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Wound

A wound is defined as a disruption of the anatomical and functional integrity of living tissue, such as skin, mucous membranes, or organs, resulting from physical, thermal, chemical, or other forms of damage.^[1] Wounds represent a significant global health burden, affecting millions annually and costing billions in healthcare expenditures, particularly chronic wounds linked to conditions like diabetes.^[2]^[3] These injuries range from superficial breaks in the skin to deep penetrations affecting underlying structures, and they can occur due to trauma, surgery, or underlying medical conditions.^[4] Wounds are broadly classified as acute or chronic; acute wounds typically heal within an expected timeframe through normal physiological processes, while chronic wounds fail to progress beyond the inflammatory stage and persist for months, often due to factors like poor circulation or infection.^[5] Wounds are further categorized by their depth, etiology, and contamination level to guide treatment and predict outcomes.^[1] By depth, they include superficial wounds affecting only the epidermis, partial-thickness wounds involving the dermis, and full-thickness wounds extending into subcutaneous tissue or deeper layers. Etiologically, wounds may be traumatic (e.g., cuts, abrasions, punctures from accidents), surgical (intentional incisions), or due to burns and pressure ulcers. Contamination-based classification, particularly relevant for surgical contexts, divides them into clean (no inflammation or infection risk), clean-contaminated (minimal microbial exposure), contaminated (gross spillage or inflammation), and dirty/infected (existing pus or perforation).^[1] The healing of wounds occurs through a dynamic, overlapping sequence of four phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling, which restore tissue integrity and function.^[6] Hemostasis involves immediate blood clotting to stop bleeding, followed by inflammation where immune cells clear debris and pathogens.^[7] The proliferative phase features granulation tissue formation, reepithelialization, and angiogenesis, lasting days to weeks, while remodeling can extend for months to years, strengthening scar tissue.^[8] Healing intention varies: primary (edges approximated, minimal scarring), secondary (open wound fills with granulation), or tertiary (delayed closure after infection control).^[9] Complications such as infection, excessive scarring, or non-healing can arise if healing is impaired by factors like diabetes, malnutrition, or smoking.

Classification and Types

Acute Wounds

Acute wounds are injuries that occur suddenly and proceed through an orderly reparative process, typically healing within 4 to 6 weeks under normal conditions without complications.^[8]^[10] These wounds result from external forces disrupting tissue integrity and are expected to restore anatomic and functional wholeness efficiently if uncomplicated.^[11] Common examples of acute wounds include surgical incisions, lacerations, abrasions, punctures, and avulsions.^[12]^[13] Surgical incisions arise from planned procedures, while lacerations involve irregular tears from sharp or blunt trauma, abrasions result from scraping against a surface, punctures from pointed objects penetrating the skin, and avulsions from forceful tearing away of tissue.^[14] Primary causes encompass trauma such as falls or accidents, burns from thermal injury, and iatrogenic factors like those from medical interventions.^[10] Acute wounds are subclassified as open or closed based on skin integrity. Open wounds feature a break in the skin, exposing underlying tissues (e.g., cuts or lacerations), which increases infection risk if not managed promptly.^[1] Closed wounds maintain intact skin but involve internal damage (e.g., contusions or hematomas from blunt force), often presenting with swelling or bruising without external bleeding.^[15] Fractures can be regarded as acute bone wounds, particularly when accompanied by soft tissue involvement, and are categorized similarly as open (compound) or closed. In open fractures, the broken bone protrudes through the skin or communicates with an external wound, heightening contamination risks.^[16] Closed fractures lack skin breach, confining damage internally, though both types demand urgent stabilization to support healing.^[17] The healing of acute wounds typically advances quickly through the inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling phases, contrasting with chronic wounds that fail to resolve timely due to persistent barriers.^[18] Maintaining wound sterility is crucial, as contamination can prolong recovery or lead to complications in these otherwise predictable injuries.^[5]

Chronic Wounds

Chronic wounds are defined as those that fail to progress through a normal, orderly, and timely sequence of repair, typically persisting beyond 4 to 12 weeks despite appropriate treatment, often due to repeated tissue damage or impaired healing processes.^[19]^[20] Unlike acute wounds, which generally heal within weeks through standard phases, chronic wounds become stalled, frequently exceeding three months without significant improvement.^[5] The most common types include venous leg ulcers, diabetic foot ulcers, pressure ulcers (classified into stages I through IV based on tissue involvement from non-blanchable erythema to full-thickness damage with bone or muscle exposure), and arterial insufficiency ulcers.^[19] Venous leg ulcers arise primarily from venous hypertension, where impaired vein valve function leads to blood pooling, inflammation, and tissue breakdown, most often on the lower legs.^[21] Diabetic foot ulcers develop due to peripheral neuropathy causing loss of sensation and minor trauma going unnoticed, compounded by poor glycemic control and vascular compromise. Pressure ulcers result from prolonged immobility and sustained pressure over bony prominences, such as the sacrum or heels, leading to ischemia and necrosis in susceptible individuals.^[22] Arterial insufficiency ulcers stem from peripheral arterial disease causing chronic ischemia, typically presenting on the toes or feet with pale, punched-out appearances.^[19] A key barrier to healing in chronic wounds is the formation of biofilms, complex communities of microorganisms embedded in a protective matrix that adhere to the wound bed, promoting persistent infection and evading host immune responses and antibiotics.^[23] Biofilms are estimated to be present in over 80% of chronic wounds, significantly contributing to their non-healing status.^[24] Prevalence varies by type and population; for instance, pressure ulcers affect approximately 7% of older adults in long-term care settings, with higher rates among those with limited mobility.^[25] Diagnostic criteria for chronic wounds emphasize stalled progress, such as failure to achieve at least a 50% reduction in wound size within 4 weeks of optimal care, prompting further evaluation for underlying etiologies.^[26]

Classifications by Mechanism, Depth, and Location

Wounds are classified by mechanism based on the causative agent or process, which influences treatment and prognosis. Traumatic wounds result from external physical forces and are subdivided into blunt force injuries, caused by impact from a broad surface like falls or vehicle accidents leading to contusions or lacerations; sharp force injuries from cutting or stabbing objects producing incisions or punctures; and ballistic injuries from projectiles such as gunshots, characterized by high-velocity tissue disruption and cavitation.^[27]^[28] Surgical wounds arise from intentional incisions during procedures, typically controlled and sterile.^[1] Burn wounds stem from energy transfer and include thermal burns from heat sources like flames or hot liquids, chemical burns from corrosive substances, and electrical burns from current passage causing deeper tissue damage beyond visible skin.^[29] Pathological wounds develop from underlying diseases, such as neoplastic wounds associated with tumor invasion or ulceration in cancers like squamous cell carcinoma.^[30] Depth classification assesses tissue layer involvement, guiding debridement and healing expectations. Superficial wounds affect only the epidermis, presenting as abrasions with minimal scarring risk. Partial-thickness wounds extend into the dermis but spare subcutaneous tissue, often healing without significant contraction. Full-thickness wounds penetrate subcutaneous fat, muscle, or bone, increasing infection and scarring potential; specialized systems like the Wagner grade for diabetic foot ulcers categorize them as grade 1 (superficial, partial or full-thickness ulcer), grade 2 (deeper extension to tendon or capsule), grade 3 (deep with osteomyelitis or abscess), grade 4 (partial foot gangrene), and grade 5 (full foot gangrene).^[1]^[31] Location-based classification considers anatomical site, affecting vascularity, mobility, and complication risks. Wounds on the head and neck benefit from rich blood supply but pose cosmetic and functional concerns; trunk wounds involve larger areas with variable contamination risks; extremity wounds, particularly lower limbs, exhibit higher infection rates due to gravity-dependent edema, poor venous return, and dependency positioning; perineal and genital wounds carry elevated infection risks from proximity to fecal and urinary flora.^[5]^[32] Sterility classification, primarily for surgical wounds per Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) criteria, evaluates microbial contamination at incision: clean wounds involve non-implant procedures without entering respiratory, alimentary, genital, or urinary tracts and no inflammation; clean-contaminated involve entry into those tracts but with controlled microbial exposure; contaminated wounds feature major spillage or acute inflammation; dirty-infected wounds exhibit pus, perforation, or established infection.^[33]^[1] Special categories include bite wounds, which harbor polymicrobial flora from oral bacteria like Pasteurella and anaerobes, yielding infection rates up to 50% without prophylaxis due to deep inoculation and tissue crushing. Radiation-induced wounds arise from ionizing radiation therapy, manifesting as chronic ulcers with fibrosis, telangiectasia, and impaired healing from vascular damage and hypocellularity. Neuropathic wounds, often in diabetic patients, result from sensory loss leading to unnoticed trauma; they are graded by depth similar to Wagner for foot ulcers, with high recurrence from neuropathy and ischemia.^[34]^[35]^[36]

Pathophysiology

Wound Healing Process

The wound healing process is a complex, orchestrated sequence of biological events that restores tissue integrity following injury, involving coordinated cellular, molecular, and extracellular matrix interactions. This process typically unfolds in four overlapping phases: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling, each contributing essential functions to repair while minimizing infection and excessive scarring.^[8]^[37] The hemostasis phase begins immediately upon injury, lasting minutes to hours, and serves to stop bleeding through vascular constriction and platelet activation. Platelets aggregate at the wound site, releasing factors that initiate fibrin clot formation, creating a provisional matrix that stabilizes the wound and provides a scaffold for subsequent cellular migration. Key molecular players include platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), which promotes platelet aggregation and early fibroblast recruitment.^[8]^[38]^[39] Following hemostasis, the inflammation phase dominates for the first few days, clearing debris and pathogens through immune cell infiltration. Neutrophils arrive first within hours, followed by macrophages over 1-4 days, which release cytokines and chemokines to amplify the response; these cells also orchestrate the transition to repair by secreting growth factors such as transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), which modulates inflammation and stimulates fibroblast activity. This phase is critical for preventing infection but must resolve promptly to avoid prolonged tissue damage.^[8]^[38]^[37] The proliferation phase, spanning days to weeks, focuses on rebuilding tissue through granulation tissue formation, angiogenesis, and epithelial coverage. Fibroblasts proliferate and deposit extracellular matrix components, including type III collagen initially for flexibility, transitioning to type I collagen for strength; vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) drives new blood vessel formation to supply oxygen and nutrients. Epithelialization involves keratinocyte migration from wound edges to restore the barrier, while wound contraction, mediated by myofibroblasts, reduces the defect size, particularly in larger wounds.^[8]^[38]^[40]^[39] In the remodeling phase, which can extend from weeks to 1-2 years, the wound matures as collagen fibers reorganize and cross-link, increasing tensile strength to about 80% of normal tissue. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), such as MMP-1 and MMP-9, degrade excess matrix while tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) balance this activity to prevent over-remodeling; TGF-β continues to regulate this equilibrium, promoting scar maturation. Disruptions in these phases can lead to chronic wounds by impairing progression.^[8]^[38]^[39]^[37] Wound healing occurs by primary, secondary, or tertiary intention, influencing the process's efficiency and outcome. Primary intention involves approximating clean wound edges with sutures or staples, minimizing granulation and contraction for minimal scarring in low-tension areas. Secondary intention allows open healing through contraction and epithelialization, suitable for contaminated or irregular wounds, resulting in more granulation tissue. Tertiary intention, or delayed primary closure, waits 4-6 days after initial debridement to close, balancing infection risk with reduced contraction. In acute wounds, these phases progress more rapidly compared to chronic cases.^[9]^[41]^[8]

Factors Affecting Wound Healing

Wound healing is influenced by a complex interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that can either promote or hinder the process across its phases. Intrinsic factors originate from the individual's physiological state, while extrinsic factors arise from external environmental or behavioral influences. These elements can prolong inflammation, impair proliferation, or disrupt remodeling, ultimately leading to delayed closure or chronicity in some cases. Among intrinsic factors, advancing age significantly impairs wound healing by reducing the inflammatory response and collagen synthesis, resulting in significantly slower wound healing in older adults compared to younger individuals.^[7] Comorbidities such as diabetes contribute through hyperglycemia, which impairs angiogenesis and leukocyte function, increasing the risk of non-healing ulcers. Obesity exacerbates this by promoting inflammation and elevating infection risk due to adipose tissue accumulation and poor tissue perfusion.^[7] Genetic conditions, including Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, disrupt collagen production and cross-linking, leading to fragile tissues and prolonged healing times. Extrinsic factors include infection, where bacterial biofilms delay the proliferative phase by evading immune clearance and promoting persistent inflammation.^[7] Nutritional deficiencies, particularly in protein, vitamin C, and zinc, halt collagen formation and epithelialization; for instance, vitamin C deficiency impairs hydroxylation essential for collagen stability.^[42] Smoking introduces nicotine-induced vasoconstriction, reducing oxygen delivery to the wound bed and significantly slowing healing in affected individuals. Mechanical stress, such as shear forces from pressure or movement, disrupts granulation tissue formation and can cause wound dehiscence.^[43] Environmental influences like hypoxia limit cellular metabolism and angiogenesis, foreign bodies provoke chronic inflammation by acting as persistent stimuli, and radiation therapy causes vascular damage and fibrosis that inhibit re-epithelialization.^[7] Systemically, immunosuppression from corticosteroids suppresses the inflammatory phase necessary for debris clearance, while anemia reduces oxygen transport to hypoxic tissues, compounding delays in proliferation.^[7]

Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis

Signs and Symptoms

Wounds present with a variety of observable clinical manifestations that vary by type, depth, and stage of healing. Common general signs include pain, which can be nociceptive (sharp, localized due to tissue damage) or neuropathic (burning or tingling from nerve involvement); swelling or edema resulting from inflammatory fluid accumulation; redness or erythema indicating increased blood flow; localized warmth from the inflammatory response; and exudate, which may be serous (clear and watery) in early stages or purulent (thick and opaque) if infection is present. In acute wounds, such as those from trauma or surgery, initial signs often include active bleeding, bruising (ecchymosis) from vascular disruption, and rapid onset of the above general features. Chronic wounds, like venous ulcers or diabetic foot ulcers, typically show non-healing edges with undermined or rolled borders, persistent foul odor due to bacterial overgrowth, and minimal granulation tissue formation. Depth-related signs differ markedly: superficial wounds may only exhibit epidermal disruption with intact sensation, while partial-thickness wounds involve dermis and present with blistering and moist appearance; full-thickness wounds extend to subcutaneous tissue or deeper, often exposing muscle, tendon, or bone, accompanied by loss of protective sensation and potential numbness. Indicators of wound infection include escalating pain, systemic fever, increased purulent drainage with a foul smell, and surrounding cellulitis characterized by spreading erythema and induration. Signs of healing progress encompass the formation of granulation tissue (pink or red, bumpy vascular tissue filling the wound bed), appearance of epithelial islands (small patches of new skin at the edges), and a gradual reduction in exudate volume and inflammatory signs. Complications such as wound dehiscence may manifest as sudden reopening along the incision line with drainage, signaling impaired closure. Assessment of these signs often employs standardized tools, such as the Pressure Ulcer Scale for Healing (PUSH) tool for pressure injuries, which scores length × width (0–9), exudate amount (0–3), and tissue type (0–4) on a total 0–16 scale to track progress objectively.^[44]

Diagnostic Methods

Diagnosis of wounds relies on a systematic evaluation to determine characteristics such as size, depth, extent of involvement, and potential underlying etiologies. The physical examination serves as the cornerstone, beginning with inspection to measure wound dimensions, including length, width, and depth often assessed by gentle probing to evaluate tissue layers affected.^[5] Palpation follows to detect induration indicating surrounding inflammation, crepitus suggesting gas-forming infections, and assessment of wound odor, which may signal anaerobic bacterial overgrowth.^[19] Vascular status is evaluated through palpation of peripheral pulses and calculation of the ankle-brachial index (ABI) to identify arterial insufficiency, with values below 0.9 indicating potential compromise.^[5] Imaging modalities provide objective visualization when physical findings suggest deeper involvement or complications. Plain X-rays are routinely used to detect radiopaque foreign bodies or signs of osteomyelitis, such as cortical erosion or periosteal reaction in underlying bone.^[45] Ultrasound offers real-time assessment of wound depth, fluid collections, and vascular flow via Doppler to evaluate perfusion in venous or arterial wounds.^[45] For more complex cases involving suspected deep infections or soft tissue extension, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) excels in delineating abscesses, necrotic tissue, and bone marrow edema, while computed tomography (CT) is preferred for bony details and gas presence in necrotizing infections.^[45] Laboratory tests complement clinical assessment by identifying infectious agents and systemic factors impairing healing. Wound swabs or aspirates are cultured for aerobic and anaerobic pathogens, with quantitative analysis guiding therapy; superficial swabs are less reliable than deep tissue samples.^[46] Biopsy is indicated for suspicious lesions to rule out malignancy or confirm vasculitic processes through histopathological examination.^[47] Blood tests, such as glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) for glycemic control in diabetic patients and serum albumin for nutritional status, help identify comorbidities affecting wound progression.^[47] Advanced noninvasive techniques enhance precision in specific scenarios. Transcutaneous oxygen pressure (TcPO2) measurement quantifies tissue perfusion by detecting oxygen diffusion through the skin, with values below 30 mmHg predicting poor healing in ischemic wounds.^[48] Infrared thermography maps surface temperature variations to identify areas of inflammation, where elevations greater than 2°C above contralateral sites suggest active infection or poor perfusion.^[49] Differentiating true infection from colonization is critical, as the latter represents microbial presence without tissue invasion. Quantitative cultures from tissue biopsy or aspirate are preferred, with bacterial counts exceeding 10^5 colony-forming units (CFU) per gram of tissue indicating infection rather than mere colonization.^[50] Standardized staging systems facilitate consistent evaluation and communication. The National Pressure Injury Advisory Panel (NPIAP) classifies pressure ulcers into stages from I (non-blanchable erythema) to IV (full-thickness loss with exposed bone), including unstageable and deep tissue injury categories based on depth and tissue involvement.^[51] For venous leg ulcers, the Clinical-Etiologic-Anatomic-Pathophysiologic (CEAP) system categorizes severity from C0 (no visible disease) to C6 (active ulceration), incorporating etiologic and anatomic factors to guide prognosis.^[52]

Management

Initial Care and Irrigation

Initial care for wounds begins with ensuring the patient's overall stability by assessing airway, breathing, and circulation (ABCs) to address any life-threatening conditions before focusing on the wound itself.^[53] For bleeding control, apply direct pressure to the wound site using a clean cloth or gauze for at least 5-10 minutes while elevating the injured area above heart level if possible, which helps reduce blood flow and promote clotting without compromising circulation.^[54]^[55] Once bleeding is controlled, cover the wound with a sterile dressing to prevent contamination from dirt, bacteria, or other environmental pathogens.^[56] For minor acute wounds suitable for home care, such as superficial lacerations or abrasions without significant bleeding, gently clean the wound with mild soap and running water, pat dry, apply a thin layer of petroleum jelly or over-the-counter antibiotic ointment, and cover with a sterile adhesive bandage. Rest the affected area and elevate it to reduce swelling if applicable. However, wounds requiring professional care, such as those deeper than 1/4 inch, involving joints or face, or showing signs of infection, should prompt immediate medical evaluation rather than home management alone.^[57] Wound irrigation follows initial stabilization and is a critical step to reduce bacterial contamination in open wounds, typically performed in a clinical setting for optimal results.^[58] The preferred technique uses a syringe with an 18- to 19-gauge needle or catheter to deliver fluid at a pressure of 8-15 pounds per square inch (psi), which effectively dislodges debris and bacteria without causing tissue trauma.^[59] Normal saline is the standard irrigant due to its isotonic nature and lack of cytotoxicity, though diluted antiseptics like 1% povidone-iodine (mixed 1:10 with saline) may be used for heavily contaminated wounds to further decrease microbial load.^[58] A volume of 50-100 mL per centimeter of wound length is recommended to ensure thorough cleansing, with the fluid directed parallel to the wound surface in a steady stream.^[58] Irrigation should occur within 6 hours of injury when possible, as this timing can achieve a 2- to 3-log reduction in bacterial counts by limiting microbial proliferation.^[60] Contraindications to irrigation include actively bleeding wounds, where fluid may disrupt forming clots, and certain closed wounds like simple contusions that do not require opening.^[58] For wounds posing a tetanus risk, such as puncture or contaminated injuries, administer tetanus-diphtheria (Td) prophylaxis at a dose of 0.5 mL intramuscularly if more than 10 years have elapsed since the last booster.^[61] Similarly, for wounds contaminated by animal saliva or neural tissue, such as bites or scratches, immediate thorough irrigation with soap and water for at least 15 minutes is essential, followed by rabies post-exposure prophylaxis if the exposure category warrants it, including wound cleansing, human rabies immune globulin, and vaccine series per CDC guidelines.^[62]

Debridement and Closure

Debridement is a critical procedure in wound management aimed at removing necrotic, devitalized tissue, foreign debris, and biofilm to promote healing by creating a clean wound bed. This process is particularly indicated in the presence of slough, eschar, or infection, as these elements can impede the wound healing process and perpetuate a chronic state. By eliminating such barriers, debridement facilitates the conversion of chronic wounds to an acute-like healing trajectory, enhancing granulation tissue formation and epithelialization. Several methods of debridement exist, each selected based on wound characteristics, patient factors, and clinical setting. Autolytic debridement involves the use of occlusive or semi-occlusive dressings that trap endogenous enzymes and moisture to naturally liquefy and separate necrotic tissue from viable tissue over time, typically taking several days and suitable for non-infected, low-exudate wounds. Enzymatic debridement employs topical agents, such as collagenase ointments derived from Clostridium histolyticum, which selectively break down collagen in dead tissue without harming surrounding healthy structures; application is usually daily under occlusion. Mechanical debridement, including wet-to-dry gauze techniques, physically removes debris through the adhesion and pulling of dressings as they dry, though it can be painful and non-selective, risking damage to granulating tissue. Sharp debridement, performed by trained clinicians using scalpels or curettes for precise excision of necrotic tissue, is rapid and effective for thick eschar but requires a sterile environment and anesthesia. Biological debridement utilizes sterile larvae of Lucilia sericata (maggots), which secrete proteolytic enzymes to dissolve necrotic tissue while ingesting bacteria, offering an antimicrobial benefit in infected wounds and typically applied for 48-72 hours under dressings. Following debridement, wound closure techniques are employed to approximate edges and minimize the healing time, depending on the wound's cleanliness and acuity. Primary closure involves immediate approximation of wound edges using sutures, staples, or tissue adhesives such as Dermabond (2-octyl cyanoacrylate), which polymerizes on contact with tissue to form a strong, flexible seal; this method is ideal for clean, low-tension lacerations to reduce scarring and infection risk. Secondary closure allows the wound to heal by secondary intention through granulation, contraction, and epithelialization, reserved for contaminated or irregular wounds where primary closure is contraindicated. Delayed primary closure, performed 3-5 days after initial injury or debridement, permits initial inflammation and bacterial clearance before suturing, thereby reducing infection rates in moderately contaminated wounds. Suture techniques vary to optimize tensile strength and cosmetic outcomes. Simple interrupted sutures place individual stitches across the wound edges, allowing independent removal if infection occurs and commonly using non-absorbable materials like nylon for skin or absorbable ones like vicryl (polyglactin 910) for deeper layers. Mattress sutures, such as vertical or horizontal variants, evert wound edges to counteract tension and promote better healing, often employed in high-tension areas. Sutures are typically removed 5-14 days post-placement, depending on location—earlier for the face (3-5 days) to minimize scarring and later for extremities (10-14 days). In select cases, negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) augments closure by applying sub-atmospheric pressure, usually at 125 mmHg, through a sealed foam dressing connected to a vacuum pump; this promotes granulation, reduces edema, and facilitates wound contraction, often bridging debridement to definitive closure in complex or large defects. However, primary closure is contraindicated in the presence of active infection, as it can encapsulate bacteria and lead to abscess formation; such wounds require debridement and secondary healing until clinically clean.

Dressings and Advanced Therapies

Wound dressings serve to protect the wound bed, maintain a moist environment conducive to healing, manage exudate, and prevent infection following initial debridement and closure.^[63] Modern dressings are categorized into passive, interactive, bioactive, and composite types, each designed to address specific wound needs without adhering excessively to healthy tissue.^[63] Passive dressings, such as gauze, primarily function as a non-occlusive barrier for absorption of exudate and protection from external contaminants, though they may cause trauma upon removal if they dry out.^[63] Interactive dressings, including hydrogels, actively maintain moisture balance by donating fluid to dry wounds or absorbing excess, promoting autolytic debridement and epithelialization.^[63] Bioactive dressings incorporate antimicrobial agents, like silver-impregnated materials, to inhibit bacterial growth in infected or high-risk wounds, while also supporting tissue regeneration.^[63] Composite dressings combine multiple layers, such as foams with adhesives and absorbent cores, to manage complex wounds requiring simultaneous moisture control, absorption, and protection.^[63] Selection of dressings depends on wound characteristics, including exudate level, depth, and presence of infection, to optimize healing while minimizing complications.^[64] For moderate exudate, foam dressings are preferred as they absorb fluid without macerating surrounding skin; alginates suit heavy exudate by forming a gel upon contact, facilitating removal without residue.^[64] Shallow wounds benefit from occlusive options like hydrocolloids to retain moisture, whereas deeper cavities require fillers like hydrofibers to prevent dead space.^[64] In infected wounds, antibacterial agents such as medical-grade honey are selected for their broad-spectrum activity against pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus, due to its low pH and hydrogen peroxide production.^[65] Advanced therapies extend beyond traditional dressings to accelerate healing in chronic or refractory wounds through biological and physical interventions. Growth factor applications, such as becaplermin gel (recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor), enhance granulation and epithelialization in diabetic foot ulcers, achieving complete closure in up to 50% of cases compared to 35% with placebo.^[66] Skin substitutes provide structural support and promote tissue integration; acellular dermis acts as a scaffold for host cell infiltration in partial-thickness wounds, while cultured autografts, derived from patient keratinocytes and fibroblasts, offer permanent coverage for full-thickness defects.^[67] Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) delivers 100% oxygen at 2.5 atmospheres absolute (ATA) for 90-minute sessions to hypoxic wounds, improving oxygenation, angiogenesis, and collagen synthesis, particularly in diabetic ulcers.^[68] Electrical stimulation applies low-level currents of 1-5 mA to enhance keratinocyte migration and fibroblast proliferation via galvanotaxis, reducing healing time in chronic wounds by up to 30%.^[69] Low-level laser therapy (LLLT), using wavelengths of 630-860 nm, modulates cellular metabolism to decrease inflammation and stimulate collagen production, with meta-analyses showing faster wound closure rates in pressure ulcers.^[70] Dressing changes typically occur every 1-7 days, guided by exudate saturation and dressing type—daily for highly absorbent foams in heavy exudate, or every 3-7 days for hydrocolloids—to avoid disrupting fragile granulation tissue, which can delay re-epithelialization.^[71] Negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), an advanced modality using sub-atmospheric pressure via sealed dressings, exemplifies cost-effectiveness trade-offs; it reduces mean time to wound closure by approximately 3 days compared to conventional treatment in a randomized trial of subcutaneous abdominal surgical wounds (36.1 vs. 39.1 days) but incurs higher upfront costs due to equipment and disposables.^[72]

Monitoring and Long-Term Care

Effective monitoring of wounds involves regular surveillance to track progress and detect issues early, particularly for chronic cases where healing may be prolonged. Surveillance protocols typically include weekly measurements of wound dimensions, such as length, width, and depth, to quantify changes in size.^[73] Photography is commonly used to document visual progress, allowing for objective comparison over time.^[74] Additionally, pain levels are assessed using validated scales like the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), while exudate is tracked for volume and characteristics to gauge inflammation or infection risk.^[75] Infection monitoring focuses on vigilance for signs of recurrence, such as increased redness, swelling, warmth, or purulent discharge, with wound cultures recommended if symptoms worsen to guide targeted therapy.^[32] Antibiotic stewardship principles emphasize topical antimicrobials over systemic ones for localized infections to minimize resistance and side effects, reserving systemic antibiotics for spreading or systemic involvement.^[76]^[77] Patient education is essential for long-term care, empowering individuals to manage wounds at home effectively. Instructions often include avoiding soaking the wound to prevent maceration or infection, alongside advice on proper cleaning and dressing changes.^[78] Nutrition counseling highlights the need for adequate protein intake, typically 1.25-1.5 g/kg body weight daily, to support tissue repair, particularly in malnourished patients.^[75] For pressure ulcers, education stresses offloading techniques, such as using air mattresses to redistribute pressure and promote healing.^[79] A multidisciplinary approach enhances outcomes in chronic wound management by integrating expertise from nurses for daily care, podiatrists for foot-related ulcers, and nutritionists to address deficiencies impacting healing.^[80]^[81] This collaborative model ensures comprehensive assessment and tailored interventions. Healing outcomes are evaluated against benchmarks, such as a target 50% reduction in wound surface area within 4 weeks under standard care, indicating likely complete closure.^[82] Referral to specialists is advised if there is no progress after 2 weeks, prompting reevaluation of the treatment plan.^[83] Telemedicine facilitates remote monitoring through apps that enable patients to submit wound photos and data, improving adherence to follow-up and reducing clinic visits for stable cases.^[84] This approach has shown benefits in healing rates and patient satisfaction.^[85]

Complications and Prevention

Common Complications

Wounds can lead to various complications that impair healing and increase morbidity, ranging from localized infections to systemic threats. These adverse outcomes arise due to disrupted physiological processes, such as impaired immune response or bacterial invasion, and require prompt recognition through clinical signs like erythema, pain, or systemic symptoms.^[5] Infections represent one of the most frequent complications, often progressing from superficial to deeper tissues if untreated. Superficial infections, such as cellulitis, involve the dermis and subcutaneous layers, manifesting as localized erythema, warmth, swelling, and tenderness, typically caused by bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus species entering through the wound.^[86] Deep infections may form abscesses, characterized by fluctuance, purulence, and increased pain, requiring drainage to prevent further spread.^[87] Osteomyelitis, a severe bone infection, occurs when pathogens extend to osseous structures, often in chronic or poorly managed wounds; it is diagnosed via imaging like MRI or the probe-to-bone test, with symptoms including persistent drainage and bone pain.^[88]^[89] Delayed healing and wound dehiscence disrupt the normal reparative phases, prolonging recovery and risking further complications. Dehiscence, the partial or complete separation of wound edges, affects approximately 0.3-3.5% of abdominal surgical wounds but can reach higher rates in high-risk cases like emergency surgeries, driven by factors such as poor nutrition, ischemia, or mechanical stress that weaken tissue integrity.^[90] This complication often presents as sudden serosanguinous drainage or visible fascial exposure, necessitating immediate intervention to avoid evisceration.^[91] Scarring abnormalities arise from excessive collagen deposition during the remodeling phase, leading to functional and aesthetic issues. Hypertrophic scars develop within 4-8 weeks post-injury, confined to the original wound boundaries, and may regress spontaneously, though they cause itching and raised, red lesions.^[92] Keloids, in contrast, extend beyond the wound edges and exhibit a strong genetic predisposition, particularly in individuals of African or Asian descent, resulting from dysregulated fibroblast activity and persistent inflammation.^[93] Contractures form when scars tighten, limiting joint mobility and requiring physical therapy or surgical release for restoration.^[94] Chronic pain syndromes emerge from nerve involvement in the wound healing process, transitioning from acute to persistent discomfort. Neuropathic pain results from direct nerve damage or compression, presenting as burning, tingling, or allodynia in the affected area due to aberrant sensory signaling.^[95] Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS), often triggered by trauma including wounds, involves disproportionate pain, swelling, and vasomotor changes, classified as type I (without major nerve injury) or type II (with nerve damage), and can severely impact quality of life.^[95] Systemic effects occur when local wound issues escalate, potentially leading to life-threatening conditions. Sepsis develops from widespread bacterial dissemination, fulfilling systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria such as fever (>38°C or <36°C), tachycardia (>90 bpm), tachypnea (>20 breaths/min), or abnormal white blood cell count, alongside evidence of infection.^[96] In diabetic foot ulcers, infection progression heightens amputation risk, with 15-20% of such ulcers ultimately requiring lower extremity amputation due to necrosis and vascular compromise.^[97] Though rarer, necrotizing fasciitis poses an acute emergency with rapid tissue destruction along fascial planes, often presenting with severe pain out of proportion to visible changes, crepitus from gas formation, and bullae; it spreads swiftly, with mortality rates of 20-30% even with aggressive debridement and antibiotics.^[98]^[99]

Risk Factors and Preventive Measures

Risk factors for wound development span demographic, lifestyle, occupational, and medical categories. Advancing age significantly increases susceptibility, particularly to pressure ulcers, with elderly individuals facing 2-4 times higher risk due to reduced skin elasticity, immobility, and comorbidities. Diabetes mellitus is a major medical risk factor, impairing circulation and neuropathy, leading to foot ulcers in approximately 6% of affected patients annually among Medicare beneficiaries. Lifestyle factors like smoking exacerbate chronic wound odds by approximately doubling the risk through vasoconstriction and delayed healing. Occupationally, agricultural workers such as farmers are at elevated risk for tetanus-prone wounds due to frequent exposure to soil and animal feces contaminated with Clostridium tetani spores. Epidemiologically, chronic wounds affect 1-2% of the global population in developed countries, representing a substantial public health burden with an estimated annual cost of $25-28 billion in the United States alone, primarily driven by treatment and hospitalizations. Disparities are pronounced in low-income populations, where limited access to healthcare and preventive resources heightens incidence rates compared to higher socioeconomic groups. Preventive measures emphasize maintaining skin integrity and addressing modifiable risks. For bedbound patients, regular repositioning every 2 hours reduces pressure ulcer incidence by redistributing weight and minimizing prolonged tissue compression. The Braden Scale, a validated tool assessing mobility, activity, sensory perception, moisture, nutrition, and friction/shear, identifies high-risk individuals with scores below 16, guiding targeted interventions like moisturizing to prevent dryness and shear injuries. Glycemic control in diabetic patients, targeting HbA1c levels below 7%, mitigates neuropathy and vascular complications to lower foot ulcer risk. Tetanus vaccination with boosters every 10 years is crucial for at-risk occupations, significantly reducing infection odds in contaminated wounds. Type-specific strategies further enhance prevention. Compression stockings exerting 20-30 mmHg pressure prevent venous ulcer recurrence by improving venous return and reducing edema, with evidence showing up to 50% risk reduction in compliant users. For diabetic foot ulcers, offloading devices such as total contact casts or irremovable walkers alleviate plantar pressure, promoting healing and preventing progression. Public health initiatives, including wound care education protocols in nursing homes, have demonstrated up to 50% reductions in hospital-acquired pressure injuries through bundled interventions like risk assessments and staff training.

Historical and Research Perspectives

Historical Evolution of Wound Care

The treatment of wounds has evolved significantly over millennia, transitioning from empirical and often superstitious practices to systematic, evidence-based approaches grounded in scientific understanding. In ancient Egypt, the Ebers Papyrus, dating to approximately 1550 BCE, documented early wound care techniques, including the use of honey as an antibacterial agent and linen sutures for closure, reflecting a blend of practical observation and magical incantations in medical practice.^[100] By around 400 BCE, Greek physician Hippocrates advanced wound management through emphasis on debridement to remove dead tissue and irrigation with wine as an antiseptic, while promoting the concept of "laudable pus" as a sign of healing, though this later contributed to misconceptions about suppuration.^[101] In the Roman era, Aulus Cornelius Celsus, writing in the 1st century CE, advocated for healing by first intention without suppuration when possible in his work De Medicina, while describing methods for managing suppuration if it occurred, along with meticulous debridement, irrigation to clear debris, and dressings tailored to wound type, which influenced surgical principles for centuries.^[102] During the Middle Ages in Europe, wound care stagnated under the dominance of humoral theory, which attributed healing imbalances to bodily fluids and often led to reliance on herbal salves and poultices without rigorous intervention, compounded by spiritual and superstitious elements.^[103] In contrast, the Islamic Golden Age saw advancements, with Avicenna (Ibn Sina) in the 11th century detailing improved ligature techniques for hemostasis in his Canon of Medicine, building on Greek and Roman knowledge to promote cleaner surgical practices.^[104] In the 16th century, French surgeon Ambroise Paré revolutionized battlefield wound care by abandoning hot oil cautery for gunshot wounds in favor of ligatures and gentle dressings with egg yolk, rose oil, and turpentine, as demonstrated in his 1537 experiments, which reduced pain and infection rates compared to prior methods.^[105] The 19th century marked the antiseptic revolution, led by Joseph Lister in 1867, who introduced carbolic acid (phenol) sprays and dressings to combat surgical sepsis, dramatically lowering mortality from compound fractures and amputations from approximately 45% to 15% in his Glasgow trials by targeting microbial contamination.^[106] Complementing this, William Halsted in the late 19th century established aseptic principles, including the use of rubber gloves during surgery in 1890, which minimized operative wound infections through sterile technique and revolutionized operating room protocols.^[107] The 20th century brought transformative pharmacological and technological innovations; Alexander Fleming's 1928 discovery of penicillin provided the first effective antibiotic against bacterial wound infections, enabling widespread control of sepsis and reducing amputation rates in traumatic injuries.^[108] Post-World War II advancements in plastic surgery, spurred by wartime reconstructive needs, integrated tissue flaps and grafts to restore function and appearance in complex wounds, with techniques refined through military experience influencing civilian care.^[109] In the 1980s, Louis Argenta and Michael Morykwas developed negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT), applying sub-atmospheric pressure to promote granulation and fluid removal, which became a standard for chronic and acute wounds by accelerating healing rates.^[110] By the 1990s, the shift to evidence-based wound care solidified through systematic reviews, such as those from the Cochrane Collaboration, which began evaluating interventions like dressings and debridement with rigorous randomized trials, standardizing practices and highlighting effective therapies while debunking outdated ones.^[111]

Current Research and Future Directions

Recent advancements in stem cell therapies have focused on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to promote angiogenesis and accelerate healing in chronic wounds. Phase II and III clinical trials have demonstrated that MSCs, often derived from sources like umbilical cord or placenta, significantly enhance wound closure rates in chronic ulcers, with meta-analyses showing reduced healing times compared to standard care. For instance, a 2025 meta-analysis of 34 studies involving over 2,400 patients reported that MSC therapies reduced wound healing time by a standardized mean difference of -1.71 (95% CI -2.44 to -0.99, p < 0.001), indicating substantial acceleration, particularly in diabetic and venous ulcers.^[112] Bioengineered skin substitutes continue to evolve, incorporating 3D-printed scaffolds populated with patient-derived cells to mimic native tissue architecture and facilitate integration. FDA-approved products like Apligraf, introduced in 1998, have demonstrated efficacy in healing venous leg ulcers and diabetic foot ulcers in clinical trials.^[113] Smart dressings equipped with sensors for real-time monitoring of pH, temperature, and infection markers represent a major innovation in proactive wound management. These devices, often featuring colorimetric indicators or wireless connectivity, enable early detection of complications like infection, allowing for timely interventions without frequent dressing changes. Recent clinical studies, including developments reported in 2025, enable remote assessment with Bluetooth-enabled patches; one implementation has shown a 90% decrease in in-person clinic visits for chronic wound patients.^[114]^[115] Research into the wound microbiome has spotlighted phage therapy as a targeted approach to disrupt biofilms in diabetic wounds, where traditional antibiotics often fail. Ongoing trials in the 2020s have reported efficacy rates exceeding 70%, with phage cocktails achieving clinical resolution or improvement in 86.1% of chronic wound infections, outperforming antibiotics in biofilm penetration and reducing bacterial regrowth. A 2025 systematic review confirms phage therapy's safety and synergy with standard treatments for multidrug-resistant diabetic foot ulcers.^[116]^[117] Gene therapy strategies, particularly those delivering vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) via plasmids, have shown preclinical promise in ischemic wound models by stimulating angiogenesis and tissue perfusion. Recent meta-analyses of animal studies demonstrate improved flap survival and wound healing, with VEGF overexpression leading to enhanced vascular density and reduced necrosis in ischemic conditions. These approaches aim to address hypoxia in chronic wounds, paving the way for clinical translation.^[118] Addressing gaps in wound care, personalized medicine leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged to predict healing trajectories with high accuracy. Machine learning models analyzing wound images and biomarkers achieve up to 85% accuracy in forecasting outcomes, enabling tailored interventions for at-risk patients. Equity challenges persist, particularly in the global south, where limited access to advanced therapies exacerbates disparities; initiatives in 2025 emphasize scalable, low-cost solutions to bridge these gaps and improve outcomes in resource-constrained settings.^[119]^[120] Looking ahead, nanotechnology-based antimicrobials, such as silver nanoparticles embedded in dressings, offer sustained infection control without resistance development, while organoid models derived from patient skin cells provide ethical platforms for preclinical testing of therapies. The global wound care market is projected to reach $29.57 billion by 2030, driven by these innovations in regenerative and smart technologies.^[121]^[122]^[123]

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Jul 1, 2025 · Although rare, with an annual incidence of 0.4 per 100,000 people in the US, mortality remains between 20-30% [4,5]. Differentiating NF from ...
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Historical review of medicinal plants' usage - PMC - NIH
The Ebers Papyrus, written circa 1550 BC, represents a collection of 800 proscriptions referring to 700 plant species and drugs used for therapy such as ...Missing: care | Show results with:care
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Burn Care in the Greek and Roman Antiquity - PMC - NIH
Nov 28, 2020 · The Papyrus of Ebers described, around 1500 BC, the topical application of lemon stripes on burn wounds. A new insight revitalizes the findings ...
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The Surgery of Celsus' De Medicina - PMC - NIH
Aug 9, 2024 · Celsus' De Medicina (first century ce) is the first comprehensive treatise on medicine and surgery to survive from antiquity.
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The Air of History (Part II) Medicine in the Middle Ages - PMC
Medicine during the Middle Ages was composed of a mixture of existing ideas from antiquity and spiritual influences.
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[PDF] a comparison of islamic and christian influences on medicine in
Apr 1, 2017 · This thesis will examine the influence of religion on medicine and healthcare in the Middle Ages and how the influence of Islam in the East ...
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Innovation and Tribulation in the History of Randomized Controlled ...
In 1537, French surgeon Ambroise Paré conducted a battlefield comparison of two treatments for gunshot wounds: conventional treatment of cautery with ...
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Farmer to industrialist: Lister's antisepsis and the making of modern ...
May 29, 2013 · This paper analyses what is possibly the most important long-term impact of Joseph Lister's method of antisepsis on surgery.
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(PDF) History of Spinal Injury Management - Academia.edu
The question of whether SCI was at all Ambroise Pare much later in the 16th Century.2,4,6,9,10 amenable to treatment was contentious for millennia, whereas ...
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The History of Infectious Diseases and Medicine - PMC - NIH
In this paper, we review various historical and current infectious diseases in a five-period scheme of medical history newly proposed in this paper.
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The evolution of mastectomy surgical technique: from mutilation to ...
From Egyptian papyri to Hippocratic theory, from Galen's dissections to Halsted's radical mastectomy, and from sentinel lymph node mapping to the development of ...
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negative-pressure wound therapy: Topics by Science.gov
The present treatment options include various approaches of cleaning the wound, debridement, optimised dressings, role of antibiotics and reconstructive surgery ...
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Wounds research for patient benefit: a 5-year programme of ... - NCBI
Alongside several Cochrane reviews, covering pairwise comparisons of wound ... wound care research conducted there since the 1990s. This feature together ...
[109]
Review Efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells and platelet-rich plasma ...
A total of 34 studies involving 2458 patients were included. PRP and MSCs significantly reduced wound healing time (PRP: SMD = −1.08, 95 % CI: 1.75 to −0.42, p ...
[110]
Apligraf® Living Cellular Skin Substitute
Bioengineered with living cells to transform wounds from chronic to acute, Apligraf is a skin substitute that's backed by extensive, reliable, and unmatched ...Why choose Apligraf · The Challenges of Healing... · Apligraf® OverviewMissing: 3D printed scaffolds FDA nanotechnology
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[PDF] 3D Printing in Wound Healing: Innovations, Applications, and Future ...
Dec 8, 2024 · This review aims to explore the current state of 3D printing technologies in wound care, highlight recent advances in 3D-printed scaffolds and ...Missing: FDA Apligraf 2025
[112]
Smart wound patch detects healing progress and infection risk
Aug 6, 2025 · A Bluetooth-enabled flexible sensor patch from RMIT lets doctors and patients see inside a healing wound without lifting the dressing, ...
[113]
Smart Bandages Statistics: Transforming Wound Care with
Jun 14, 2023 · Remote wound monitoring using smart bandages resulted in a 90% reduction in in-person clinic visits. Ostomy, and Continence Nursing in 2018 ...Missing: dressings | Show results with:dressings
[114]
Phage therapy for diabetic foot infection - Wounds International
Feb 7, 2023 · This includes at least 310 patients with chronic wound infections, among whom 86.1% achieved clinical resolution or improvement of infection.
[115]
Efficacy of phage therapy in Diabetic Foot Ulcers (DFUs)
Jul 1, 2025 · Phage therapy is a viable, safe option for MDR DFU infections, particularly due to its biofilm-disrupting properties and synergy with antibiotics.
[116]
VEGF and Other Gene Therapies Improve Flap Survival—A ... - MDPI
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to appraise the efficacy of external gene delivery to the flap for its survival in preclinical models.
[117]
Applications and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence in Wound Healing
Oct 15, 2025 · Using machine learning models, they predicted the degree of intervention required for burn healing, achieving a prediction accuracy of 85.35 ...
[118]
Advancing Equity in Wound Care: Reimagining the Systems That ...
May 30, 2025 · This blog explores how challenges like provider shortages, bias, and poor care coordination continue to undermine wound care equity even ...Missing: global south 2024
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Organoids in skin wound healing - ResearchGate
This in-depth review explores the construction and applications of skin organoids in wound healing, with a focus on their construction process, including skin ...
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Wound Care Market Size & Share | Industry Report, 2030
The global wound care market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 4.19% from 2025 to 2030 to reach USD 29.57 billion by 2030. Which segment ...