERAS implementation. Patients are educated on sternal protection and follow-up appointments before leaving the hospital.^[31]^[51]^[30]

Long-Term Prognosis and Rehabilitation

The long-term prognosis following median sternotomy, particularly in elective coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), is generally favorable, with 1-year survival rates exceeding 95% in low-risk cohorts (as of studies through 2024).^[52] Five-year survival typically ranges from 80% to 95%, influenced by patient-specific factors such as advanced age, diabetes, renal insufficiency, and other comorbidities, which independently elevate mortality risk.^[53] Approximately 80-90% of patients return to baseline functional status within 3 months postoperatively, as measured by improvements in health-related quality-of-life scores like the SF-36, where most subscales show significant recovery from preoperative deficits.^[54] Rehabilitation after median sternotomy is structured in phases to promote sternal healing while minimizing complications, incorporating ERAS principles for early and progressive activity. Phase 1 (inpatient to early outpatient, starting within 1-2 weeks post-discharge) emphasizes gentle exercises such as walking and progressive upper-body movements with individualized sternal precautions, with supervised cardiac rehabilitation (CR) initiation as early as 2 weeks post-surgery to enhance cardiovascular endurance and prevent deconditioning. Phase 2 (up to 3-6 months) involves strengthening exercises, including resistance training at moderate intensity (e.g., 8-10 whole-body movements), while monitoring sternal stability and avoiding high-risk activities until cleared.^[55]^[48]^[56] Ongoing monitoring includes follow-up imaging, such as chest X-ray or computed tomography at 6-8 weeks, to assess sternal union, with significant progress toward healing in most uncomplicated cases by this time and full union typically by 12 weeks (nonunion rates <2%).^[57]^[58] Psychological support is integral, addressing sternal pain and potential posttraumatic stress through interventions like cognitive-behavioral therapy, as elevated distress predicts poorer adherence to rehabilitation.^[59] Quality-of-life outcomes demonstrate minimal long-term respiratory impairment, with 1-year pulmonary function tests showing only slight declines in static and dynamic lung volumes despite the surgical incision's impact on chest wall mechanics.^[60] Return-to-work rates reach approximately 70% by 3 months, varying by occupation and preoperative status, with higher rates among those without heavy manual labor demands.^[61]

Alternatives and Variations

Minimally Invasive Alternatives

Partial sternotomy variants, such as upper mini-sternotomy, offer a less invasive option for aortic valve surgery, involving a smaller incision of 4-8 cm from the sternal notch to the second, third, or fourth intercostal space.^[62] This approach preserves chest wall stability, leading to reduced postoperative pain and faster recovery compared to full median sternotomy.^[62] Patients undergoing upper mini-sternotomy typically experience shorter intensive care unit stays (1.8 days versus 2.4 days) and overall hospital stays (median 6 days versus 8 days).^[62] Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS) serves as a minimally invasive alternative to median sternotomy for select thymectomies, particularly in early-stage thymoma and myasthenia gravis cases, using bilateral or unilateral approaches with endoscopic visualization to minimize tissue trauma.^[63] VATS reduces intraoperative blood loss, postoperative pain, and respiratory complications while providing better cosmesis and shorter hospital stays than sternotomy.^[63] It achieves comparable oncological outcomes and survival rates, making it suitable for patients where extensive exposure is not required.^[63] Robotic-assisted mitral valve repair via mini-thoracotomy employs systems like the da Vinci to perform repairs through a small right chest incision, avoiding full sternal division and enabling precise endoscopic manipulation.^[64] This technique demonstrates advantages over conventional sternotomy, including lower rates of atrial fibrillation and reduced time to return to normal activities (35 days versus 56 days).^[64] It is particularly effective for degenerative mitral regurgitation in low-risk patients, with comparable long-term durability.^[64] Endoscopic approaches eliminate sternotomy entirely in suitable candidates. Transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) delivers a prosthetic valve via femoral or alternative vascular access for severe aortic stenosis, reducing respiratory complications and avoiding open surgery; as of 2020, it is approved for low surgical risk patients.^[65]^[66] Percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) treat stable coronary artery disease through catheter-based stenting, offering lower stroke risk and suitability for higher-risk patients compared to bypass grafting via sternotomy.^[67] These alternatives generally result in shorter hospital stays (3-7 days versus 5-11 days for sternotomy) and lower infection risks (e.g., 1.0% wound infections versus 6.6%), though they are limited to simpler anatomical cases without multivessel or complex pathology.^[64]^[68]

Other Surgical Approaches

Lateral thoracotomy serves as a primary alternative open incision for accessing specific thoracic structures when median sternotomy is not ideal. The posterolateral thoracotomy, involving an incision along the posterior axillary line between the fourth and sixth intercostal spaces, provides excellent exposure for unilateral lung resections, such as lobectomies or pneumonectomies, and is considered the gold standard for many general thoracic procedures due to its versatility in reaching posterior mediastinal and hilar regions.^[69] In contrast, the anterior thoracotomy, typically performed through the second or third intercostal space along the anterior axillary line, is utilized for surgeries involving the ascending aorta, including root replacements in cases complicated by prior midline scarring, offering direct access while avoiding dense adhesions.^[70] The clamshell incision, also known as bilateral anterior thoracotomy, combines two anterior thoracotomies connected by a transverse sternotomy across the fourth intercostal spaces, creating a "clamshell" effect upon retraction. This approach is particularly suited for extensive bilateral thoracic access, such as in bilateral pulmonary metastasectomies or double lung transplantation, where wide exposure of both hemithoraces and the anterior mediastinum is required without relying on midline division.^[71] The trapdoor incision, or L-shaped thoracotomy, involves an incision from the midclavicular line to the sternal notch, along the midline to the fourth intercostal space, and laterally to the midaxillary line, incorporating a partial upper median sternotomy to form a trapdoor flap for superior retraction. It is indicated for aneurysms of the descending thoracic aorta or aortic arch, particularly those extending to the cervicothoracic junction, allowing comprehensive visualization and manipulation of arch branches and proximal descending segments in a single field.^[72] Selection of these approaches over median sternotomy typically occurs in reoperations where midline adhesions or scarring increase risks of injury during resternotomy, in pediatric cases involving cervicothoracic tumors requiring broad exposure, or when anatomical constraints limit central access.^[73]^[74] However, these incisions generally result in greater postoperative pain and functional impairment compared to median sternotomy, often leading to extended recovery periods due to intercostal muscle disruption and higher rates of chronic discomfort.^[75]

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Jun 16, 2014 · Midline sternotomy was first described by Milton in 1887. It was reintroduced by Julian and colleagues in the mid-1950s. It offers a more ...
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John H. Gibbon, Jr. Part I. The development of the first ... - PubMed
Finally, on May 6, 1953, Dr. Gibbon performed his first successful operation using an extracorporeal circuit on an 18-year-old woman with a large atrial septal ...
[15]
a general evaluation of its use in heart surgery - PubMed
The median sternal incision in intracardiac surgery with extracorporeal circulation; a general evaluation of its use in heart surgery. Surgery. 1957 Oct ...Missing: sternotomy | Show results with:sternotomy
[16]
Cardiac Surgery - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sep 3, 2024 · ... median sternotomy approach remaining the gold standard for most open-heart procedures. Since the 19th century, the field has seen ...
[17]
[PDF] The Median Sternotomy: The Unkindest Cut of All?
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MEDIAN STERNOTOMY. The median sternotomy is thought to have been first pro- posed by Milton in 1897, but this approach to the chest ...
[18]
Median sternotomy - PubMed
Although median sternotomy was succinctly described in 1897, "Milton's procedure" was essentially unused until it was recommended in 1957.
[19]
Minimally-Invasive Valve Surgery - JACC
Jul 27, 2010 · In the 1990s, the success of laparoscopic operations in general surgery renewed an interest in minimally-invasive approaches for cardiac surgery ...<|separator|>
[20]
Incisions and Approaches in Cardiac Surgery | Adult and Pediatric ...
May 10, 2020 · Traditionally, median sternotomy has been the most commonly used incision to access the heart and major vasculature given its excellent ...Missing: rationale | Show results with:rationale
[21]
Sternotomy - MMCTS
Median sternotomy is one of the most frequently used accesses in cardio-thoracic surgery. We demonstrate it in this video tutorial.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[22]
Randomized Trial of Thymectomy in Myasthenia Gravis
Aug 11, 2016 · Thymectomy was performed by means of a median sternotomy with the goal of an en bloc resection of all mediastinal tissue that could anatomically ...
[23]
Median Sternotomy for Mediastinal Mass Removal: Thymoma ... - NIH
Jul 20, 2025 · The patient underwent his scheduled median sternotomy, allowing for complete resection of the 10.5 x 9.2 x 3.5 cm mediastinal mass (Figure 2), ...
[24]
Carinal Resection via Median Sternotomy - CTSNet
Mar 24, 2009 · Surgical resection of carinal tumors can be safely accomplished via median sternotomy. Resection effectively alleviates airway obstruction.
[25]
Median sternotomy for resection of pulmonary metastases - PubMed
Most median sternotomies involved wedge resections (mean 8.9 range one to 52). Two segmentectomies, six lobectomies, and one pneumonectomy were also performed.
[26]
Median sternotomy for bilateral pulmonary metastasectomy in ...
Median sternotomy allows excellent exposure of both lungs. In our series, there were no lesions that could not be resected because of inadequate exposure, ...
[27]
Emergent Median Sternotomy for Mediastinal Hematoma: A Rare ...
Mediastinal hematoma is a rare complication following insertion of a central venous catheter with only few cases reported in the English literature.
[28]
Ascending Aortic Aneurysm Repair - Cleveland Clinic
What happens during ascending aortic aneurysm repair? · Incision. Your surgeon will make an incision in the front of your chest (median sternotomy). · Clamping.
[29]
Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus sternotomy in ...
Oct 1, 2015 · VATS thymectomy was introduced in 1992 as a minimally invasive alternative to sternotomy for patients with myasthenia gravis requiring ...
[30]
Three different surgical methods for large-sized anterior mediastinal ...
Nov 29, 2024 · To date, surgical approaches for the resection of anterior mediastinal tumors include traditional sternotomy and video-assisted thoracoscopic ...
[31]
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/2732511
[32]
https://www.ctsnet.org/article/ctsnet-step-step-series-midline-sternotomy
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Guidelines for Perioperative Care in Cardiac Surgery
Summary of each segment:
[34]
CTSNet Step-by-Step Series: Midline Sternotomy
Sep 5, 2017 · The authors detail the procedure in a step-by-step fashion, using diagrams and surgical video to illustrate key technical elements.
[35]
Overview and Management of Sternal Wound Infection - PMC
Deep sternal wound infection (DSWI), also termed mediastinitis, is a life-threatening complication after median sternotomy with an incidence of 1 to 5%.
[36]
Fatal air embolism during cardiopulmonary bypass - Oxford Academic
We present a case of a patient who suffered an air embolism during coronary bypass surgery, despite standard safety features and procedures.
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Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG) - Cardiovascular Disorders
Atrial fibrillation occurs in 15 to 40% of patients, typically 2 to 4 days after surgery. Beta-blockers (including sotalol) and amiodarone appear to reduce the ...<|separator|>
[38]
https://pubs.rsna.org/doi/10.1148/rg.240144
[39]
Surgical management of sternal wound complications - UpToDate
### Summary of Late Complications of Median Sternotomy (UpToDate)
[40]
Poststernotomy Imaging: Pictorial Review of Expected Postsurgical ...
Apr 24, 2025 · Acute complications primarily involve hemorrhage and dehiscence, while subacute complications include superficial or deep sternal wound ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[41]
https://journal.chestnet.org/article/S0012-3692%2815%2946519-5/abstract
[42]
Vacuum-assisted closure therapy for the management of deep ...
The aim of this meta-analysis was to assess the use of VAC therapy as a bridge before the definitive treatment for the management of deep sternal wound ...
[43]
Factors Predisposing to Median Sternotomy Complications - CHEST
The present study confirms previous findings that obesity, insulin-dependent diabetes, and internal mammary artery grafting (especially bilaterally) increase ...
[44]
Risks of bilateral internal mammary artery bypass grafting
We conclude that bilateral IMA grafting is an important predictor of sternal infection. It should be used selectively in obese or diabetic patients.Missing: nonunion | Show results with:nonunion
[45]
Postoperative Care of the Cardiac Surgical Patient - PMC
Echocardiography has become a first-line tool in evaluating the postoperative patient suspected of having LCO. It can either be a transthoracic examination or a ...
[46]
Considerations on the Management of Acute Postoperative ...
Jun 22, 2023 · Echocardiography. Echocardiography provides simultaneous cardiac structure and function assessment and is the most readily available imaging ...
[47]
Pain management after cardiac surgery via median sternotomy
Oct 1, 2023 · The analgesic regimen for cardiac surgery via sternotomy should include paracetamol and NSAIDs, unless contraindicated, administered intra-operatively and ...Missing: monitoring | Show results with:monitoring
[48]
https://www.acpicr.com/Data/Research_Downloads/EarlyActivityAfterCardiacSurgery_2024Update.pdf
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Sternal Precautions: Is It Time for Change? Precautions versus ... - NIH
Sternal wound healing complications can range from superficial skin infections and integumentary dehiscence to sternal instability and mediastinitis. 24.
[50]
Sternal Precautions - Physiopedia
During open heart surgery, a median sternotomy (division of the sternum from top to bottom) is performed to allow surgeons to gain access to the heart.
[51]
Sternal Wound Care Protocol | Download Table - ResearchGate
Problems with wound healing after cardiac surgery via median sternotomy persist in a small but consistent percentage of patients [22,38,57]. There is evidence ...
[52]
Successful Reduction of Postoperative Chest Tube Duration and ...
Oct 29, 2021 · We successfully lowered postoperative CT duration and observed an associated reduction in LOS across 9 centers using collaborative learning methodology.
[53]
Modifiable risk factors remain significant causes of medium term ...
Mean follow up was 5.3 years(0–9.4 years) and was complete for all patients. 30-day survival was 98.4%, 1-year survival 95% and 8-year survival 79%. Cox- ...
[54]
Short-term clinical outcomes and long-term survival of minimally ...
Five-year survival ranges between 80% and 95% in different publications including high risk and elderly patients (19-21). The 5-year survival of our patients ...
[55]
Functional status outcomes of patients with a coronary artery bypass ...
Results: Baseline scores on 7 of the 8 subscales of the MOS SF-36 were significantly lower than at 3 months, 6 months, or 12 months after surgery. Role- ...
[56]
Early initiation of post-sternotomy cardiac rehabilitation exercise ...
Mar 23, 2018 · Current guidelines recommend abstinence from supervised cardiac rehabilitation (CR) exercise training for 6 weeks post-sternotomy.
[57]
Exercise Following Cardiac Interventions and Surgery | Heart Online
“Keep Your Move in the Tube” is a simple framework that guides patients to move safely following median sternotomy surgery. The concept encourages short ...
[58]
Sternal Healing after Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting Using ... - NIH
Feb 5, 2015 · In later CT images, the average sternal healing score improved to 5.88±0.38 and complete healing was observed in 98.2% of patients. Conclusion.Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
[59]
Psychological interventions for acute pain after open heart surgery
Several trials investigated the effects of psychological interventions to reduce acute postoperative pain and improve the course of physical and psychological ...
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Pulmonary function and health-related quality of life 1-year follow up ...
Jul 8, 2016 · One year after cardiac surgery static and dynamic lung function measurements were slightly decreased, while health-related quality of life was improved.
[61]
Predictors of early return to work after coronary artery bypass graft...
At 3-month follow-up, 81% (n = 179) of patients returned to work, with 19% (n = 42) remaining unemployed. Among patients returning to work, including high- ...
[62]
Minimally invasive aortic valve replacement – pros and cons of ...
It has been shown to reduce postoperative morbidity, providing faster recovery and rehabilitation, shorter hospital stay and better cosmetic results compared ...
[63]
Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus sternotomy in ... - NIH
In spite of controversies, VATS thymectomy is gaining popularity and several studies have demonstrated the superiority of the VATS approach over sternotomy.
[64]
A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Robot-Assisted Mitral ...
Robot-assisted mitral valve repair was superior to conventional sternotomy with reduced atrial fibrillation, intensive care unit and hospital stay, pain, time ...
[65]
Is Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement Better Than Surgical ...
Apr 1, 2018 · TAVR portended significantly fewer respiratory‐related complications compared with SAVR in COPD patients. TAVR may be a preferable mode of aortic valve ...
[66]
Comparison of Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting with Percutaneous ...
Despite the fact that patients treated with PCI were at higher operative risk, PCI with DES was shown to be comparable to CABG in terms of mortality, stroke and ...
[67]
The Opportunities and Limitations of Minimally Invasive Cardiac ...
All studies compared procedures using minimally invasive access versus those using median sternotomy.Missing: variations | Show results with:variations
[68]
Posterolateral thoracotomy - MMCTS
Posterolateral thoracotomy is the historic gold standard of thoracic incisions, offering an excellent exposure for most general thoracic procedures.Missing: ascending | Show results with:ascending
[69]
Aortic root replacement through right anterolateral thoracotomy
We first report a successful case of the aortic root replacement through the right-side anterolateral thoracotomy in a patient with previous wound complication ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
Clamshell and hemiclamshell incisions - MMCTS
As an excellent alternative to median sternotomy for bilateral general thoracic surgical procedures, this incision is used for surgery of bilateral metastases, ...
[71]
Trapdoor thoracotomy as a surgical approach for aortic arch aneurysm
Conclusion. The trapdoor incision offered a good surgical view to manipulate the aortic arch, and we have experienced no paresis of vagal nerve, recurrent ...
[72]
Right anterolateral thoracotomy: an attractive alternative to repeat ...
Sep 21, 2017 · Reoperative cardiac valve surgery can be performed safely using the right anterolateral thoracotomy in high-risk patients.
[73]
“Trap-door” and “clamshell” surgical approaches for the ...
We searched our database for pediatric patients with cervicothoracic tumors who underwent clamshell or trap-door thoracotomy between 1991 and 2013, reviewing ...
[74]
Clamshell or sternotomy for double lung or heart ... - Oxford Academic
The clamshell incision results in more postoperative deformity, chronic pain, and impaired function as compared with median sternotomy.<|control11|><|separator|>