Moggaliputta-Tissa
Moggaliputta-Tissa (c. 318–242 BCE) was a prominent Buddhist monk and scholar in ancient India, best known for presiding over the Third Buddhist Council at Pāṭaliputta (modern Patna) around 250 BCE under the patronage of Emperor Aśoka.[1] According to traditional accounts, as a leading exponent of Theravāda doctrine, he played a crucial role in purifying the Saṅgha by expelling corrupt and heretical monks, thereby restoring doctrinal orthodoxy amid growing sectarian disputes.[2] He is traditionally attributed with compiling the Kathāvatthu ("Points of Controversy"), a key text in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka that systematically refutes the views of eighteen rival Buddhist schools through dialectical arguments, solidifying Theravāda's philosophical positions on topics like the nature of personhood and dharmas.[1] According to traditional sources, born to a Brahmin family named Moggali in Pāṭaliputta, Tissa was ordained at age sixteen by the elder Siggava around 302 BCE, quickly mastering the Vinaya and the entire Tipiṭaka under teachers like Siggava and Caṇḍavajjī.[3] By his sixties, he had withdrawn to a forest hermitage, earning recognition as the chief authority on Vinaya, and emerged at Aśoka's request to lead the council, which lasted nine months and involved one thousand learned monks in debating and compiling authentic teachings.[4] During this period, at around age 68, he narrated the foundational matrices (mātikās) of the Kathāvatthu, drawing on five hundred suttas from both Theravāda and opposing sects to establish the Abhidhamma's independence as the third "basket" of the canon.[5] The council's outcomes included the expulsion of approximately sixty thousand heretical bhikkhus and the dispatch of missionary delegations to regions like Sri Lanka, the Hellenistic world, and Kashmir to propagate purified Buddhism.[4] Moggaliputta-Tissa also served as the preceptor (upajjhāya) for Aśoka's son Mahinda (also known as Mahendra), ordaining him into the Saṅgha and instructing him in advanced doctrines, which enabled Mahinda's subsequent mission to establish Theravāda Buddhism in Sri Lanka around 250–240 BCE.[6] His efforts during the council not only addressed immediate corruptions—such as monks joining for material gain under royal support—but also contributed to the long-term consolidation of Theravāda as a distinct school, influencing its spread across South and Southeast Asia. He attained parinirvāṇa at age seventy-six in Aśoka's twenty-sixth regnal year, leaving a legacy as a defender of early Buddhist orthodoxy against emerging schisms.[1]Early Life
Birth and Family Background
Moggaliputta-Tissa was born c. 320 BCE in Pāṭaliputta, the capital of the Mauryan Empire located in the kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Patna, Bihar, India).[7][8] His birth took place during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321–297 BCE), the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, which marked the beginning of a vast empire that unified much of the Indian subcontinent.[8] He was the son of a Brahmin named Moggali (or Mogalli), a member of the priestly class in ancient Indian society.[9][7] No siblings or other extended family members are recorded in the historical sources.[7] Pāṭaliputta at this time was a thriving hub of administration, trade, and intellectual activity, serving as the political nerve center of the expanding Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta's rule.[8] As the son of a Brahmin, Moggaliputta-Tissa received an early education steeped in Vedic traditions, mastering mantras and the Vedas by the age of 16.[7]Conversion to Buddhism
According to Theravāda chronicles, his birth was prophesied during the Second Buddhist Council at Vesālī, where arahants envisioned a future protector of the Dhamma reborn as the son of a Brahmin named Moggali; this legendary element underscores the divine intervention believed to guide his path toward Buddhism.[10] From the moment of his birth, the elder Siggava, tasked by fellow monks with his eventual conversion, visited the family home daily for seven years, though he was met with indifference and lack of welcome. In the eighth year, a servant's misunderstanding led the family to offer Siggava hospitality, during which the youth Tissa, then at the age of sixteen and already versed in Brahminical debates, confronted the monk. Siggava posed a probing question from the Cittayamaka, a doctrinal exposition on the analysis of consciousness central to early Abhidhamma thought, challenging Tissa's understanding and highlighting the subtlety of Buddhist philosophy. Impressed by the depth of these arguments, which surpassed his Vedic knowledge, Tissa recognized the superiority of Buddhist teachings and expressed his desire to embrace them.[10] This doctrinal encounter, facilitated by Siggava and his companion Candavajja, marked the pivotal shift from Brahminism, as Tissa sought and obtained his parents' consent for renunciation, initiating his commitment to the Buddhist path. His early exposure to Abhidhamma concepts like those in the Cittayamaka ignited a lifelong interest in systematic doctrinal analysis, setting the stage for his profound engagement with the tradition. Traditional accounts place this conversion at age sixteen, emphasizing a transformative moment driven by intellectual conviction rather than coercion.[10]Monastic Career
Ordination and Spiritual Attainments
Moggaliputta-Tissa received his pabbajjā ordination at the age of sixteen from the elder Siggava, shortly after his conversion to Buddhism, and subsequently obtained upasampadā ordination from Siggava, according to traditional Theravāda chronicles, in the second year of King Candagutta's reign.[11] He quickly attained the path of sotāpanna, the stream-enterer stage of enlightenment, marking his initial spiritual breakthrough.[10] Under Siggava's guidance, he mastered the Vinaya Piṭaka, while Candavajji instructed him in the Sutta and Abhidhamma Piṭakas, leading to comprehensive proficiency in the Tipiṭaka through rigorous study and meditation.[10] In due course, he achieved arahantship, the full enlightenment of an arhat, by eradicating the substrata of rebirth and realizing ultimate emancipation.[11][10] As a newly ordained monk, Moggaliputta-Tissa assumed leadership roles among the sangha in Pāṭaliputta's viharas, where he taught doctrine and engaged in debates, rapidly establishing himself as a preeminent scholar.[10] Theravāda chronicles portray him as endowed with profound wisdom and supernormal powers, including the six abhijñās (supernatural faculties) such as clairvoyance and the ability to cause seismic phenomena, alongside the four paṭisambhidās (analytical knowledges) that underscored his doctrinal mastery.[11][10]Period of Solitary Retreat
Following his attainment of arahantship, Moggaliputta-Tissa withdrew from the monastic community in Pataliputra amid growing concerns over doctrinal corruption within the Sangha, as heretical views proliferated under royal patronage.[12] Perceiving this as a threat to the purity of the Buddha's teachings, he committed his disciples to the care of his pupil Mahinda and retreated to a solitary location on the Ahogaṅgā mountain upstream along the Ganges from Pataliputra.[13][4] This self-imposed isolation lasted seven years, beginning during the early years of Emperor Ashoka's reign around 268 BCE.[13] The primary purpose of the retreat was personal reflection and focused study of the scriptures to preserve doctrinal integrity, allowing Moggaliputta-Tissa to contemplate strategies for addressing the schismatics and heretics infiltrating the order.[13] During this period, he engaged in deep meditation and the memorization of the Buddhist canon, while preliminarily outlining refutations of erroneous views to safeguard the Vibhajjavāda tradition.[4] Living alone in this remote, forested mountainous area, he avoided all external engagements, dedicating himself entirely to spiritual discipline and intellectual preparation amid the Sangha's distress.[13] Moggaliputta-Tissa emerged from his seven-year seclusion around 261 BCE, prompted by repeated invitations from Ashoka, who sought his guidance following the emperor's remorse after the Kalinga War and his deepening commitment to Buddhism.[13][12] Transported by royal ship down the Ganges to Pataliputra, he was received with great reverence, signaling his readiness to resume public roles in purifying the Sangha.[4] This return marked a pivotal transition from private contemplation to active intervention in Buddhist affairs.[13]Association with Ashoka
Role as Royal Advisor
After his coronation, Emperor Ashoka initially ruled harshly but embraced Buddhism around his fourth regnal year through encounters with monks like Nigrodha. In the sixth year of his reign (c. 262 BCE), when Mahinda was twenty and Sanghamitta eighteen, both were ordained into the Saṅgha with Moggaliputta-Tissa serving as preceptor, particularly for Mahinda, who soon attained arahantship; Sanghamitta became a prominent nun.[14] This act, under the elder's guidance, integrated Ashoka's family into the monastic order and deepened his personal piety as a lay follower (upāsaka), as he chose not to pursue full ordination himself. The Kalinga conquest in his eighth regnal year (c. 260 BCE), resulting in over 100,000 deaths and widespread suffering, intensified Ashoka's remorse and commitment to the Dhamma, transforming his rule from one of conquest to ethical governance. His ongoing association with Moggaliputta-Tissa, who had withdrawn to solitary retreat but provided counsel, solidified the emperor's devotion; the elder expounded on the Dhamma and its traditional 84,000 sections, positioning Ashoka as his devoted lay disciple.[14] Moggaliputta-Tissa later resided in a vihāra built within the palace precincts, where Ashoka visited daily for teachings on ethical conduct and Buddhist principles, often discussing how to align governance with the Dhamma. These interactions fostered a routine of devotion, with the emperor offering support and seeking advice on moral challenges in ruling.[14] Through this mentorship, Ashoka evolved from Candāśoka ("Fierce Aśoka") to Dhammāśoka ("Pious Aśoka"), emphasizing non-violence and compassion in state affairs.Guidance on Buddhist Policies
Moggaliputta-Tissa provided crucial guidance to Emperor Ashoka on purifying the Buddhist Saṅgha, advising the expulsion of corrupt and heretical monks—traditionally numbered at 60,000 in Theravāda accounts like the Mahavamsa, though modern scholars view this figure as likely exaggerated—who had joined the order for material gains under royal patronage. This addressed disruptions, including the halt of uposatha ceremonies for seven years in some regions, restoring unity through disciplinary acts like pabbājaniya kamma, which required disrobing and adopting lay attire.[15] His recommendations, rooted in Vinaya traditions, involved cross-examining monks to identify true adherents while maintaining the king's appropriate distance, such as via a separating screen.[16] To counter emerging schisms, Moggaliputta-Tissa recommended convening the Third Buddhist Council at Pāṭaliputta around the 17th regnal year (c. 250 BCE), where he would oversee proceedings to affirm Vibhajjavāda (Theravāda) doctrine and compile authentic teachings against rival views. This advisory role focused the council on doctrinal purity, excluding non-Buddhist ascetics and resolving factional issues to protect the orthodox lineage.[15] His preparatory guidance supported Ashoka's patronage of standardized monastic practices.[16] Moggaliputta-Tissa influenced Ashoka's dhamma policy, an ethical system blending Buddhist ideals of non-violence, compassion, tolerance, and moral conduct into administration, disseminated via edicts rather than forced conversion starting around the 10th regnal year. He advised appointing Dharma-Mahāmatras in the 13th year to promote these values among diverse communities, enhancing social harmony while honoring other traditions.[15] This inclusive approach, inspired by the post-Kalinga pursuit of dharmavijaya (righteous conquest), embodied Buddhist ethics in governance.[16] For monastic support, Moggaliputta-Tissa counseled Ashoka on erecting numerous vihāras—traditionally 84,000 completed over three years (c. 263–261 BCE)—and distributing Buddha relics to stūpas at sites like Pāṭaliputta, bolstering the Saṅgha's infrastructure and pilgrimage. Funded royally, these projects aligned material patronage with doctrinal preservation.[15] His advice ensured sustainable growth of orthodox Buddhism.[16]The Third Buddhist Council
Organization and Key Proceedings
The Third Buddhist Council was convened around 250 BCE at the Asokarama vihara in Pataliputra, under the sponsorship of Emperor Ashoka, and lasted for nine months.[9][17] This assembly followed a period of pre-council purification efforts to address corruption within the Sangha. The council's primary aim was to restore doctrinal purity by excluding heretical sects and affirming orthodox teachings.[9] The participants consisted of 1,000 selected arahants proficient in the Tipitaka, chosen for their spiritual attainments and knowledge, with Moggaliputta-Tissa serving as president and leading the deliberations.[9][17] Heretical monks, numbering around 60,000 and representing various schismatic groups, were systematically excluded through interrogation and expulsion to ensure the assembly's orthodoxy.[9] Key proceedings involved rigorous debates on controversial doctrinal points arising from earlier schisms, such as the Five Points of Mahādeva and the Ten Points of the Vajjiputtakas, where participants employed scriptural analysis to refute erroneous views—including those on the existence of an eternal soul (pudgala)—and uphold the Vibhajjavāda interpretation of the Buddha's teachings.[17] These interrogations focused on clarifying core concepts in ethics, psychology, and cosmology, culminating in a unified recitation of the Dhamma. Emperor Ashoka participated as a lay questioner at the opening session, posing doctrinal queries prepared under Moggaliputta-Tissa's guidance to symbolize royal endorsement and test the monks' fidelity to the tradition.[9][17]Outcomes and Missionary Expeditions
The Third Buddhist Council, presided over by Moggaliputta-Tissa, culminated in the reaffirmation of the Vibhajjavāda doctrine as the orthodox interpretation of the Buddha's teachings, effectively endorsing a Theravāda-like framework by resolving doctrinal disputes and expelling heretical views such as eternalism.[18] During the nine-month assembly, the council recited and standardized the Tipiṭaka, ensuring a unified canon that served as the foundational text for subsequent Theravāda transmissions.[19] This doctrinal consolidation not only purified the Saṅgha by disrobing approximately 60,000 monks holding divergent opinions but also laid the groundwork for the religion's doctrinal stability.[18] Following the council's conclusion, Moggaliputta-Tissa personally selected nine missions from among his most accomplished disciples—monks proficient in the Three Baskets and endowed with analytical knowledge—to propagate the purified teachings across diverse regions.[19] He instructed these leaders in the nuances of the Vibhajjavāda, emphasizing its analytical approach to refute heresies, thereby ensuring the missions' fidelity to the council's outcomes.[18] Among them, Moggaliputta-Tissa took special care in training his pupil Mahinda, equipping him with comprehensive scriptural knowledge for the mission to Sri Lanka.[19] The nine expeditions marked a pivotal expansion of Buddhism, dispatching emissaries to both Indian sub-regions and foreign territories under royal patronage:- Majjhantika to Kashmir-Gandhāra, targeting northern frontier areas.[18]
- Mahādeva to Mahiśamandaḷa (modern Mysore region).[19]
- Rakkhita to Vanavāsī (North Kanara).[18]
- Yona-Dhammarakkhita to Aparantaka (western India).[19]
- Dhammarakkhita to Mahāraṭṭha (Maharashtra).[18]
- Mahārakkhita to Yonaloka (Greek-influenced regions).[19]
- Majjhima to Himavanta (Himalayan regions).[18]
- Soṇa and Uttara to Suvaṇṇabhūmi (Southeast Asia, including parts of modern Burma and Thailand).[19]
- Mahinda, accompanied by four colleagues (Itthiya, Uttiya, Sambala, and Bhaddasāla), to Sri Lanka (Laṅkā).[18]