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Medical physicist

A medical physicist is a health professional who applies principles and methods of physics to the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases, with a focus on improving patient outcomes through the safe and effective use of radiation and imaging technologies.^[1] Medical physicists primarily work in clinical settings such as hospitals and cancer centers, where they contribute to three core areas: clinical service and consultation, research and development, and teaching.^[2] In clinical service, they ensure the accuracy and safety of radiation therapy treatments by planning individualized dose distributions, calibrating equipment like linear accelerators, and managing radiation protection protocols to minimize risks to patients and staff.^[2] They also oversee quality assurance for diagnostic imaging modalities, including X-ray, CT, MRI, and ultrasound, verifying equipment performance and optimizing image quality while adhering to radiation safety standards.^[3] Beyond clinical duties, medical physicists engage in research to advance medical technologies, such as developing novel radiation delivery systems for cancer treatment or improving non-invasive imaging techniques for early disease detection.^[2] Their educational role involves training physicians, technologists, and future physicists through university programs and hospital residencies, often holding faculty positions.^[2] Subspecialties include radiation oncology physics, diagnostic radiology physics, nuclear medicine physics, and health physics, each requiring specialized expertise in radiation dosimetry, instrumentation, and biological effects.^[1] To practice, medical physicists typically hold a master's or doctoral degree in medical physics or a related field, followed by 1-2 years of structured clinical training and certification from bodies like the American Board of Radiology.^[2] This rigorous preparation equips them to collaborate within multidisciplinary healthcare teams, ensuring that physics-based interventions are both scientifically sound and clinically optimized.^[3]

Overview

Definition

A medical physicist is a healthcare professional who applies the principles and methods of physics to medicine, with a primary focus on the safe and effective use of radiation, imaging technologies, and associated medical equipment.^[1] These professionals typically hold an advanced degree, such as a Master of Science or Doctor of Philosophy in medical physics, physics, or a closely related discipline, complemented by specialized clinical training.^[2] Their work integrates knowledge from physics, biology, and clinical sciences to address diagnostic and therapeutic challenges in healthcare settings.^[4] Distinct from biomedical engineers, who primarily combine engineering principles with medical sciences to design and create equipment like artificial organs or diagnostic machines, medical physicists emphasize the application of physical sciences—particularly in radiation physics and dosimetry—over engineering design and fabrication.^[5]^[6] This focus enables them to optimize imaging modalities, calibrate therapeutic devices, and ensure compliance with safety standards without necessarily engaging in hardware development. The scope of practice for medical physicists includes ensuring radiation safety for patients and staff, optimizing the performance of medical imaging systems such as MRI and CT scanners, and developing protocols for radiation therapy treatments.^[7] These activities are governed by international professional standards, including those established by the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP), which promotes the advancement of medical physics worldwide.^[8] The profession emerged as a recognized specialty in the mid-20th century, coinciding with advancements in radiology and the formation of key organizations like the American Association of Physicists in Medicine in 1958 and the IOMP in 1963.^[9]^[10]

Primary Responsibilities

Medical physicists engage in a range of daily tasks essential to patient care in radiation oncology, diagnostic imaging, and nuclear medicine, including dosimetry planning for radiation treatments to ensure precise delivery of therapeutic doses to target areas while minimizing exposure to healthy tissues.^[2] They also perform quality assurance testing on imaging equipment, such as verifying the accuracy and safety of X-ray, CT, and MRI systems through regular calibration and performance checks.^[11] Additionally, medical physicists manage radiation protection programs, which involve monitoring environmental radiation levels and implementing shielding designs to safeguard staff and patients.^[3] Patient-specific dose optimization is another core duty, where physicists adjust treatment parameters based on individual anatomy and tumor characteristics to achieve optimal therapeutic outcomes.^[12] Ethical and regulatory duties form a cornerstone of the profession, with medical physicists ensuring compliance with the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle to minimize radiation exposure for all involved parties through strategies like reducing exposure time, increasing distance from sources, and using appropriate shielding.^[13] They participate in incident investigations, analyzing radiation accidents to identify causes and prevent recurrence, and oversee equipment commissioning, which includes initial testing and validation of new devices to meet safety standards before clinical use.^[14] In clinical settings, medical physicists collaborate interdisciplinary with oncologists, radiologists, and radiation technicians to integrate physics principles into patient care; for instance, they calibrate brachytherapy sources to verify the strength and uniformity of radioactive implants used in targeted cancer treatments.^[15] Similarly, they develop and enforce MRI safety protocols, assessing risks from magnetic fields and radiofrequency exposure to protect patients with implants or pacemakers.^[16] These responsibilities are foundational across subspecialties, such as therapeutic and diagnostic radiology. Central to these duties are quantitative concepts like absorbed dose, defined as D = \frac{E}{m}, where E is the energy deposited by radiation and m is the mass of the irradiated material, measured in grays (Gy; 1 Gy = 1 J/kg), which quantifies the energy imparted to tissues during treatments.^[17] Linear energy transfer (LET) further informs dose optimization by describing the average energy lost by ionizing particles per unit distance traveled in tissue, influencing the biological effectiveness of radiation types like protons versus photons.^[18]

History

Early Development

The discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen in 1895 marked a pivotal moment in the foundations of medical physics, as his experiments with cathode-ray tubes revealed a new form of invisible radiation capable of penetrating materials and producing images on photographic plates.^[19] This breakthrough, initially termed "X-rays" due to their unknown nature, quickly demonstrated potential for medical imaging, with Röntgen's first radiograph of his wife's hand showcasing the technology's diagnostic promise.^[20] Complementing this, Marie and Pierre Curie's isolation of the radioactive elements polonium and radium from pitchblende in 1898 introduced the concept of radioactivity as a measurable atomic phenomenon, providing another cornerstone for radiation-based medical applications.^[21] These discoveries catalyzed early practical uses, particularly in diagnostic radiography during World War I, where mobile X-ray units—pioneered by Marie Curie—enabled frontline imaging of fractures and foreign bodies in wounded soldiers, saving countless lives despite rudimentary equipment.^[22] By the 1910s and 1920s, dedicated radiology physics efforts emerged in hospitals, exemplified by Edith H. Quimby's appointment in 1919 as the first full-time hospital physicist at New York City's Memorial Hospital for Cancer and Allied Diseases, where she developed dosimetry techniques for radium treatments.^[23] This period also saw the establishment of the first specialized radiology physics laboratories in major institutions, such as those at the University of Chicago and Memorial Hospital, focusing on radiation measurement and calibration to support growing therapeutic applications.^[24] However, initial challenges arose from the absence of standardized radiation dosing protocols, resulting in widespread safety issues including radiation burns, dermatitis, and long-term health risks among patients and practitioners in the early 20th century.^[25] These concerns prompted the formation of early professional societies to advocate for safety measures, such as the British Institute of Radiology, established in 1924 through the amalgamation of prior groups like the Röntgen Society, which began promoting standardized practices and education in radiological physics.^[26] The transition toward a formalized profession accelerated post-World War II, driven by advancements in nuclear medicine—where radioisotopes like iodine-131 enabled thyroid imaging and therapy starting in the late 1940s—and the introduction of cobalt-60 teletherapy units in the 1950s, which provided higher-energy gamma rays for more precise cancer treatments, marking a shift from empirical to scientifically rigorous radiation oncology.^[27] The first clinical cobalt-60 treatment occurred in 1951 at Victoria Hospital in London, Ontario, revolutionizing external beam radiotherapy by improving dose uniformity and reducing skin reactions.

Modern Evolution

The formation of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) in 1958 represented a pivotal moment in the professionalization of medical physics, establishing a dedicated society to advance clinical practice, research, and education in the field.^[28] AAPM's Task Group reports have since standardized key practices, including dosimetry protocols, quality assurance guidelines, and equipment calibration, influencing clinical workflows and safety standards across radiation oncology and diagnostic imaging.^[29] Complementing this national effort, the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) was founded in 1963 with four initial member organizations, evolving into a global network representing over 30,000 medical physicists across 90 national societies (as of 2025) by promoting international collaboration, education programs, and policy harmonization.^[10]^[8]^[30] Technological advancements from the late 20th century transformed medical physics applications in radiation therapy. In the 1970s, computerized treatment planning systems emerged, leveraging computed tomography (CT) imaging—introduced by Godfrey Hounsfield in 1971—to enable three-dimensional dose calculations and beam optimization, shifting from manual methods to precise, patient-specific simulations.^[31] The 1990s brought Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT), with initial clinical implementations around 1994 using multileaf collimators and inverse planning algorithms to deliver highly conformal radiation doses, minimizing exposure to adjacent organs at risk.^[32] By the 2010s, artificial intelligence (AI) integration in dosimetry gained traction, with machine learning models automating contouring, dose prediction, and plan optimization to improve efficiency and reduce errors in complex treatments.^[33] Regulatory milestones further shaped the discipline's evolution. The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident exposed critical gaps in radiation safety, prompting the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to update protocols through reports like INSAG-7, which emphasized enhanced emergency response, dose monitoring, and protective measures adopted by medical physicists for handling radioactive materials and patient safety.^[34] In the United States, the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) enacted in 1992 mandated federal certification for all mammography facilities, requiring medical physicists to oversee equipment performance, dose calibration, and quality control to ensure consistent image quality and radiation safety.^[35] As of 2025, medical physics emphasizes proton therapy expansion, with the proton therapy market segment growing at a projected 8.45% compound annual growth rate through 2030, driven by cyclotron and synchrotron technologies that provide superior dose precision for pediatric and re-irradiation cases.^[36] Concurrently, trends in personalized medicine physics integrate AI-driven analytics with genomic and imaging data to customize dosimetry and adaptive radiotherapy, enabling real-time adjustments based on individual tumor responses and reducing toxicity.^[37]

Education and Training

Academic Prerequisites

To become a medical physicist, individuals typically begin with a bachelor's degree in physics, engineering, or a related physical science field, providing the foundational knowledge necessary for advanced studies in medical physics.^[38]^[39]^[40] This undergraduate education emphasizes core physics coursework, including classical mechanics, electromagnetism, and modern or quantum physics, alongside mathematics such as multivariable calculus and differential equations, often spanning at least two years of physics study.^[41]^[42]^[43] Essential skills developed during undergraduate studies include proficiency in programming languages like Python or MATLAB, as well as computer science fundamentals, to support data analysis and simulation tasks in medical physics applications.^[44]^[43] Exposure to statistics and probability is also critical for handling experimental data and uncertainty in clinical contexts.^[43] Additionally, elective courses in biology or human anatomy are recommended to build interdisciplinary understanding relevant to medical applications.^[44] Admission to graduate programs in medical physics generally requires a minimum undergraduate GPA of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale, along with strong letters of recommendation that highlight academic and research potential.^[45]^[46]^[42] The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) is often required or recommended, with competitive quantitative scores around 160 or higher, though some programs have waived it post-2020.^[43]^[47]^[48] Research experience, such as undergraduate projects in radiation or imaging physics, is highly emphasized to demonstrate readiness for graduate-level inquiry.^[49] These prerequisites exhibit global consistency, with a physics-based bachelor's degree serving as the standard entry point worldwide, though credit requirements vary—typically 120-150 semester credits in North American systems.^[50]^[51]^[52] Regional differences may exist in course emphasis, but the core physics and mathematics foundation remains universal.

Specialized Programs and Residencies

Medical physicists typically pursue advanced graduate education through Master's or PhD programs in medical physics, with the Master's degree generally requiring 2 years of study and the PhD 4-6 years.^[53]^[54] In North America, these programs are accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Medical Physics Education Programs (CAMPEP), which mandates a curriculum covering core areas such as radiation physics (including dosimetry and interactions of ionizing radiation), medical imaging techniques, and human anatomy relevant to clinical applications.^[55] The curriculum emphasizes foundational and applied knowledge, including courses in radiation biology (e.g., cellular effects and risk assessment), health physics (e.g., radiation protection principles and regulatory compliance), and medical imaging modalities (e.g., CT, MRI, PET, and ultrasound). Practical training components often involve computational methods, such as Monte Carlo simulations for modeling radiation dose distributions in tissues.^[55]^[56] Post-degree clinical training occurs through CAMPEP-accredited residencies, which provide 2-3 years of hands-on experience in a supervised clinical environment. These programs feature structured rotations in key areas like treatment planning and dosimetry, brachytherapy procedures, and quality assurance/control protocols, all under the guidance of board-certified medical physicists to build progressive clinical competency.^[57]^[58] As of November 2025, CAMPEP accredits over 200 programs worldwide, encompassing 62 graduate degree programs, 141 residencies (108 in therapy and 33 in imaging), and 37 certificate programs.^[59]^[60]^[61] In the 2025 MedPhys Match, 62% of participating applicants successfully matched to residency positions.^[62] Completion of a residency qualifies graduates to pursue board certification in their subspecialty.

Certification Processes

Certification processes for medical physicists validate specialized knowledge and clinical competence, ensuring safe and effective practice in healthcare settings. In the United States, the primary certifying body is the American Board of Radiology (ABR), which offers certification in three subspecialties: therapeutic medical physics, diagnostic medical physics, and nuclear medical physics.^[63] The ABR process consists of three sequential parts, typically completed over several years following appropriate education and residency training. Part 1 is a computer-based qualifying exam covering general physics sciences and clinical physics applications, testing foundational knowledge in areas such as radiation physics, imaging, and dosimetry.^[64] Part 2 is another computer-based exam focused on the specific subspecialty, emphasizing clinical problem-solving, treatment planning, and quality assurance protocols relevant to therapeutic, diagnostic, or nuclear applications. Part 3 is an oral certifying exam that assesses practical judgment, case-based scenarios, and professional conduct through structured interviews. Successful completion grants a time-limited certificate, renewable through the ABR's Continuing Certification (MOC) program, which requires 75 Category 1 continuing medical education (CME) credits every three years, including self-assessment activities and periodic exams to maintain expertise.^[65] In Canada, the Canadian College of Physicists in Medicine (CCPM) provides certification as the main credential for clinical practice, with designations in radiation oncology physics, diagnostic radiology physics, and nuclear medicine physics.^[66] Candidates must hold a graduate degree in medical physics or a related field, complete at least two years of supervised clinical experience (often through CAMPEP-accredited programs), and pass a comprehensive Membership Examination comprising written and oral components that evaluate theoretical knowledge, clinical skills, and ethical standards.^[66] For those without CAMPEP training, a bridging assessment may be required.^[66] CCPM certification is renewable via ongoing professional development, aligning with international standards to support cross-border recognition.^[67] European certification varies by country but follows harmonized guidelines from organizations like the European Society for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO) and the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics (EFOMP), which outline core curricula for medical physics experts (MPEs) emphasizing a four-year training period totaling 240 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) points.^[68] In the United Kingdom, medical physicists register as clinical scientists with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), typically after completing the three-year Scientist Training Programme (STP) accredited by the Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine (IPEM), which includes an MSc and portfolio-based assessment of competencies in clinical practice.^[69] International applicants may pursue HCPC registration via an equivalence route, demonstrating comparable training and experience through exams and portfolio review.^[70] For developing countries, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) provides guidelines to establish national certification schemes for clinically qualified medical physicists, recommending postgraduate education, structured clinical training, and exams to ensure competency in radiation safety and patient care.^[51] These frameworks promote recognition of medical physicists as health professionals, often adapting ABR or EFOMP models to local resources.^[71] ABR and equivalent certifications are essential for employability in clinical roles, as most healthcare institutions require board certification to verify qualifications for independent practice and regulatory compliance.^[72] In the US, ABR certification serves as the gold standard, with the majority of clinical medical physicists holding it to meet accreditation standards from bodies like the American College of Radiology.^[73]

Professional Practice

Clinical Applications

Medical physicists integrate into clinical workflows by participating in multidisciplinary teams that include radiation oncologists, dosimetrists, and radiation therapists to facilitate treatment simulation, where they ensure accurate patient positioning and imaging for precise radiation delivery. During simulation, they oversee the setup of immobilization devices and verify imaging protocols to minimize uncertainties in target localization. In image-guided radiation therapy (IGRT), medical physicists evaluate setup images, such as cone-beam CT scans, and recommend adjustments to align the patient with the treatment plan, thereby enhancing the accuracy of dose delivery in procedures like stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT). They also verify linear accelerator outputs through routine quality assurance tests, including beam constancy checks and dosimetric measurements, to confirm that the machine delivers the prescribed radiation dose reliably.^[74]^[75]^[76] To uphold safety protocols, medical physicists implement the TG-51 protocol, a standardized method developed by the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) for calibrating high-energy photon and electron beams in clinical reference dosimetry, which simplifies the process by providing pre-calculated beam quality correction factors and requires measurements at a reference depth of 10 cm for photons. This protocol ensures absorbed dose accuracy within 1-2% uncertainty, directly supporting safe radiation delivery. Additionally, they monitor for errors in electronic medical records (EMR) systems used in radiation therapy, such as discrepancies in treatment parameters transferred from planning software to delivery units, by conducting physics plan reviews that detect issues like incorrect monitor units or field sizes before treatment initiation. These reviews help mitigate data-transfer errors that could lead to under- or over-dosing.^[77]^[78]^[79] In patient-centered roles, medical physicists perform dose verification using in-vivo measurements, such as thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), which are placed on or inside the patient to directly measure delivered radiation and confirm alignment with the treatment plan, achieving reproducibility within 2-3% standard deviation and detecting deviations greater than 5% for immediate corrective action. TLDs, often LiF:Mg,Ti chips calibrated against ionization chambers, are particularly useful for verifying entrance doses in complex sites like the pelvis or head and neck, with studies showing 87-90% of measurements within ±5% of planned doses. For special populations like pediatric patients, medical physicists adapt protocols by incorporating motion management techniques and image-guided positioning to account for smaller anatomies and higher sensitivity to radiation, such as using immobilization aids and adaptive replanning based on on-treatment imaging to optimize dose while minimizing long-term risks.^[80]^[81]^[82] Case examples illustrate these contributions, such as managing variability in external beam radiotherapy where medical physicists address interobserver differences in contouring and planning by standardizing dosimetry checks through consistent quality assurance. Furthermore, ensuring compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) for data handling involves medical physicists securing patient information in treatment planning systems, such as de-identifying data during vendor consultations for software issues and implementing access controls in EMRs to protect privacy during radiation therapy workflows.^[83]^[84]

Research and Innovation

Medical physicists engage in extensive research to advance diagnostic and therapeutic technologies, focusing on improving patient safety and treatment efficacy. A key area involves the development of novel imaging algorithms, such as iterative reconstruction techniques in computed tomography (CT), which enable significant radiation dose reductions—up to 60% in some protocols—while maintaining or enhancing image quality through noise suppression and artifact reduction.^[85]^[86] Another prominent research domain is FLASH radiotherapy, which delivers ultra-high dose rates (over 40 Gy/s) to spare healthy tissues, with ongoing clinical trials demonstrating feasibility and reduced toxicity in patients with bone metastases and other malignancies as of 2025.^[87]^[88] In their investigative work, medical physicists employ advanced computational methodologies, including Monte Carlo simulations with tools like GEANT4 to model particle transport and interactions in matter for applications in dosimetry and radiation shielding.^[89]^[90] These efforts are often supported by competitive grant funding from bodies such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), particularly through the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering (NIBIB), which allocates resources for projects in imaging innovation and radiation therapy optimization.^[91]^[92] Innovations by medical physicists extend to integrated approaches like theranostics in nuclear medicine, where they contribute to dosimetry and radiopharmaceutical design for combined diagnostic imaging and targeted therapy, as seen in prostate cancer treatments using lutetium-177.^[93]^[94] Recent advancements include patents and commercial tools for AI-driven auto-contouring in radiotherapy planning, such as systems that achieve clinically acceptable organ-at-risk delineations in over 65% of cases, streamlining workflows and improving precision as evaluated in 2025 studies.^[95]^[96] The impact of this research is disseminated through peer-reviewed publications in journals like Medical Physics and Radiology, with medical physicists expected to produce high-impact outputs that influence clinical guidelines. Notably, they play a pivotal role in developing evidence-based standards, such as the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) Task Group 100 report, which applies failure modes and effects analysis to radiation therapy quality management, prioritizing risks based on probability and clinical severity.^[97]^[98]

Subspecialties

Radiation Therapy Physics

Medical physicists play a pivotal role in radiation therapy physics by ensuring the precise delivery of ionizing radiation to tumors while minimizing exposure to surrounding healthy tissues. In external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), treatment planning often employs inverse optimization techniques, where desired dose distributions are specified, and algorithms iteratively adjust beam parameters such as intensity and fluence to achieve them. This approach, foundational to intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT), contrasts with forward planning by solving an optimization problem to meet clinical objectives like target coverage and organ-at-risk sparing.^[99] Dose calculation algorithms are essential for simulating radiation deposition in patient tissues during EBRT planning. The Clarkson algorithm, a sector-integration method developed in the 1960s, computes dose by integrating contributions from primary and scattered photons across annular sectors of the beam, providing accurate results for irregular fields in homogeneous media but requiring corrections for tissue heterogeneities. More advanced convolution-superposition algorithms model dose as the convolution of a primary fluence kernel with Monte Carlo-generated scatter kernels, accounting for electron transport and tissue interfaces through superposition of contributions from multiple beamlets; these methods offer superior accuracy in heterogeneous anatomies, such as lung or bone, with computation times suitable for clinical use.^[100]^[101] Equipment handling in radiation therapy demands rigorous calibration and verification to maintain dosimetric accuracy. Linear accelerators (linacs) are calibrated daily using ionization chambers in a standard phantom to verify output constancy, typically aiming for 1% agreement with baseline values, while monthly and annual tests assess beam flatness, symmetry, and energy. Multi-leaf collimator (MLC) positioning verification involves electronic portal imaging or log-file analysis to ensure leaf accuracy within 1 mm, as deviations can alter field shaping and dose conformity in IMRT or volumetric-modulated arc therapy (VMAT). Monitor unit (MU) calculations determine the machine's beam-on time, using the formula \text{MU} = \frac{\text{prescribed dose}}{\text{output factor} \times \text{other modifiers}}, where the output factor scales the calibration dose (e.g., 1 cGy/MU at reference conditions) for field size, depth, and accessories; this ensures the delivered dose matches the plan within 2-3%.^[102]^[103] Advanced modalities extend the precision of radiation therapy physics. In proton therapy, beam modeling incorporates relative biological effectiveness (RBE) adjustments beyond the conventional constant value of 1.1, using linear energy transfer (LET)-dependent models like the local effect model (LEM) or microdosimetric-kinetic model to predict elevated RBE (up to 1.5-2.0) in the Bragg peak distal edge, optimizing dose to account for variable biological impact along the beam path. Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) requires sub-millimeter precision, with setup tolerances of 0.5-1 mm and dosimetric uncertainties below 2%, achieved through rigid immobilization, image-guided systems, and small-field output factor corrections to mitigate partial source occlusion effects.^[104]^[105] Safety metrics in radiation therapy physics emphasize error detection and mitigation. Electronic portal imaging devices (EPIDs) analyze setup errors by comparing acquired images to digitally reconstructed radiographs, quantifying translational and rotational shifts (typically 2-5 mm systematic and 1-3 mm random in prostate treatments) to inform adaptive margins via van Herk's formula, \text{CTV-to-PTV margin} = 2.5\Sigma + 0.7\sigma, where \sigma is random and \Sigma is systematic error. As of 2025, MR-Linac systems integrate real-time MRI with linac delivery for adaptive radiotherapy, enabling on-table plan re-optimization to correct intrafraction motion and setup variations, particularly in abdominal and pelvic sites.^[106]

Diagnostic and Nuclear Medicine Physics

Medical physicists in diagnostic and nuclear medicine apply principles of radiation physics, imaging science, and dosimetry to optimize image quality, ensure patient safety, and support clinical decision-making across various modalities.^[107] Their work encompasses the design, calibration, and quality assurance of imaging systems, as well as the quantification of radiation exposure to minimize risks while maximizing diagnostic utility. In X-ray projection radiography, medical physicists analyze the attenuation of X-rays as they pass through tissues, where differential absorption creates contrast in two-dimensional images.^[108] The process relies on the interaction of X-rays with matter, primarily through photoelectric absorption and Compton scattering, which determine image contrast and noise levels.^[109] For computed tomography (CT), physicists model tissue attenuation using the Beer-Lambert law, expressed as I = I_0 e^{-\mu x}, where I is the transmitted intensity, I_0 is the incident intensity, \mu is the linear attenuation coefficient, and x is the path length through the material; this law underpins the reconstruction of cross-sectional images from multiple projections.^[110] In ultrasound imaging, wave propagation is governed by acoustic principles, with sound waves (typically 2-18 MHz) traveling through soft tissues at approximately 1540 m/s, reflecting at tissue interfaces to form echoes that are processed into real-time images.^[111] Attenuation due to absorption, scattering, and reflection increases with frequency, influencing penetration depth and resolution.^[112] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) involves nuclear magnetic resonance, where medical physicists focus on relaxation times to characterize tissue properties. T1 relaxation, or longitudinal recovery, is the time constant for magnetization to realign with the external field after excitation, typically ranging from 300-2000 ms depending on tissue type.^[113] T2 relaxation, or transverse decay, measures the dephasing of spins due to spin-spin interactions, with values around 50-100 ms in most tissues, enabling contrast in T1- and T2-weighted images.^[114] In nuclear medicine, gamma cameras detect emitted photons from radiotracers using scintillation crystals coupled to photomultiplier tubes, with collimators essential for spatial localization by restricting photons to parallel paths and rejecting scattered radiation.^[107] For single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), image reconstruction often employs filtered back-projection, which applies a ramp filter to projection data to correct for blurring before back-projecting to form 3D images, though it can introduce streak artifacts in low-count scenarios.^[115] Positron emission tomography (PET) reconstruction similarly uses filtered back-projection but benefits from coincidence detection, eliminating the need for physical collimators and improving sensitivity.^[116] Dosimetry for radiopharmaceuticals like ^{177}Lu-PSMA-617, used in prostate cancer theranostics, involves calculating absorbed doses to tumors and organs (e.g., kidneys receiving 0.5-1.0 Gy/GBq) via Monte Carlo simulations or hybrid imaging to predict therapeutic efficacy and toxicity.^[117] Quality control protocols, developed by medical physicists, utilize phantoms to assess system performance, such as line-pair phantoms for spatial resolution (typically 1-5 lp/mm) and uniform phantoms for noise evaluation via signal-to-noise ratio measurements.^[118] In hybrid PET-CT systems, dose optimization balances diagnostic needs with radiation exposure, often reducing CT tube current by 50-75% for attenuation correction while preserving PET quantification accuracy through iterative reconstruction techniques.^[119] As of 2025, emerging technologies include photon-counting CT detectors, which directly convert X-ray photons into electrical signals, enabling energy-resolved imaging with improved spatial resolution (up to 0.2 mm) and dose reduction by 30-50% compared to energy-integrating detectors.^[120] In theranostics, physicists model the physics of dual-purpose agents, such as those pairing diagnostic ^{68}Ga with therapeutic ^{177}Lu, to optimize decay schemes, half-lives (e.g., 6.7 days for ^{177}Lu), and beta-particle ranges (average 0.23 mm) for targeted delivery and dosimetry.^[93]

Health Physics

Medical physicists specializing in health physics focus on radiation protection and safety within healthcare environments. They develop and implement radiation safety programs, conduct shielding calculations for facilities, perform environmental and personnel monitoring, and ensure compliance with regulatory standards such as those from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) or International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). Their responsibilities include risk assessments for radiation exposure, optimization of protective equipment, and emergency response planning to minimize stochastic and deterministic effects from ionizing radiation. Health physicists also contribute to decommissioning of radioactive sources and waste management, safeguarding patients, staff, and the public.^[2]^[3]

Global Perspectives

North America

In North America, medical physicists primarily practice in the United States and Canada, where professional standards emphasize rigorous education, certification, and regulatory compliance to ensure patient safety in radiation-based therapies and diagnostics. The field is shaped by dominant professional organizations that establish guidelines for clinical practice, education, and quality assurance, alongside a certification process led by the American Board of Radiology (ABR) that holds significant authority across both countries.^[11]^[121]^[122] The American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) plays a central role in the United States by developing evidence-based Medical Physics Practice Guidelines (MPPGs) that outline the scope of practice, responsibilities in clinical service, research, and teaching, and standards for equipment commissioning and quality control in areas like radiation therapy and diagnostic imaging.^[123] In Canada, the Canadian Organization of Medical Physicists (COMP) serves as the primary professional body, creating core competency profiles, scope of practice documents, and technical quality control guidelines in collaboration with bodies like the Canadian Partnership for Quality Radiotherapy (CPQR) to standardize safe radiation use nationwide.^[124]^[125] ABR certification dominates the landscape, providing a benchmark for professional qualification in therapeutic, diagnostic, and nuclear medical physics subspecialties; this certification is widely recognized and often required for licensure in both countries, complementing processes detailed elsewhere.^[126] Education in North America requires completion of programs accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Medical Physics Education Programs (CAMPEP), which mandates structured curricula covering physics, biology, and clinical applications, culminating in residency training for board eligibility. As of November 2025, CAMPEP accredits 149 residency programs, including 108 in therapeutic medical physics and 37 in diagnostic imaging (with nuclear medicine options), ensuring graduates meet ABR prerequisites through hands-on clinical experience in dosimetry, imaging, and safety protocols.^[60] Funding for health physics education, a key component of medical physics training, is supported by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) through its University Nuclear Education Program, which provides variable grants supporting faculty development, scholarships, and fellowships in health physics and related disciplines to address workforce needs.^[127] In Canada, similar support comes via provincial health agencies and COMP-endorsed residencies, though positions remain limited relative to demand. Clinical practice norms prioritize hospital accreditation by The Joint Commission (formerly JCAHO), which enforces standards for medical physics involvement in radiation safety, equipment maintenance, and patient dose optimization, requiring annual physicist-led evaluations and staff training to maintain compliance during surveys.^[128] However, workforce shortages persist, exacerbated by retirements and limited training slots, with significant vacancy rates in rural areas due to challenges in recruitment and retention, leading to overburdened staff and reliance on locum tenens physicists.^[129]^[130] Regulatory oversight falls under the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which classifies and approves radiation-emitting devices like linear accelerators (linacs) under the Center for Devices and Radiological Health, mandating premarket notifications, performance standards, and post-market surveillance to mitigate risks such as radiation leaks or software failures.^[131] In response to 2023 cybersecurity vulnerabilities, including ransomware attacks that disrupted linac operations and delayed treatments at multiple U.S. facilities, the FDA issued guidance, with updates in 2025, and professional organizations like ASTRO and AAPM provided recommendations emphasizing secure-by-design principles, vulnerability assessments, and incident reporting for networked therapy systems.^[132]^[133] In Canada, Health Canada mirrors these efforts through the Medical Devices Bureau, aligning with international standards while incorporating COMP recommendations for device safety.^[134]

Europe and Other Regions

In Europe, the European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics (EFOMP) leads harmonization efforts to standardize medical physics education, training, and professional practice across member states, promoting consistent competencies and best practices to enhance patient safety and clinical efficacy.^[135] This includes developing core curricula, such as the joint ESTRO-EFOMP guidelines for medical physics experts in radiotherapy, which outline structured training pathways adaptable to national contexts. Country-specific regulations vary; in the United Kingdom, medical physicists register as clinical scientists with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC), requiring demonstration of competencies through supervised training and assessment to ensure safe practice in clinical settings.^[69] In Germany, certification as a Medical Physics Expert (MPE) is mandated under the Radiation Protection Ordinance, involving advanced postgraduate training and examination overseen by bodies like the German Society for Medical Physics (DGMP) to qualify for roles in radiation therapy and diagnostics.^[136] Beyond Europe, medical physics development in other regions often relies on international support to address resource limitations. In Asia, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) backs programs like those at India's Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), which offers specialized training in radiological physics and radiation safety, including practical internships to build clinical expertise amid growing radiotherapy demands.^[137] In Africa, persistent challenges include limited access to advanced equipment and training facilities, with many countries facing shortages of qualified personnel and infrastructure, hindering effective radiation oncology services despite IAEA efforts to provide e-learning and workshops.^[138] Australia's model, managed by the Australasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine (ACPSEM), emphasizes a rigorous training scheme for radiation oncology medical physicists, featuring a three-year residency program with competency-based assessments to ensure high standards in clinical application.^[139] Global disparities in medical physics certification remain stark, particularly in low-resource settings like Latin America, where many practitioners lack formal qualifications, exacerbating gaps in safe radiation use due to inadequate training infrastructure.^[140] As of 2025, trends toward virtual tele-mentoring initiatives, supported by organizations like the IAEA and aligned with World Health Organization (WHO) global health equity goals, are emerging to bridge these divides through online platforms that connect experts with trainees in remote areas.^[141] Professional mobility benefits from EFOMP's harmonization, which facilitates recognition of qualifications for intra-European practice, allowing certified medical physicists to transfer expertise across borders with minimal revalidation.^[142] Complementing this, the International Organization for Medical Physics (IOMP) standardizes Level 3 (expert) training through policy guidelines that define advanced competencies, enabling global benchmarking and enhanced collaboration in high-level clinical roles.^[143]

References

[1]
Definition of Medical Physicists by IOMP
The role and responsibilities of medical physicists may be oriented toward clinical service (which includes technical and radiation safety aspects), management, ...
[2]
What do Medical Physicists Do? - AAPM
The medical physicist is called upon to contribute clinical and scientific advice and resources to solve the numerous and diverse physical problems that arise ...
[3]
The Medical Physicist – | IAEA
### Summary of Medical Physicist Roles, Education, and Competencies
[4]
[PDF] IOMP Policy Statement No. 1 - The Medical Physicist: Role and ...
1 Medical physicists are professionals with education and specialist training in the concepts and techniques of applying physics in medicine. Medical Physicists ...
[5]
What is Medical Physics
Medical Physics is a distinct field of its own, built upon a foundation of physics but focusing on application to medicine.
[6]
Bioengineers and Biomedical Engineers
### Definition and Focus of Biomedical Engineers
[7]
Scope of Practice of Clinical Medical Physics - AAPM
Medical physicists ensure safe radiation delivery, protect patients, establish protocols, measure radiation, and are part of the patient care team.
[8]
Organisation - IOMP
FOUNDED. The IOMP was founded on the year 1963. Permanent Address: Fairmount House, 230 Tadcaster Road, YORK YO24 1ES, United Kingdom. MEMBERS. Individual ...
[9]
AAPM History and Heritage
The Virtual Museum was developed by the AAPM History Committee to document and preserve the heritage of the field of Medical Physics and of AAPM.Missing: founded | Show results with:founded
[10]
IOMP History
IOMP was formed in January 1963 initially with 4 affiliated national member organizations. The Organization has a membership of 86 national member ...Missing: founded | Show results with:founded
[11]
[PDF] THE ROLE OF THE CLINICAL MEDICAL PHYSICIST IN ... - AAPM
This document concerns the role of the clinical medical physicist in diagnostic imaging, including descriptions of the medical physicist's responsibilities, ...
[12]
[PDF] THE ROLE OF A PHYSICIST IN RADIATION ONCOLOGY - AAPM
A radiation oncology physicist ensures best treatment, brings a unique perspective, and is responsible for resource allocation, radiation safety, and in-vivo ...
[13]
https://www.iaea.org/publications/10437/roles-and-responsibilities-and-education-and-training-requirements-for-clinically-qualified-medical-physicists
[14]
PS 6-A - AAPM Position Statements, Policies and Procedures - Details
The essential responsibility of the clinical practice of medical physics is to ensure safe and effective patient care related to the physical aspects of ...
[15]
Report of the AAPM Low Energy Brachytherapy Source Calibration ...
Responsibility for the performance and attestation of source assays rests with the institutional medical physicist, who must use calibration equipment ...
[16]
[PDF] The role of the Medical Physicist in the management of safety within ...
Although in the majority of countries Medical Physicists play a key role in ensuring safety within the MR environment, this is not true in all cases. The ...
[17]
Water Calorimetry Primary Standards for Absorbed Dose to Water
Absorbed dose is the energy imparted per unit mass by radiation to an irradiated target. The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (abbreviated Gy), ...
[18]
[PDF] Radiation Oncology Physics:
Vienna : International Atomic ...
[19]
Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen – Biographical - NobelPrize.org
Learn more about X-rays, which were discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895. He was awarded the very first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901 for his work.
[20]
November 8, 1895: Roentgen's Discovery of X-Rays
Nov 1, 2001 · On November 8, 1895, Roentgen noticed that when he shielded the tube with heavy black cardboard, the green fluorescent light caused a ...
[21]
MARIE CURIE - NobelPrize.org
This led her and her husband, Pierre, to the discovery of a new element that was 400 times more radioactive than uranium. In 1898 it was added to the Periodic ...
[22]
A Timeline of Our Profession - ARRT
Jun 15, 2022 · 1914. Marie Curie invents a mobile X-ray unit, enabling medics to scan wounded soldiers near battlefields during World War I.Missing: applications | Show results with:applications
[23]
The Early Years | Department of Radiology | The University of Chicago
In the 1920s, Hollis Potter invented and published a report of his moving grid, which revolutionized the X-raying of thick body parts; Paul Hodges' team added ...
[24]
The controversy over radiation safety. A historical overview - PubMed
Misuse of x-rays and radium prompted efforts to encourage radiation safety and to set limits on exposure, culminating in the first recommended "tolerance doses" ...
[25]
History - British Institute of Radiology
The BIR began as the X-ray Society in 1897, became the Röntgen Society, then the BIR in 1924, and amalgamated with the Röntgen Society in 1927. It received a ...Missing: 1939 | Show results with:1939
[26]
Anniversary Paper: Nuclear medicine: Fifty years and still counting
The history, present status, and possible future of nuclear medicine are presented. Beginning with development of the rectilinear scanner and gamma camera.
[27]
American Association of Physicists in Medicine
November 17, 1958American Association of Physicists in Medicine was founded ... AAPM History Committe physicists of note interviews, 2005-2009. Niels Bohr ...
[28]
A brief history of the AAPM: Celebrating 60 years of contributions to ...
Feb 9, 2018 · The 1st standalone AAPM Annual Meeting was held in Washington DC in 1969 and the tradition of having the Annual Meeting in the summer and the ...
[29]
The International Organization for Medical Physics – a driving force ...
Jun 27, 2022 · IOMP was established in 1963 and currently represents over 27,000 medical physicists worldwide in 87 adhering national member organizations ( ...
[30]
Treatment Planning and the Development of Modern External Beam ...
Godfrey Hounsfield made 3-D planning feasible when he introduced the CT unit, for which he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1979 (see ...
[31]
Intensity-modulated radiation therapy: a review with a physics ... - NIH
Mar 30, 2018 · Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) has been considered the most successful development ... 1990s. However, the first apparatus ...
[32]
[PDF] Artificial Intelligence in Medical Physics
The use of AI in radiation and medical physics was a topic of discussion at the Technical Meeting on Artificial. Intelligence for Nuclear Technology and ...
[33]
[PDF] The Chernobyl Accident: Updating of INSAG-1
The design parameters and characteristics of the RBMK-1000 reactor on. 26 April 1986 violated the safety standards and regulations so seriously that it could.
[34]
Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) and MQSA Program
Jul 25, 2025 · To ensure that all people have access to quality mammography for the detection of breast cancer in its earliest, most treatable stages.Regulations (MQSA) · Mammography Information for... · Final Rule to Amend
[35]
Medical Physics Market Size, Share & Outlook Analysis 2025-2030
Aug 6, 2025 · 4.2.5 Expansion of Outpatient Proton Therapy and Radiosurgery Centers ... Proton therapy shows the highest growth with an 8.45% CAGR through 2030.
[36]
Shaping the Future: Emerging Trends in Medical Physics Technology
This blog post looks at the latest trends in medical physics technology that are transforming healthcare for the better.
[37]
Information for Prospective Applicants to CAMPEP-Accredited ...
3.1 Residents entering a medical physics residency educational program shall have a strong foundation in basic physics. This shall be demonstrated either by an ...
[38]
Medical Physics (PhD, MS and certificate) - Biomedical Graduate ...
Applicants for all programs are required to have a degree in physics or a degree in engineering or other area of physical science with physics education ...
[39]
Information for Undergraduate Students - Medical Physics
To become a medical physicist, you first need an undergraduate degree in physics or other physical science. ... Medical Physics Education Programs (CAMPEP).<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
What is Medical Physics?
Additionally, a Medical Physicist will oversee the technical aspects of the radiation oncology department including commissioning, calibration, and quality ...
[41]
Admission Requirements - Medical Physics Grad Program - OHSU
A minimum 3.0 cumulative GPA (on a 4.0 scale) is required. GRE General Test Scores. The GRE General at home test is acceptable. Official test scores should be ...Next Steps · Ohsu Employees As Students · Background Checks
[42]
Medical Physics Programs
The Physics GRE is recommended. Proficiency at written and spoken English and a working knowledge of computer programming and probability and statistics are ...
[43]
Admissions Prerequisites - Duke Medical Physics
Prerequisites for Entering the Program · Chemistry: 1 semester/course · Electronics: 1 semester/course · Computer science/programming: 1 semester/course.
[44]
Admissions | Medical School
An undergraduate grade point average (GPA) of 3.0 (on a 4.0 scale) or higher is required for admission to the MS program, while an undergraduate grade point ...
[45]
Professional Science Master in Medical Physics (PSMMP)
At least a 3.0 (of a 4.0 maximum) grade point average (GPA) in Science and Mathematics, courses. Have taken the general portion of the GRE. No minimum score is ...
[46]
How to Apply - Medical Physics - Wayne State University
GRE Quantitative: 160 (760 old score format); GRE Analytical Writing: 4.7; GPA: 3.6. The TOEFL exam is required for all students from non-English speaking ...
[47]
Medical Physics Admissions - Vanderbilt School of Medicine
GRE general exam scores are required. The suggested minimum acceptable score for admission is a total of 312, with a minimum score on the quantitative section ...Application Process and... · Admissions Requirements
[48]
Admissions Information - Department of Medical Physics
Applications are also evaluated for research experience, physics background ... The statement of purpose should include your reasons for graduate study, how your ...
[49]
Medical Physicist Training - EFOMP
In this section you can find information concerning the Medical Physicist Training and information on how to obtain the Medical Physics specilization in ...Missing: prerequisites | Show results with:prerequisites
[50]
[PDF] Guidelines for the Certification of Clinically Qualified Medical ...
Moreover, IOMP has established the 'IOMP Accreditation Board' which operates internationally and accredits medical physics degree programs, medical physics.
[51]
Physics Major, B.S. - UNC Catalog
Physics Major, B.S.–Standard Option ; Remaining General Education requirements and enough free electives to accumulate 120 academic hours, 49 ; Total Hours, 120 ...
[52]
Medical Physics Graduate Degree Requirements
In terms of duration, the MS takes 2 years while the PhD typically takes 5 years. ... Medical Physics Educational Programs (CAMPEP). Medical Physics students at ...
[53]
Medical Physics Graduate Degrees and Certificate
Aug 20, 2025 · How long does the program take to complete? For full time students, the typical completion time for an MS degree is 2 years, a PhD is 4-6 years, ...
[54]
[PDF] C A M P E P Standards for Accreditation of Graduate Educational ...
This document focuses on the essential educational and experience requirements needed to engage in medical physics research and development, and to enter a ...
[55]
Curriculum Overview - Graduate Program in Medical Physics
The principal goal of the program is to produce graduates that are competitive candidates for CAMPEP-Accredited Residencies in Medical Physics. ... Monte Carlo ...Missing: simulations | Show results with:simulations
[56]
[PDF] Standards for Accreditation of Residency Educational Programs in ...
This document focuses on the essential educational and experience requirements needed to engage in medical physics research and development, and to enter a ...
[57]
Medical Physics Residency Program - Radiation Oncology
Residents will participate in a structured rotation schedule under the supervision of our team of board-certified medical physicists.
[58]
CAMPEP Accredited Graduate Programs in Medical Physics
2025. SUNY Stony Brook University, 2010. The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UT Health Houston Graduate School of Biomedical ...SUNY Stony Brook University · University at Buffalo (SUNY) · University of Calgary
[59]
CAMPEP Accredited Residency Programs in Medical Physics
Nov 3, 2025 · Advanced Medical Physics, Inc. (Initial Accreditation: 2025) 7015 AC Skinner Pkway Suite 100. Jacksonville FL 32256. Program Director: Vasanthan ...
[60]
CAMPEP Accredited Certificate Programs in Medical Physics
Aug 26, 2025 · CAMPEP Accredited Certificate Programs in Medical Physics ; Harvard University, 2016 ; Johns Hopkins University, 2025 ; Louisiana State University ...
[61]
None
### Summary of 2025 MedPhys Match Statistics
[62]
Initial Certification for Medical Physics - ABR
... American Board of Radiology. Recognition of Successful Candidates. Successful ABR candidates are awarded a continuous ABR specialty certificate in medical ...Part 2 ExamRequirements and ApplicationPart 1 ExamPart 3 (Oral) ExamTime Limits and Board Eligibility
[63]
Part 1 Exam - ABR
The first exam candidates will take is the Part 1 computer-based exam, which consists of a general exam section and a clinical exam section.Content Guide · Requirements and Application · Exam Scoring Progress
[64]
Continuing Certification for Medical Physics - ABR
Diplomates who hold LIFETIME certificates may voluntarily enroll in the program to begin the Continuing Certification (MOC) process. Enrollment can be completed ...
[65]
Certification - CCPM
Internationally trained medical physicists who meet the CAMPEP requirements of the Regulations may be eligible to apply directly to the MCCPM process.
[66]
Certification - Canadian Organization of Medical Physicists
CCPM certification is becoming widely accepted in Canada and other countries and is often required at senior levels in medical physics.
[67]
Clinical scientists | The HCPC
Sep 1, 2023 · At the point of registration, clinical scientists must be able to: · 1. practise safely and effectively within their scope of practice · 2.Clinical Scientists · The Standards Of Proficiency... · At The Point Of Registration...
[68]
What is Route 2 - IPEM
Route 2 is an alternative route to Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) Registration as a Clinical Scientist and open to those that have not followed ...
[69]
Guidelines for the Certification of Clinically Qualified Medical ...
Guidelines for the Certification of Clinically Qualified Medical Physicists. IAEA-TCS-71. 44 pages ¦ 3 figures ¦ Date published: 2021.Missing: countries | Show results with:countries
[70]
Medical physics workforce in the United States - PubMed Central - NIH
Jan 27, 2023 · The primary mechanism for certification of clinical medical physicists in the United States is through the ABR, which, following completion ...
[71]
Appendix 5 — Medical Physics - American College of Radiology
Hence, ABR certification helps recognize medical physicists as qualified for clinical service. The ABR physics certification is issued to candidates who ...
[72]
The role of clinical medical physicists in the future: Quality, safety ...
May 17, 2019 · For complicated cases, physicists evaluate the IGRT images and make recommendations to the physician colleagues. This requires their technical ...
[73]
AAPM Medical Physics Practice Guideline 8.b: Linear accelerator ...
Oct 4, 2023 · The performance tests on a linear accelerator (linac) should be selected to fit the clinical patterns of use of the accelerator and care should ...
[74]
[PDF] IGRT White Paper (September 2022) - Resource Database
Medical physicists are best positioned to understand and quantify the chain of uncertainty from patient immobilization and simulation image acquisition to ...
[75]
AAPM's TG-51 protocol for clinical reference dosimetry of high ...
This protocol represents a major simplification compared to the AAPM's TG-21 protocol in the sense that large tables of stopping-power ratios and mass-energy ...
[76]
Errors detected during physics plan review for external beam ...
The aim of our study was to detect and investigate errors occurring in physics plan review in external beam radiotherapy treatment plans.
[77]
Reducing data-transfer error in radiation therapy - ecancer
Jul 14, 2021 · It explains how data is transferred among various systems used in radiation therapy, and it suggests ways that medical physicists can test the ...
[78]
[PDF] Development Procedure for In Vivo Dosimetry in Radiotherapy
In vivo dosimetry is a direct method of measuring radiation doses to cancer patients receiving radiation treatment. the purpose of in vivo dosimetry is to ...<|separator|>
[79]
Impact through versatility: Patterns of in vivo dosimetry utilization ...
The in vivo dosimetry programme using thermoluminescence (TLD) chips was able to detect three significant treatment errors, amongst some 13 000 patients ...
[80]
Advances in radiotherapy technology for pediatric cancer patients ...
This article describes recent advances in photon and proton therapy technologies, image-guided patient positioning, motion management, and adaptive therapy
[81]
Interobserver Variability in Radiotherapy Plan Output: Results of a ...
There are two main sources of variability in external beam radiotherapy (EBRT): delineation of targets and organs-at-risk (OARs) and in the planning process.
[82]
[PDF] 6021 Title: Panel: HIPAA Compliance and the Medical Physicist
Medical Physicist's need to send problematic data to a vendor to obtain timely resolution of a software anomaly. The bulk of our attention in this session ...Missing: handling | Show results with:handling
[83]
Radiation Dose Reduction by Using CT with Iterative Model ...
Apr 10, 2018 · CT with IMR had approximately 60% dose reduction compared with conventional low-dose CT, with reduced noise and improved depiction of abnormal findings.
[84]
Iterative Reconstruction Technique for Reducing Body Radiation ...
This technique is used to solve one of the primary problems of dose reduction for CT with FBP: increased noise with decreased radiation dose. The purpose of ...
[85]
Varian Completes Enrollment and Treatment in FAST-02 Clinical ...
Aug 25, 2025 · Flash therapy delivers treatment at ultra-high dose rates in typically less than one second – over 100 times faster than conventional radiation ...
[86]
NCT04592887 | Feasibility Study of FLASH Radiotherapy for the ...
This clinical investigation is designed to assess the workflow feasibility of FLASH radiotherapy treatment in a clinical setting, as well as the toxicities, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[87]
Overview - Geant4 - CERN
Geant4 is a toolkit to create simulations of the passage of particles or radiation through matter. Applications built on Geant4 can simulate any setup or ...
[88]
Report on G4–Med, a Geant4 benchmarking system for medical ...
Geant4 is a Monte Carlo code extensively used in medical physics for a wide range of applications, such as dosimetry, micro- and nano- dosimetry, imaging, ...
[89]
Funding Opportunities | National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and ...
NIBIB funds research in a variety of scientific areas in biomedical imaging, bioengineering, and informatics, and training for researchers throughout the career ...Missing: physics | Show results with:physics
[90]
Physics and Biology in Medicine Research Training - NIH RePORTER
Project Narrative: This training grant aims to continue to develop research scientists that are well versed in physics, biology, mathematics, chemistry, ...
[91]
Theranostic Radiopharmaceuticals: A Universal Challenging ...
May 4, 2023 · The concept of theranostics refers to the integration of therapeutics and diagnostics in a single management approach allowing image-guided therapy.
[92]
Guiding principles on the education and practice of theranostics
Mar 8, 2024 · ... medical physicists, and nuclear medicine technologists all contribute their expertise. A foundational understanding of nuclear medicine ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[93]
https://jnm.snmjournals.org/content/64/6/986
[94]
Evaluation of AI‐based auto‐contouring tools in radiotherapy: A ...
Jan 21, 2025 · This report details a single institution's experience in evaluating two commercial auto-contouring software tools and making well-informed ...Missing: patents | Show results with:patents
[95]
The report of Task Group 100 of the AAPM
The report applies risk analysis to radiation therapy quality management, using a framework based on failure probability and clinical impact, using IMRT as a ...
[96]
The report of Task Group 100 of the AAPM: Application of risk ...
The report applies risk analysis to radiation therapy quality management, using a framework based on failure probability and clinical impact, using IMRT as a ...
[97]
Guidance document on delivery, treatment planning, and clinical ...
Jul 24, 2003 · ... Optimization of importance factors in inverse planning,” Phys. ... Inverse planning algorithms for external beam radiation therapy,” Med.
[98]
Dose Calculation Algorithms for External Radiation Therapy - MDPI
Jul 24, 2021 · The aim of this work is to provide an overall picture of the main dose calculation algorithms currently used in RT, summarizing their underlying physical ...
[99]
[PDF] The Convolution/Superposition Method: A Model-Based Dose ...
Convolution/superposition dose calculation is acceptable, pencil beam dose calculation may not always be. Page 57. MU Calculations For Model. Based Systems. MU ...
[100]
Task Group 142 report: Quality assurance of medical acceleratorsa
Aug 17, 2009 · There are specific recommendations for MLC quality assurance for machines performing IMRT. The report also gives recommendations as to action ...
[101]
Monitor Unit Hand Calculations | Oncology Medical Physics
Rx is the prescription dose at the depth of interest (cGy). K is the calibration output factor in units of cGy/MU. Usually 1cGy/MU at dmax in 10cm x 10cm field ...
[102]
Report of the AAPM TG‐256 on the relative biological effectiveness ...
Jan 19, 2019 · The biological effectiveness of proton beams relative to photon beams in radiation therapy has been taken to be 1.1 throughout the history ...
[103]
AAPM‐RSS Medical Physics Practice Guideline 9.a. for SRS‐SBRT
Aug 8, 2017 · The purpose of this Medical Physics Practice Guideline (MPPG) is to describe the minimum level of medical physics support deemed prudent for the practice of ...
[104]
Verification of setup errors in external beam radiation therapy using ...
The results revealed that the ranges of setup errors are site specific and immobilization methods improve reproducibility. The observed variations were well ...
[105]
MR-LINAC Provides Greater Precision With Adaptive Radiation ...
May 17, 2025 · MR-LINAC (magnetic resonance-guided linear accelerator) is a new technology that provides greater precision of radiation treatment via adaptive treatment ...
[106]
Nuclear Medicine Instrumentation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Nov 14, 2023 · Image reconstruction: In SPECT imaging, one of the standard techniques for image reconstruction is filtered back projection (FBP).[46][47] ...
[107]
X-ray Imaging - Medical Imaging Systems - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
7.5. Radiography describes the process of creating two dimensional projection images by exposing an anatomy of interest to X-rays and measuring the attenuation ...
[108]
The AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial for residents. X-ray interactions.
There are four major x-ray interactions: Rayleigh (coherent) scattering. Compton scattering, photoelectric absorption, and pair production.Missing: projection | Show results with:projection
[109]
Beer-Lambert law | Radiology Reference Article - Radiopaedia.org
Mar 25, 2025 · The Beer-Lambert law, also known as Beer's law, describes the relationship between the attenuation of light or other electromagnetic radiation and the material ...
[110]
Ultrasound Physics and Instrumentation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Mar 27, 2023 · A sound source produces longitudinal wave oscillations, allowing the propagation of energy and critical waveforms for a clinical ultrasound. ...
[111]
Physics of Ultrasound | Radiology Key
Apr 2, 2017 · Ultrasound images are created by reflected sound waves returning back to the transducer. The nature of the image is based on the properties of different ...Sound Waves · Frequency · Attenuation<|separator|>
[112]
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Physics - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
T1 Time is the time taken for 63% of the longitudinal magnetization to be restored. Different molecules in our body have different T1 relaxation times, which ...
[113]
Relaxation rate, T1, T2 - Questions and Answers in MRI
The values specified for T1 and T2 are relaxation times and typically measured in milliseconds (ms). The corresponding relaxation rates are therefore measured ...
[114]
Analytic and Iterative Reconstruction Algorithms in SPECT
Oct 1, 2002 · A general overview of analytic and iterative methods of reconstruction in SPECT is presented with a special focus on filter backprojection (FBP) ...
[115]
Filtering in SPECT Image Reconstruction - PMC - NIH
To eliminate this problem the projections are filtered before being back projected onto the image matrix. It has to be noticed that the backprojection process ...
[116]
Dosimetry of [177Lu]Lu-PSMA–Targeted Radiopharmaceutical ...
Jul 3, 2024 · This was a systematic review and metaanalysis of [ 177 Lu]Lu-PSMA RPT (617, I&T, and J591) dosimetry in patients with prostate cancer.
[117]
[PDF] Acceptance Testing and Quality Control of Digital Radiographic ...
Specific phantoms can be used to measure the spatial resolution of the image receptor in quantitative ... • CDRH Luc-Al Abdomen Phantom [7] [25] with Image ...
[118]
CT Dose Optimization for Whole-Body PET/CT Examinations | AJR
The objective of this study was to optimize CT protocols for whole-body PET/CT by reducing radiation dose while minimizing effects on image quality.
[119]
Photon-counting detector CT: a disrupting innovation in medical ...
Mar 25, 2025 · Photon-counting detector CT (PCD-CT) represents a milestone with the potential to substantially change clinical CT imaging and expand its indications.
[120]
[PDF] Medical Physics Core Competency Profile
COMP has developed the following Core Competency Profile to identify the core skill set collectively possessed by Medical Physicists working in Canada. While ...
[121]
ABR: Medical Physics - The American Board of Radiology
Medical Physics is a very important part of the American Board of Radiology. Read this page to find more information about Medical Physics.
[122]
AAPM MEDICAL PHYSICS PRACTICE GUIDELINE 10.b: Scope of ...
Oct 24, 2025 · The AAPM will periodically define new practice guidelines for medical physics practice to help advance the science of medical physics and to ...
[123]
[PDF] Scope of Practice for Canadian Certified Medical Physicists
Jul 1, 2015 · I. INTRODUCTION. Medical physicists are health care professionals with specialized training in the medical applications of physics.
[124]
COMP report: CPQR technical quality control guidelines for CT ...
Nov 16, 2017 · These guidelines outline the performance objectives that equipment should meet in order to ensure an acceptable level of radiation treatment ...
[125]
(PDF) The Medical Physics Workforce - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · The medical physics workforce comprises approximately 24,000 workers worldwide and approximately 8,200 in the United States.
[126]
Grant Opportunities | Nuclear Regulatory Commission
... Health Physics, and Radiochemistry. The grants specifically target probationary, tenure-track faculty in these academic areas during the first 6 years of ...Nuclear Education Program · Scholarship and Fellowship · Faculty Development
[127]
[PDF] What Every Medical Physicist Should Know About the JCAHO ...
Expected Answer: The department is accredited under the ACR's Practice Accreditation Program in the appropriate field; A site review was conducted by the. RTOG; ...
[128]
Medical Physicist Workforce - Summer 2024 ASTROnews
Examining the reasons for lower supply of Qualified Medical Physicists and advice on hiring and retention.
[129]
A Geographic Comparison of the Medical Physics Job Market and ...
The medical physics job market is facing a crisis, with significant challenges in recruiting physicists, particularly in non-academic and rural settings.Missing: vacancy rates
[130]
Radiation-Emitting Products - FDA
Information and news on device recalls, other safety issues, approvals, and other device and radiation-emitting product topics. FDA Archive · About FDA ...Frequently Asked Questions · Feedback form · Radiological Health Program
[131]
Kettering Health says radiation oncology is back online after ...
May 27, 2025 · Kettering Health says radiation oncology is back online after ransomware attack · WHY IT MATTERS · THE LARGER TREND · ON THE RECORD.
[132]
Cyberattacks: Protecting your Network and Patient Data - ASTRO Blog
Apr 26, 2023 · In 2021, a ransomware cyberattack in New Zealand resulted in the shutdown of radiation therapy services for almost three weeks. In February 2023 ...
[133]
About - Canadian Organization of Medical Physicists
The Canadian Organization of Medical Physicists (COMP) is the main professional body for medical physicists practicing in Canada.
[134]
European Federation of Organisations for Medical Physics - EFOMP
The mission of EFOMP is: to harmonize and advance medical physics both in its professional clinical and scientific expression throughout Europe,; to strengthen ...
[135]
Become a board certified medical physicist (MPE)
In order to work in Germany as a medical physics expert (MPE) in these clinical areas, you need, according to the German guideline Richtlinie Strahlenschutz in ...
[136]
Training Prospects offers in Bhabha Atomic Research Centre ( BARC )
Training cum Certification Courses on Radiation Safety; Radiation Medicine; Medical Radioisotope Techniques; Health Physics; Radiological Physics; Radiation ...
[137]
[PDF] Medical Physics and the Challenges Faced in Africa - INIS-IAEA
Little or no support is given to training medical physicists by individual governments. Access to such training information is very difficult.
[138]
Australasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine
ACPSEM; Australasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine; medical physics ... ACPSEM DIMP Workforce Model · ACPSEM ROMP Workforce Model.Scope of Practice for Medical... · ACPSEM - Job Board · The ACPSEM Register · NZ
[139]
[PDF] Supporting the professional development of medical physicists in ...
The Latin America region has a significant deficit in human resources, both quantitative and qualitative, in the field of clinical medical physics. Medical ...Missing: certification rates
[140]
Virtual Mentoring for Medical Physicists: Results of a Global Online ...
Dec 18, 2024 · Abstract. Purpose: Medical physics professional development is limited in parts of the globe and can be aided by virtual mentoring.Missing: tele- | Show results with:tele-
[141]
EFOMP: the European roof for medical physics - PMC - NIH
Due to the EFOMP statutes, the mission of the Federation is, first of all, to harmonise and advance Medical Physics at an utmost level in its professional, ...Missing: harmonization | Show results with:harmonization
[142]
[PDF] IOMP Policy Statement No
The training should be carried out under the direct supervision of a Certified Medical Physicist (CMP) specialized in the same sub-field or a qualified ...Missing: standardizing | Show results with:standardizing