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Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment

The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was a pioneering experimental nuclear reactor that operated at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Tennessee, United States, from June 1965 to December 1969, demonstrating the feasibility of using molten fluoride salts as both fuel carrier and coolant in a thermal-spectrum reactor design.^[1] Designed with a thermal power output of 7.4 megawatts (MWth), the MSRE featured a core of graphite moderator surrounded by a Hastelloy-N vessel containing a circulating liquid fuel mixture of uranium tetrafluoride (UF₄), zirconium tetrafluoride (ZrF₄), beryllium fluoride (BeF₂), and lithium fluoride (LiF) initially, later transitioning to a mixture with thorium tetrafluoride (ThF₄) replacing ZrF₄ for thorium cycle tests, operating at temperatures between 1075°F and 1225°F.^[2] Its primary objectives were to validate the chemical and materials stability of molten-salt systems, test fuel processing techniques, and explore the thorium-uranium fuel cycle as an alternative to traditional solid-fuel reactors.^[3] The MSRE's development stemmed from earlier ORNL research in the 1950s, initially tied to the Aircraft Reactor Experiment for potential nuclear-powered aviation, before shifting focus to civilian power generation under the guidance of physicist Alvin Weinberg.^[1] Construction began in January 1962 following a 1959 proposal, and the reactor achieved criticality in June 1965 using uranium-235 (U-235) fuel, later transitioning to uranium-233 (U-233) in October 1968—the first operational reactor to do so—enabling tests of the thorium breeding cycle.^[4] Over its operational life, the MSRE logged more than 13,000 hours at full power, including a notable 30-day continuous run in 1966, while successfully processing and removing over 200 kilograms of uranium via fluorination in just days, all without significant corrosion to its structural materials or instability in the salt chemistry.^[1] Despite its successes, which included proving the inherent safety features of liquid-fuel reactors—such as passive shutdown via fuel drainage and low-pressure operation—the MSRE program faced challenges like minor material cracking from fission products and tritium permeation, though these were largely mitigated.^[5] The experiment's termination in 1969, followed by the broader Molten-Salt Reactor Program's end in 1976, resulted from shifting U.S. nuclear priorities toward liquid-metal fast breeder reactors amid funding constraints, yet its legacy endures as a foundational proof-of-concept for advanced reactor technologies, influencing contemporary international efforts in molten-salt designs for cleaner energy.^[6]

Background and Development

Historical Context

The concept of molten salt reactors originated in the late 1940s as part of efforts to develop nuclear-powered aircraft, with initial proposals by Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) engineers Ed Bettis and Ray Briant for using molten fluoride salts as both fuel solvent and coolant in compact, high-temperature systems.^[1] This idea gained traction through the U.S. Air Force's Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion (ANP) program, which sought propulsion for long-range bombers during the Cold War. A key milestone was the Aircraft Reactor Experiment (ARE), a 2.5 MWth graphite-moderated reactor operated at ORNL in 1954, which demonstrated the feasibility of circulating molten salt fuels at temperatures up to 1620°F and tested graphite compatibility, though it highlighted challenges like material corrosion.^[1]^[7] The subsequent Aircraft Reactor Test (1954–1957) further refined salt handling and neutron economy, laying foundational technologies for future designs despite the ANP program's eventual cancellation in 1961 due to technical and safety concerns.^[7] At ORNL, director Alvin Weinberg played a pivotal role in advancing molten salt technology toward civilian applications, particularly emphasizing the thorium-based fuel cycle for its potential in breeding uranium-233 from abundant thorium reserves, offering an alternative to uranium-plutonium cycles amid growing concerns over nuclear proliferation and resource scarcity.^[8] Under Weinberg's leadership, ORNL shifted focus from military propulsion in the mid-1950s, leveraging ANP experience to explore liquid-fuel reactors for central-station power generation, as detailed in early studies like ORNL-CF-57-4-27.^[7] This research highlighted the advantages of molten salts for high-temperature operation, online reprocessing, and reduced waste compared to solid-fuel reactors.^[1] In 1957, following the decline of ANP funding, ORNL and the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) decided to pursue the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) as a prototype to validate technologies for the broader Molten-Salt Breeder Reactor (MSBR) program, aiming to demonstrate a viable thorium-uranium breeder for commercial electricity production.^[8]^[7] The AEC approved initial funding of $2 million annually for the MSRE, marking the program's formal initiation that year.^[1] Design phases progressed through 1960, incorporating lessons from prior experiments, including the development of corrosion-resistant Hastelloy-N alloy for salt containment.^[1] The 1959 Fluid Fuels Reactor Task Force report (TID-8505) further endorsed the approach, solidifying MSRE's role in transitioning molten salt concepts from experimental propulsion to scalable power reactors.^[1]

Design Objectives and Construction

The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of using molten fluoride salts as both fuel carrier and coolant in a nuclear reactor, enabling a liquid fuel system that could be continuously processed without shutdown for refueling or waste removal.^[9] Primary objectives included validating the thorium-uranium breeding cycle through operation with uranium-233 and uranium-235 fuels, while assessing long-term compatibility of the salt with graphite moderators and structural materials like Hastelloy-N (INOR-8).^[9] The experiment also aimed to confirm high-temperature performance up to 650°C (1200°F), with design limits reaching 700°C (1300°F), to evaluate thermal efficiency and material integrity under irradiation and corrosion conditions.^[9] These goals built on earlier precursors like the Aircraft Reactor Experiment, providing a scaled-up platform for practical engineering validation.^[10] Construction of the MSRE began in July 1961 at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Tennessee, with major modifications to the existing Building 7503 completed by the end of 1962.^[9] The site was selected for its proximity to ORNL's expertise in molten salt technology and the isolated location near a secluded bend of the Clinch River, which enhanced safety through natural separation from populated areas and facilitated secure handling of radioactive materials.^[9] Delays arose from graphite moderator fabrication challenges, pushing major equipment installation into early 1964, but the project achieved substantial completion by summer 1964, with prenuclear testing readiness in August of that year.^[10] Key engineering milestones encompassed the assembly of the core vessel—a 5-foot-diameter, 8-foot-high cylinder rated for 10 MW thermal power—fabricated from Hastelloy-N to withstand the corrosive salt environment.^[9] Integration of the fuel and coolant salt circulation systems followed, including electromagnetic pumps capable of 1200 gallons per minute for fuel salt and 850 gallons per minute for coolant salt, along with a primary heat exchanger providing 254 square feet of transfer surface to manage 10 MW heat loads.^[9] Initial non-nuclear testing verified system integrity through hydrostatic pressure tests up to 1335 psig and prototype pump runs exceeding 700 hours, ensuring readiness for salt charging and criticality targeted for late 1964.^[10]

Reactor Design

Core and Fuel Composition

The core of the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) consisted of a cylindrical graphite moderator assembly with a diameter of approximately 1.4 m and a height of 1.6 m, designed to facilitate vertical flow of the liquid fuel salt through roughly 1140 channels formed by graphite stringers.^[11] These channels, measuring about 1.0 cm by 3.0 cm in cross-section, allowed the molten salt to act simultaneously as fuel and coolant while the graphite provided neutron moderation in this thermal-spectrum reactor.^[12] The initial fuel salt was composed of lithium fluoride (LiF), beryllium fluoride (BeF₂), zirconium fluoride (ZrF₄), and uranium tetrafluoride (UF₄) in the molar proportions 65:29.1:5:0.9, enriched to 33% U-235, providing an initial fissile inventory of 69.6 kg of U-235 at criticality.^[13] In 1968, the fuel was reformulated to a thorium-uranium composition of LiF-BeF₂-ThF₄-UF₄ (65:29.5:5:0.5 mole%) and refueled with approximately 37 kg of uranium containing about 80% U-233, resulting in a fissile U-233 inventory of roughly 30 kg.^[14] The molten salt fuel exhibited a melting point of around 450°C and was operated at inlet and outlet temperatures of 630–650°C, enabling efficient heat generation at near-atmospheric pressure due to its low vapor pressure, which minimized the risk of high-pressure containment failures.^[9] This property, combined with the salt's chemical stability, enhanced the inherent safety of the design by reducing the potential for volatile releases during normal operation or transients.^[15] Fuel processing in the MSRE program included provisions for online removal of fission products, primarily through helium sparging in the off-gas system to extract noble gases like xenon and krypton, while chemical methods such as reductive extraction into bismuth were developed to target other fission products like rare earths and actinides, though not implemented during core operations.^[9]^[16]

Circulation and Heat Transfer Systems

The circulation system of the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) featured a primary loop that pumped the fuel salt through the reactor core and heat exchanger using a vertical centrifugal pump with an overhung impeller. This pump was designed to deliver a flow rate of 1200 gallons per minute (gpm), equivalent to approximately 0.076 m³/s, achieving velocities of about 20 ft/s (6 m/s) in the 5-inch piping and approximately 0.2 m/s (0.7 ft/s) within the core channels to ensure effective heat extraction from the graphite moderator.^[9] The pump, rated at 75 horsepower and operating at 1160 rpm, included features like a 36-inch bowl for sump-type operation and provisions for remote control via a Teleflex cable system.^[9] Heat transfer from the primary to the secondary loop occurred via a horizontal shell-and-tube heat exchanger with U-tubes fabricated from INOR-8 alloy, providing a heat transfer surface area of 1200 ft² on the shell side and designed for a 10 MW thermal load.^[9] The secondary loop circulated FLiBe (LiF-BeF₂) coolant salt at 850 gpm using an identical centrifugal pump configuration, with the salt entering the exchanger tubes at 1025°F and exiting at 1100°F to absorb heat from the fuel salt, which cooled from 1225°F to 1175°F.^[9] This setup maintained the secondary loop at a slightly higher pressure than the primary to prevent inter-loop leaks, with tube-side velocities around 12 ft/s (3.7 m/s) for optimal convective heat transfer.^[17] The secondary loop rejected heat to the atmosphere through an air-cooled radiator system comprising 120 unfinned ¾-inch diameter tubes, each 30 ft long, for a total surface area of 706 ft², supported by blowers delivering 200,000 cubic feet per minute of forced air.^[9] During operation, this system removed up to 7.85 MW at ambient temperatures of 20–30°C, with an overall heat transfer coefficient of 42.7 Btu/hr-ft²-°F, though the design targeted 10 MW.^[17] For emergency cooldown and maintenance, the system integrated salt drain tanks—two 80 ft³ tanks for fuel salt and one 44 ft³ tank for coolant salt—each equipped with bayonet-type cooling coils and heaters to manage decay heat removal at rates up to 100 kW per tank using circulated water.^[9] These components ensured safe salt drainage via freeze valves and thermal expansion accommodation through an overflow tank.^[9]

Structural Materials and Facility Layout

The primary structural material for the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was Hastelloy-N, a nickel-based alloy specifically developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory for compatibility with fluoride salts at high temperatures.^[18] Its nominal composition consists of 72 wt% nickel, 16 wt% molybdenum, 7 wt% chromium, and 5 wt% iron, with minor additions of silicon (0.5 wt%) and carbon (0.05 wt%).^[18] This formulation provided essential corrosion resistance in the aggressive molten fluoride environment, while maintaining mechanical integrity; for instance, the alloy exhibited a tensile strength of approximately 500 MPa at 650°C, suitable for the reactor's operating conditions.^[19] A key challenge addressed during development was intergranular cracking induced by tellurium, a fission product that diffused along grain boundaries in the standard Hastelloy-N.^[20] To mitigate this, the alloy was modified by adding about 1 wt% niobium, which formed stable niobium-telluride precipitates that reduced tellurium penetration and cracking susceptibility without significantly compromising corrosion resistance or ductility.^[20] This modification was informed by early exposure tests in molten salts and irradiation environments, ensuring the material's reliability for prolonged operation.^[20] The MSRE facility was housed in Building 7503 at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, a reinforced concrete structure designed to accommodate the reactor's components while providing radiation shielding and maintenance access.^[21] The building measured approximately 115 ft by 65 ft (35 m by 20 m) overall, with the main operating floor at the 852-ft elevation; the western half contained the reactor equipment, while the eastern half included control rooms, offices, and support areas.^[21] The core room, encompassing the reactor cell, stood 33 ft (10 m) high and 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter, topped by a 15 m-high shielded enclosure for overhead crane operations.^[21] Separate areas were allocated for the fuel and coolant pumps—positioned above the heat exchangers in elevated cells—and the primary heat exchanger, which was integrated into the circulation loop east of the reactor vessel.^[21] Radiation shielding consisted of 1-2 m thick concrete walls and floors, including 21-inch (0.53 m) cylindrical walls around the reactor cell, 3 ft (0.91 m) walls for the drain tank cell, and 3.5 ft (1.07 m) top blocks of magnetite concrete for enhanced neutron absorption.^[21] Safety features in the layout included remote handling galleries equipped with manipulators, stereo-television systems, and long-handled tools for maintenance in high-radiation zones, supported by a ventilation system maintaining 100 ft/min airflow to contain contaminants.^[21] Passive shutdown was enabled by salt freeze valves in drain lines, which solidified molten salt plugs upon cooling to seal flow paths, with electric heaters allowing controlled thawing in about 5-25 minutes depending on the valve size.^[21]

Neutronics and Thermal-Hydraulic Analysis

The neutronics analysis of the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) focused on achieving a slightly supercritical configuration to enable controlled operation at low power levels during initial testing. Pre-operational calculations predicted an effective multiplication factor k_\text{eff} of approximately 1.05 for the uranium-235 fueled core, ensuring a neutron economy that balanced fission production with losses while maintaining criticality with minimal excess reactivity.^[13] This value was derived from diffusion theory approximations and early Monte Carlo simulations accounting for the graphite-moderated lattice with molten salt fuel channels, where neutrons are primarily moderated by graphite and fuel salt occupies about 7.5% of the core volume.^[22] For the thorium-uranium-233 cycle tested later in MSRE operations, analyses projected a breeding ratio slightly greater than 1.0, indicating potential for net fissile material production through thorium-232 capture and subsequent uranium-233 formation, though the experiment itself operated primarily as a converter.^[23] Monte Carlo simulations, such as those using early codes adapted for heterogeneous salt-graphite geometries, predicted a relatively flat power distribution across the cylindrical core and a negative void coefficient of about -3 \beta per percent void, enhancing inherent safety by reducing reactivity with gas bubble formation.^[13] Thermal-hydraulic modeling for the MSRE emphasized single-phase flow of the fluoride salt fuel through the graphite moderator channels, using Nusselt number correlations tailored to molten salts like FLiBe (LiF-BeF₂-ThF₄-UF₄). These correlations, developed from loop experiments, supported efficient core cooling at 7.4 MW thermal power.^[24] The core geometry, featuring 1140 vertical channels of approximately 1 cm × 3 cm cross-section in a 1.4 m diameter by 1.6 m high graphite assembly, was incorporated into these models to refine flow uniformity and heat flux profiles.^[22]

Operation

Startup Procedures and Testing

Pre-critical testing for the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) commenced in 1964, focusing on system integrity and functionality prior to introducing fissile material. Salt filling involved loading the fuel and coolant systems with fluoride salts; the fuel salt, consisting of a uranium tetrafluoride-lithium fluoride mixture, was prepared in drain tanks (FD-1 and FD-2, each with 80.2 ft³ capacity) and added incrementally after purging the system with helium to remove oxygen. Coolant salt was introduced via 2.5-ft³ cans through a 1-inch flange at the 849-ft elevation. Circulation trials verified salt flow rates, with the fuel salt pump achieving 1200 gpm at 1150-1160 rpm against a 48.5-49 ft head, and the coolant salt pump calibrated for 850 gpm with a 15 gpm bypass at 1750 rpm and 78 ft head. Leak checks utilized helium pressurization to 100 psig, confirming system integrity with leakage rates below 1 × 10⁻⁸ std cc/sec via mass spectrometer testing and total estimated leakage of ~6 cc/min across mechanical joints and freeze flanges monitored by thermocouples. Pump calibration employed a helium bubbler system with dip tubes and differential pressure cells to measure flows accurately at 366 cc/min.^[9]^[25] Criticality was achieved on June 1, 1965, using U-235-enriched fuel salt at an initial critical concentration of 0.291 mole % ²³⁵U, with the system preheated to 1200°F and all control rods withdrawn. Enriched uranium was added incrementally to the barren carrier salt in the fuel drain tank until the neutron multiplication factor (k) reached 1.0, monitored using a 10⁹ n/s neutron source and BF₃ flux chambers. Following criticality, power was ramped up in phases, initially to 1 MWth during low-power operations to assess servo control and shielding.^[8]^[9]^[25] Testing phases progressed from zero-power physics experiments to full-power operations. Zero-power tests, limited to ~10 kW, measured reactivity parameters including control rod worth (2.4-7.6% Δk/k) via rod bump, drop-subcritical counting, and dynamic studies such as control-rod pulses and flux noise spectra. These validated nuclear characteristics against codes like MURGATROYD and ZORCH. Full-power runs followed, escalating stepwise to 1.5, 3.0, 5.0, 7.5, and target 10 MWth, though operations stabilized at 7.4 MWth based on heat balance and isotopic data, with 5-day intervals between steps except 15 days at 5 MWth for monitoring temperatures, radiation, and transients.^[9]^[25]^[26] Control systems during startup and testing relied on three Hastelloy-N clad control rods, each comprising 36 poison elements (gadolinium oxide-alumina) strung on a flexible stainless steel hose for a 56-59.36 in. active length, inserted into the core via thimble tubes. Rods provided reactivity control with a minimum drop acceleration of 12 ft/sec² and were tested for position indication, servo stability, and scram functionality. Boron poison was also added directly to the fuel salt for emergency shutdown, enhancing subcriticality during transients.^[9]^[27]^[25]

Operational Performance Metrics

The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) achieved a total of 17,655 hours of criticality over its operational lifespan from January 1965 to December 1969, during which it logged approximately 13,000 hours at full power. This performance equated to 13,172 equivalent full-power hours at the nominal thermal output of 7.4 MWth, reflecting an average capacity factor of about 75% across the full period, with peak operational phases sustaining up to 90% capacity factor due to reliable salt circulation and minimal downtime.^[28]^[29]^[30] Initial operations from 1965 to mid-1968 utilized a uranium-235 fuel cycle, with the enriched UF₄ comprising 0.9 mole% of the LiF-BeF₂-ZrF₄-UF₄ salt mixture. In October 1968, following removal of the U-235 via fluorination, approximately 30 kg of uranium-233 (about 80% of the total reloaded uranium inventory of 37 kg) was added to the carrier salt, enabling over 2,500 full-power hours of operation on the thorium-derived U-233 fuel and demonstrating fuel cycle flexibility. Fission product accumulation during these runs reduced the effective UF₄ fraction, with buildup reaching approximately 2% relative to the initial uranium loading by the end of operations.^[31]^[32]^[28] Although the MSRE lacked an integrated turbine for electricity generation, heat rejection measurements from the secondary coolant loop supported a projected thermal-to-electric efficiency of around 40% for conceptual power-producing variants, based on the high-temperature salt properties and heat transfer coefficients observed (approximately 1,100 Btu/hr-ft²-°F). Core monitoring maintained temperature gradients below 50°C across the fuel salt and graphite moderator, ensuring thermal-hydraulic stability. Salt purity exceeded 99.5% throughout, sustained via helium sparging at 3.5 liters/min to strip fission gases like xenon and krypton, alongside hydrogen-fluoride treatments to control oxide impurities below 1,000 ppm.^[9]^[33]

Results and Analysis

Key Experimental Outcomes

The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) successfully demonstrated key aspects of a liquid-fuel thorium-uranium cycle, including online reprocessing techniques that enabled continuous fission product removal to maintain neutron economy. Helium sparging removed approximately 85% of gaseous fission products such as xenon and krypton, while off-line fluorination processes extracted over 90% of plutonium using 100 μm droplets at temperatures between 550°C and 660°C. These methods supported low parasitic absorption by minimizing neutron losses from accumulated fission products, with salt purification and protactinium-233 extraction further enhancing fuel utilization in the thorium cycle.^[7] The experiment operated with highly enriched uranium-233 fuel (91.5 wt% from 1968 to 1969), validating the production and use of U-233 in molten salt systems, though MSRE itself was a burner rather than a breeder; conceptual extensions to breeder designs achieved fissile conversion ratios around 1.06 through thorium processing rates of 10–40 L/day.^[7] Safety features were rigorously validated during over 13,000 hours of operation at full power (up to 7.34 MWth), with no boiling incidents occurring due to the salt's high boiling point providing a ~700°C margin above operating temperatures (650°C) and the low-pressure design.^[8]^[7] Passive cooldown was achieved via drain tanks, where fuel salt could be dumped and solidify, enabling natural circulation and heat dissipation; drainage occurred in under 8 minutes, with decay heat reduction to safe levels (e.g., 157 kW after one day) through passive means without active cooling intervention.^[7] The reactor exhibited a strong negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, approximately -14 pcm/°C overall, dominated by the fuel salt's contribution ( -3 to -4 pcm/°C), ensuring inherent stability and automatic power damping during transients.^[34]^[7] Corrosion performance of the structural material, Hastelloy-N, was exemplary after minor alloy modifications to reduce chromium content, maintaining vessel integrity throughout operations. Attack rates were limited to less than 0.025 mm/year at 650°C in purified FLiBe salt, with uniform material loss and no significant degradation observed in loops exposed for thousands of hours. Redox control via the UF4/UF3 ratio further minimized tellurium-induced cracking, confirming Hastelloy-N's suitability for long-term molten salt containment.^[7] Neutronics models were validated through precise measurements, with the effective multiplication factor (k-effective) determined as 1.000 ± 0.005, aligning closely with pre-operational predictions of approximately 1.00 and confirming the accuracy of graphite-moderated, salt-fueled reactor simulations.^[7] This agreement extended to transient behaviors modeled with codes like SPECTRA, which matched observed power responses, and supported broader theoretical predictions for molten salt systems discussed in neutronics analyses.^[7]

Identified Challenges and Limitations

One of the primary technical challenges in the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) was material corrosion, particularly intergranular cracking induced by tellurium fission products in the Hastelloy-N alloy used for structural components. Observations during operation revealed crack depths of 5-10 mils, confirmed through Auger spectroscopy, with severity influenced by the salt's oxidation state.^[20] This issue was addressed by alloying Hastelloy-N with 1-2% niobium, which minimized cracking by altering tellurium's interaction with grain boundaries, though the short operational duration limited long-term validation of the modification's durability.^[20] Titanium additions were found to counteract niobium's benefits, highlighting the need for precise compositional control in molten salt environments.^[35] Fuel processing presented significant limitations, as the MSRE's systems were not equipped for comprehensive online removal of non-volatile fission products. While the off-gas system effectively vented approximately 70% of xenon-135 through the pump bowl stripper, reducing its neutron poisoning impact to less than 2% Δk/k, rare earth elements such as lanthanum, neodymium, and samarium accumulated in the fuel salt without dedicated extraction processes like metal transfer or fluorination being fully implemented during routine operations.^[36] This accumulation posed potential long-term risks to neutron economy and salt chemistry stability, though the experiment's limited runtime prevented severe consequences; removal efficiencies for such products were projected at 50-90% in conceptual designs but remained unproven at scale.^[35] The MSRE's scale as an 8 MWth prototype inherently constrained its ability to validate key aspects of commercial molten salt reactor viability. Designed primarily to test fuel circulation, heat transfer, and basic operability rather than full breeding cycles or cost-effectiveness, it could not replicate the 1000 MWe output or thorium-uranium fuel cycle dynamics of proposed breeders, leaving uncertainties in economic scaling and protactinium-233 management.^[8] Supporting analyses indicated that larger systems would require advanced processing to handle higher fission product inventories, a capability beyond the MSRE's demonstration scope.^[35] Operational incidents underscored the system's sensitivity to external disruptions and minor failures. The final salt drain revealed a small leak near a freeze valve, releasing less than 1 liter of fuel salt into the cell atmosphere.^[37] These events, among the 167 unplanned shutdowns due to issues like pipe plugging and instrumentation faults, highlighted vulnerabilities in salt handling and power reliability, though total leakage remained minimal and contained.^[38]

Shutdown and Legacy

Decommissioning Process

The shutdown of the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) occurred in December 1969, prompted by the cancellation of the broader Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (MSBR) program amid evolving U.S. nuclear energy priorities that favored liquid-metal fast breeder reactors over alternative technologies.^[14] This decision marked the end of active operations after four years of experimentation, transitioning the facility into a mothballed state for potential future use while initiating preliminary decommissioning activities.^[39] Decommissioning commenced immediately with the draining and flushing of the reactor's molten salt inventory between late 1969 and 1970. Approximately 4.5 tons (4,650 kg) of fuel salt, containing primarily uranium-233 and traces of fission products, were transferred from the core vessel to two dedicated underground storage tanks using the facility's drain system.^[14] Following this, the piping and core were flushed with approximately 4.3 tons (4,290 kg) of flush salt—a uranium-free mixture similar in composition to the fuel salt—to capture residual contaminants, after which water rinsing was employed to further cleanse the system and minimize remaining radioactivity.^[39] These steps effectively isolated the hazardous salts, with the fuel salt exhibiting high alpha activity levels around 400,000 nanocuries per gram (nCi/g), while the flush salt was significantly lower at about 6,000 nCi/g.^[39] From 1971 to 1972, physical dismantling focused on core disassembly and the removal of graphite moderator elements, which had been exposed to the corrosive and radioactive salt environment during operations. The graphite blocks were carefully extracted and surveyed, revealing surface contamination by fission products, indicating relatively low penetration into the material.^[14] This phase involved segmenting the core structure, sealing penetrations such as freeze valves with corrosion-resistant materials like Hastelloy (INOR-8) plugs and silicone-based sealants, and decontaminating accessible components to prepare the facility for long-term surveillance.^[39] Overall, these efforts reduced immediate radiological hazards without requiring extensive remote handling due to the controlled contamination profiles. Waste management during decommissioning addressed the stored salts and structural remnants through a combination of processing trials and containment strategies. Disposal options, including blending with high-level waste for ceramic forms as tested at Idaho National Laboratory, were proposed but not implemented due to technological and cost considerations, leaving the salts in their frozen state within the drain tanks.^[39] Contaminated components, including portions of the graphite and metal hardware, were managed by storage in place under surveillance at the Oak Ridge site, providing isolation of residual radioactivity and preventing environmental release pending full decommissioning.^[14] This approach aligned with early nuclear decommissioning practices, prioritizing safe storage over full removal given the era's technological limitations.

Influence on Nuclear Technology

The Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) provided foundational data for thorium-based reactor concepts, particularly in validating the thorium-uranium fuel cycle for Generation IV designs. Operated from 1965 to 1969 at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, the MSRE demonstrated the feasibility of using fluoride salts like LiF-ThF4-UF4 to support thorium breeding, achieving successful operation with uranium-233 fuel and informing subsequent breeder reactor proposals such as the Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (MSBR). This legacy has directly influenced international efforts, including China's Thorium Molten Salt Reactor program, where the 2 MWth TMSR-LF1 prototype—achieving criticality in 2023 and successful thorium-uranium fuel conversion in November 2025, as of November 2025—exhibits high similarity to the MSRE in neutronic and thermal-hydraulic parameters, with similarity indices exceeding 0.9 for key metrics like effective multiplication factor and void coefficient.^[7]^[40]^[41] MSRE's safety contributions have been extensively cited in international assessments, underscoring its role in validating inherent safety features of molten salt reactors (MSRs). The experiment confirmed strong negative temperature and void reactivity coefficients, low-pressure operation near atmospheric levels, and effective fission product retention in the salt, reducing risks of meltdown or release during transients. These findings, derived from four years of stable 7.4 MWth operation, are referenced in IAEA reports as evidence of MSRs' passive safety advantages, such as natural circulation for decay heat removal and freeze-plug mechanisms for emergency draining, which minimize active intervention needs and enhance overall reactor robustness.^[7]^[42] Post-1969 analyses of MSRE data advanced understanding of molten salt chemistry, including corrosion mechanisms and impurity management in Hastelloy N alloys, leading to refined models for salt purification and fission product behavior. However, these studies also highlighted persistent knowledge gaps, such as long-term material degradation under irradiation, tritium management at scale, and the need for larger demonstration plants to validate integrated systems beyond the MSRE's 7.4 MWth capacity.^[7]^[43] As of 2025, MSRE's archived data continues to support private-sector MSR prototypes, bridging historical insights with contemporary innovation. Companies like Terrestrial Energy, developing the Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR), leverage MSRE operational experience through collaborations with Oak Ridge National Laboratory and input from former MSRE engineers, applying lessons on salt chemistry and heat transfer to their design. Similarly, Kairos Power's fluoride salt-cooled high-temperature reactor prototypes draw directly on MSRE's FLiBe salt production techniques and corrosion data to inform their salt purification processes and material selections, enabling scaled testing for commercial deployment; in 2025, Kairos Power began operation of its first molten salt system and secured agreements for deploying up to 500 MW of power through partnerships like with Google.^[44]^[45]^[46]^[47]^[48]

References

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### Origins and Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment at ORNL
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This report presents the results of an effort to identify hazards associated with MSR fuel processing operations and activities. The report describes processes ...
[16]
[PDF] MOLTEN-SALT REACTORS—HISTORY, STATUS, AND POTENTIAL
Lattice experiments with concentrations and geometries appropriate for the core of an MSBR should be made in facilities such as the Physical Constants. Tests ...
[17]
[PDF] ORNL-TM-3002.pdf
Operation of the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) from 1966 through 1969 provided a unique opportunity to measure heat transfer in equipnent using ...
[18]
[PDF] Evaluation of hastelloy N alloys after nine years exposure to both a ...
Hastelloy N (initially known as INOR-8, nominal composition 72% Ni- 16 7% Ma-7 % Cr-5 % Fe) was developed at the Oak- Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in the ...
[19]
Hastelloy N®, UNS N10003, NiMo17Cr17 - nickel alloy - VIRGAMET
Physical and Tensile Properties ; 20°C: Tensile strength: 800 MPa; Elongation: 37.5 % ; 650°C: Tensile strength: 493 MPa; Elongation: 17 % ; 700°C: Tensile ...Missing: MSRE | Show results with:MSRE
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[PDF] ORNL-TM-5920.pdf
Operation of the MSRE revealed two deficiencies in the. Hastelloy N alloy (Ni; 16% Mo; 7% Cr, 5% Fe; 0.5% Si; and 0.05% C) developed specifically for use in.<|control11|><|separator|>
[21]
[PDF] MSRE Design and Operations Report Part V Reactor Safety ...
ORNL-OWG 63-8399. JL. WILDING 7503-ELEVATION 840 ft Oin. LEVEL. Fig. 2.41. Layout of Building 7503 at 84O-ft Elevation. microphone amplifier and noise level ...
[22]
msre design and operations report. part iii. nuclear analysis - OSTI
OSTI.GOV Technical Report: MSRE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS REPORT. PART III. NUCLEAR ANALYSIS. MSRE DESIGN AND OPERATIONS REPORT. PART III. NUCLEAR ANALYSIS.Missing: pdf | Show results with:pdf
[23]
[PDF] Modeling Molten Salt Reactor Fission Product Removal with SCALE
This report validates the new SCALE MSR modeling capabilities using data from the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE).<|separator|>
[24]
[PDF] DETERMINATION OF THE VOID FRACTION IN THE MSRE USING ...
Fraction in the MSRE Fuel Salt Using Neutron Noise Analysis, ORNL-TM-2315 ... The ratio of the mean temperature T_ to the mean pressure P-. is in the range ...
[25]
None
Summary of each segment:
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[PDF] Module 9: Operating Experience. - Nuclear Regulatory Commission
MSRE Filling and Startup Procedures Were. Straightforward. • UF. 4. -LiF salt ... – ORNL-TM-1854 provides an overview of Alloy N forming techniques ...
[27]
[PDF] MSRE CONTROL ELEMENTS - OSTI.gov
The MSRE has three control rods, each of which has 36 control elements strung on a flexible stainless steel hose to form a 56-in.-long control rod. The ...
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### Quantitative Operational Performance Metrics for MSRE (ORNL-TM-3229)
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Time Warp: Molten Salt Reactor Experiment—Alvin Weinberg's ...
Jun 1, 2016 · The MSRE achieved self-sustaining reaction in 1965, ran on U-233 in 1968, used molten salts as fuel/coolant, and ran for 13,000 hours before ...
[30]
https://info.ornl.gov/sites/publications/Files/Pub20808.pdf
[31]
[PDF] Module 1: History, Background, and Current MSR Developments.
Most experimental and development work done at ORNL prior to recent renewed interest in MSRs. – Only two MSR reactors to operate were at ORNL - reactor.
[32]
[PDF] Preconceptual Design of Irradiated Fuel Salt Management System
This study proposes a set of irradiated fuel salt management processes for the molten salt reactor, from defueling to storage or disposal. For that, the.
[33]
[PDF] Status Report on the MSRE TRANSFORM Model for Thermal - INFO
The project was regarded as a success, as it accomplished the original objectives while providing considerable practical experience working with molten salts ...
[34]
[PDF] Temperature coefficients of reactivity in Molten Salt Reactor ...
The temperature coefficients of reactivity are evaluated for the. Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) considering different.
[35]
[PDF] Molten Salt Reactor Salt Processing – Technology Status
Aug 29, 2018 · ORNL technical reports for the two-fluid molten salt breeder reactor. ... Decommissioning Study for the ORNL Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE).
[36]
[PDF] ORNL-4069.pdf
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Molten-Salt Reactor Program Semiann. Progr. Rept. July 31, 1966, USAEC Report ORNL-3708. F. F. Blankenship and A. Taboada, M3RE ...
[37]
Molten salt reactors were trouble in the 1960s—and they remain ...
Jun 20, 2022 · All molten salt reactors are based, in one way or another, on the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment that operated at Oak Ridge from 1965 to 1969.
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Preliminary Evaluation of the Leak in the MSRE Primary System ...
Apr 21, 1970 · The leak appeared to be near a fuel drain tank freeze valve and the leakage was stopped by freezing salt in that section of line. ... Oak Ridge ...Missing: up power outage
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[PDF] 1988 RAP-17 Notz DND of MSRE
This report completes a technical evaluation of decommissioning planning for the former Molten Salt Reactor Experiment, which was shut down in December, 1969.
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Sensitivity/uncertainty comparison and similarity analysis between ...
The calculated similarity indices indicated that there was a good similarity (Ck and E > 0.9) between TMSR-LF1 and MSRE, and a lesser similarity between TMSR- ...
[41]
Measurements | Molten Salt Reactor | ORNL
ORNL's historic Molten Salt Reactor Experiment is the basis for a new molten salt reactor benchmark published in the 2019 OECD/NEA International Handbook of ...
[42]
[PDF] Early Phase Molten Salt Reactor Safety Evaluation Considerations
The MSRE was a 7.3 MWt reactor operated at ORNL from 1965 to 1969 as a demonstration of the basic reactor technology needed to develop a commercial MSR, such as ...
[43]
MSRE's 50th - Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oct 15, 2015 · Engineers saw promising results from a design that used molten fluoride salt as a fuel carrier and coolant for an onboard reactor. By the early ...
[44]
Terrestrial Energy
A zero-carbon alternative heat source, more scalable, reliable, and economical to displace the burning of fossil fuels.IMSR Technology · In the News · General Inquiries · Data Centers
[45]
Producing a 1960s Molten Salt Coolant for 21st Century Reactors
Oct 20, 2025 · Kairos Power formed a dedicated Salt Team in 2018, which dove into the existing process information from the MSRE program decades earlier. While ...