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Lithium fluoride

Lithium fluoride (LiF) is an inorganic compound composed of lithium cations and fluoride anions, forming a white, odorless crystalline solid that occurs as a dry powder or cubic crystals. It is the least soluble among the alkali metal fluorides, with a solubility of approximately 0.134 g/100 g water at 25 °C, and exhibits high thermal stability with a melting point of 848 °C and a boiling point of 1673 °C.^[1]^[2] Lithium fluoride has a molecular weight of 25.94 g/mol, a density of 2.64 g/cm³, and low hygroscopicity compared to other lithium halides. As a highly ionic substance, it possesses a high dielectric constant of about 9.0 and excellent transparency across ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared (IR) spectra, extending into the vacuum UV region down to 121 nm. However, it is a strong irritant to skin and eyes and toxic if ingested, classified as acutely toxic with hazard codes H301, H315, H319, and H335.^[1]^[2] Due to its unique properties, lithium fluoride is used in ceramics and glass manufacturing as a flux, in optical components like UV windows and IR lenses, in thermoluminescent dosimeters for radiation detection, in molten salt mixtures for nuclear reactors, and as a precursor for lithium-ion battery electrolytes. Emerging applications include organic electronics and rechargeable batteries.^[2]^[3]

Properties

Physical properties

Lithium fluoride (LiF) is an inorganic compound with the molecular formula LiF and a molar mass of 25.939 g/mol.^[1] It typically appears as a colorless or white crystalline solid, often in the form of cubic crystals or fine powder.^[1] Key physical properties of lithium fluoride are summarized in the following table:

Property	Value	Conditions/Notes
Density	2.640 g/cm³	At 20 °C
Melting point	848 °C (1,121 K)	-
Boiling point	1,676 °C (1,949 K)	-
Refractive index (n_D)	1.392	At 0.6 μm wavelength

These values establish lithium fluoride's stability at high temperatures and its utility in optical applications due to its transparency and low refractive index variation.^[1]^[4] Lithium fluoride exhibits limited solubility in water, approximately 0.27 g/100 mL at 18–20 °C, with solubility increasing significantly in hot water (up to about 1.3 g/100 mL at higher temperatures near 90 °C); it is insoluble in common organic solvents such as ethanol and acetone.^[1] The material also demonstrates good thermal properties, including a thermal conductivity of about 13.9 W/(m·K) at room temperature and a specific heat capacity of 41.6 J/mol·K at 298 K, which contribute to its effectiveness as a heat transfer medium in specialized applications.^[1]^[5]

Chemical properties

Lithium fluoride (LiF) is an ionic compound composed of lithium cations (Li⁺) and fluoride anions (F⁻), bonded through strong electrostatic interactions typical of alkali metal halides. It crystallizes in the rock salt (NaCl-type) structure, featuring a face-centered cubic lattice where each Li⁺ ion is octahedrally coordinated by six F⁻ ions, and vice versa.^[6] The crystal structure belongs to the space group Fm3m, with a lattice parameter a = 4.026 Å at room temperature.^[6] This arrangement contributes to its high stability, as LiF does not decompose under standard conditions but slowly hydrolyzes in moist air according to the reaction LiF + H₂O → LiOH + HF, forming surface layers of lithium hydroxide and releasing trace hydrogen fluoride.^[7] LiF exhibits limited reactivity, being insoluble in most organic solvents and water, but it dissolves in strong acids like HCl, generating HF gas: LiF + HCl → LiCl + HF.^[1] As a fluorinating agent, it participates in exchange reactions, such as 3 LiF + AlCl₃ → AlF₃ + 3 LiCl, facilitating the preparation of other metal fluorides.^[8] Aqueous solutions of LiF are neutral to slightly basic (pH ≈ 8–9 for moderate concentrations) owing to the hydrolysis of F⁻ ions, which behave as a weak base: F⁻ + H₂O ⇌ HF + OH⁻, with the equilibrium shifted due to the weakness of HF (pK_a = 3.17). Electrochemical properties of LiF are dominated by the Li⁺ ion, with the standard reduction potential for Li⁺ + e⁻ → Li being -3.04 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode, underscoring lithium's high reactivity as a reducing agent in electrochemical systems.^[9]

Production

Laboratory preparation

Lithium fluoride can be prepared in the laboratory by reacting lithium carbonate with hydrofluoric acid, a method that produces the compound through a straightforward acid-base reaction accompanied by gas evolution. The balanced chemical equation for this process is:

\mathrm{Li_2CO_3 + 2HF \rightarrow 2LiF + CO_2 + H_2O}

In practice, solid lithium carbonate is added to an aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid, often in excess, with the mixture stirred under controlled conditions to ensure complete reaction; the carbon dioxide gas is vented, and the resulting lithium fluoride precipitates or is obtained by evaporation to dryness followed by gentle heating to remove residual acid. An alternative laboratory method involves the reaction of lithium hydroxide with hydrofluoric acid, which yields lithium fluoride directly without gas byproduct. The equation is:

\mathrm{LiOH + HF \rightarrow LiF + H_2O}

Here, aqueous solutions of lithium hydroxide and hydrofluoric acid are mixed, leading to the formation of lithium fluoride, which can be isolated by filtration or evaporation. This approach is simpler for small-scale synthesis due to its lack of gaseous emissions.^[10] Following synthesis by either method, lithium fluoride is typically purified by recrystallization to achieve high purity suitable for research applications. The crude product is dissolved in hot water—exploiting its low solubility (about 0.13 g/100 mL at 20°C, increasing with temperature)—and allowed to cool slowly, promoting the formation of purer crystals; alternatively, ethanol can be used as a solvent for recrystallization in cases where water introduces impurities. The purified crystals are then filtered, washed, and dried under vacuum or mild heat.^[10]^[11] Due to the extreme toxicity and corrosivity of hydrofluoric acid, which can cause severe burns, tissue necrosis, and systemic fluoride poisoning even at low concentrations, stringent handling precautions are essential during preparation. All reactions must be conducted in a well-ventilated chemical fume hood, with personnel wearing chemical-resistant gloves (e.g., neoprene or Viton over nitrile), full-face shields, lab coats, and aprons; calcium gluconate gel should be readily available as an antidote for skin exposure, and immediate medical attention is required for any contact. HF should always be added to water (never the reverse) to prevent violent reactions, and waste must be neutralized before disposal.^[12]^[13] In laboratory settings, these methods generally provide high yields, often exceeding 95% based on lithium input, with purities routinely achieving >99% after recrystallization, as verified by techniques such as ICP-MS for trace impurities; further refinement can reach 99.9% for specialized uses, though minor losses occur during purification steps.^[11]^[14]

Industrial manufacturing

The primary industrial route for lithium fluoride (LiF) production involves the neutralization of lithium hydroxide (LiOH) or lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) with hydrofluoric acid (HF) in specialized reactors designed to handle corrosive fluorides. This process typically occurs in aqueous or semi-aqueous conditions, where the lithium salt is dissolved and reacted with HF to precipitate LiF, accompanied by by-products such as water or carbon dioxide (from the carbonate route). Lithium sources are primarily derived from brine extraction or hard-rock mining, ensuring a steady supply for large-scale operations.^[15]^[16] An alternative method utilizes lithium chloride (LiCl), often sourced from concentrated brines, reacted with hydrofluoric acid or fluorosilicic acid (H₂SiF₆) as a cost-effective fluoride source. This reaction proceeds in stirred reactors at controlled temperatures (around 50–80°C) to form LiF precipitate while generating by-products like hydrochloric acid or silica compounds, which require neutralization and recovery to minimize environmental impact. By-product management, particularly CO₂ from carbonate-based reactions, involves capture systems such as scrubbers to comply with emission regulations, with energy demands primarily from heating and agitation estimated at 5–10 MJ/kg of LiF produced.^[17]^[18] Following precipitation, the crude LiF undergoes purification through filtration to remove unreacted salts, followed by drying in vacuum ovens and sintering at temperatures up to 800°C to achieve purities exceeding 99.9%, essential for applications like battery electrolytes. Global production capacity reached approximately 83,000 metric tons in 2024, with the market volume projected to grow at a CAGR of 5.18% through 2035; major producers including American Elements in the U.S. and Chinese firms like Tianqi Lithium Corp., contributing to an annual output in the tens of thousands of tons amid rising demand. Cost factors are heavily influenced by lithium raw material prices, with LiF trading at around $15–18 per kg in 2025, reflecting fluctuations in brine-derived lithium availability.^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]

Applications

Battery technology

Lithium fluoride serves as a key precursor in the synthesis of lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆), the predominant electrolyte salt in lithium-ion batteries. The production of LiPF₆ typically involves a multi-step process where lithium fluoride reacts with phosphorus pentafluoride (PF₅), often generated in situ from phosphorus trichloride, chlorine gas, and hydrogen fluoride; a simplified representation is LiF + PF₅ ⇌ LiPF₆, conducted in solvents such as anhydrous hydrogen fluoride, liquid sulfur dioxide, or acetonitrile under controlled conditions like temperatures from -30°C to 60°C and pressures of 1-10 bar.^[23] This reaction enables the formation of high-purity LiPF₆ through subsequent crystallization or evaporation steps, ensuring suitability for battery applications.^[23] In lithium-ion batteries, LiPF₆ dissociates into Li⁺ and PF₆⁻ ions in organic carbonate solvents, providing high ionic conductivity essential for efficient charge-discharge cycles.^[24] The inherent thermal stability of lithium fluoride contributes to reducing electrolyte decomposition, as LiF's high melting point (around 845°C) and chemical inertness help form protective layers that mitigate breakdown under operational stresses.^[25] This stability enhances overall battery safety and longevity by limiting volatile byproduct formation during elevated temperatures.^[25] In solid-state batteries, lithium fluoride plays a critical role as a component of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), particularly on lithium metal anodes, where it forms a robust, ion-permeable layer that suppresses dendrite growth and maintains structural integrity during volume changes.^[25] Solvent-derived LiF-rich SEIs, combined with organic components, improve Coulombic efficiency and cycling performance by protecting against electrolyte degradation.^[25] The growing adoption of lithium-ion and solid-state batteries in electric vehicles has driven lithium fluoride demand, with battery-grade material projected to exhibit an approximate 15% annual growth rate from 2025 onward, fueled by its role in enhancing performance and safety.^[26] A primary challenge in these applications stems from the moisture sensitivity of LiPF₆ derived from lithium fluoride, which decomposes upon water exposure via LiPF₆ → LiF + PF₅, followed by PF₅ + H₂O → POF₃ + 2HF, generating corrosive hydrofluoric acid (HF) that can etch electrodes, degrade separators, and increase internal resistance.^[27] This necessitates rigorous moisture control during manufacturing to prevent performance issues and safety risks.^[27]

Molten salt applications

Lithium fluoride is a key component in the FLiNaK eutectic mixture, composed of LiF-NaF-KF in a 46.5-11.5-42 mol% ratio, which serves as a high-temperature molten salt for advanced energy applications.^[28] This formulation significantly depresses the melting point to 454°C, compared to 848°C for pure LiF, enabling operation at lower temperatures while maintaining fluidity for heat transfer.^[28]^[1] The mixture exhibits favorable thermal properties, including a heat capacity of approximately 1.9 J/g·K and stability up to over 900°C, with low vapor pressure that supports efficient energy storage and transfer without excessive evaporation.^[28]^[29] In molten salt reactors and concentrated solar power (CSP) plants, FLiNaK acts as a coolant and heat transfer fluid, leveraging its high thermal conductivity and capacity to store and transport heat effectively in high-temperature environments.^[29] For CSP systems, it facilitates thermal energy storage by absorbing solar heat during the day and releasing it for power generation at night, potentially operating in cycles up to 700°C or higher.^[29] Additionally, lithium fluoride is employed as a flux additive in the Hall-Héroult process for aluminum production, where it modifies the molten cryolite electrolyte to enhance electrical conductivity, reduce the bath's liquidus temperature, and improve current efficiency, typically at concentrations around 1-2 wt%.^[30] Despite these advantages, FLiNaK poses corrosion challenges to container materials, particularly nickel-based alloys like Hastelloy N, due to selective dissolution of elements such as chromium and molybdenum at grain boundaries.^[31] Under stress at 700°C, corrosion rates can increase up to fourfold, leading to intergranular cracking and weight loss of about 5 mg/cm² over 240 hours, exacerbated by impurities like oxide ions that promote galvanic effects and carbide precipitation.^[31] Mitigation strategies often involve alloy modifications or salt purification to minimize these issues in practical deployments.^[31]

Optical uses

Lithium fluoride (LiF) is valued in optical applications for its broad transmission spectrum, spanning from the vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) to the mid-infrared (IR), specifically 120 nm to 6 μm, enabling its use in components that require high transparency across UV, visible, and IR wavelengths.^[4] This wide range arises from its large bandgap and low dispersion, making it suitable for environments where minimal light loss is critical. Additionally, high-quality LiF exhibits a low absorption coefficient, below 0.01 cm⁻¹ at 193 nm, which supports efficient light propagation in deep UV systems without significant attenuation.^[32] In semiconductor manufacturing, LiF serves as a lens material in VUV lithography systems operating at 193 nm, such as those using ArF excimer lasers, due to its compatibility with immersion lithography setups requiring high-index fluorides for precise patterning.^[33] For analytical instrumentation, LiF prisms and windows are employed in IR spectrophotometers, facilitating the examination of samples including those for fluoride content determination, as the material's transmission up to 6 μm covers key absorption bands without interference from the optic itself.^[34] Optical-grade LiF single crystals are typically prepared using the Czochralski method, which involves pulling a seed crystal from a molten LiF bath under controlled conditions to minimize impurities and defects, ensuring homogeneity and clarity essential for precision optics.^[35] Historically, LiF played a pioneering role in early fluoride-based optics, with its prisms introduced in the 1940s for IR spectroscopy instruments, extending spectral coverage to 5.9 μm and advancing the development of fluoride glass precursors for broader optical systems.^[34]

Radiation detection

Lithium fluoride, particularly when doped with magnesium and titanium (LiF:Mg,Ti), is extensively used in thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) under the commercial designation TLD-100 for radiation detection and monitoring.^[36] This doping enhances its thermoluminescent properties, enabling the material to store energy from ionizing radiation and release it as light upon subsequent heating.^[37] The thermoluminescence mechanism in TLD-100 involves the trapping of charge carriers created by gamma or beta radiation exposure; heating the material to around 300°C releases these carriers, producing emission bands primarily at approximately 410 nm (corresponding to a peak energy of about 3.0 eV) and a secondary band near 500 nm (2.5 eV).^[38] This blue-violet emission is detected by photomultiplier tubes in TLD readers, with the integrated light output proportional to the absorbed dose.^[36] TLD-100 exhibits a linear dose response from about 10 μGy to 10 Gy for photons and electrons, making it suitable for personal dosimeters in environments with varying radiation levels.^[39] Its effective atomic number of 8.2 closely matches that of soft tissue (approximately 7.4), providing tissue-equivalent response for accurate dosimetry in mixed radiation fields without significant energy dependence.^[37] The dosimeters are prepared by doping high-purity LiF powder with trace amounts of magnesium (around 160 ppm) and titanium (about 4 ppm), followed by sintering the mixture under controlled conditions to form compact chips, typically 3.2 × 3.2 × 0.9 mm in size.^[37] These chips are annealed before use (e.g., 1 hour at 400°C followed by 24 hours at 80°C) to reset traps and ensure reproducibility.^[36] In applications, TLD-100 chips are employed in personal monitoring badges for nuclear workers to track cumulative exposure and in medical radiology for verifying dose delivery in radiotherapy and diagnostic procedures, offering high sensitivity down to milliroentgen levels and reusability after readout.^[36]^[37]

Nuclear applications

Lithium fluoride (LiF) plays a critical role in nuclear applications, particularly in molten salt reactors (MSRs), where it serves as a primary component in fluoride salt mixtures used as both coolants and fuel solvents. In these systems, LiF is combined with other fluorides, such as beryllium fluoride (BeF₂) and thorium fluoride (ThF₄), to form stable, high-temperature liquids that dissolve fissile materials like uranium tetrafluoride (UF₄). For instance, the proposed fuel salt composition for thorium breeder reactors includes approximately 72 mol% LiF, 16 mol% BeF₂, 12 mol% ThF₄, and trace UF₄, enabling efficient heat transfer and fuel dissolution at operating temperatures around 600–700°C.^[40]^[41] A key nuclear property of LiF stems from its lithium isotopes, especially the ⁶Li variant, which exhibits high neutron absorption cross-section for thermal neutrons. The reaction ^6\mathrm{Li} + n \rightarrow ^4\mathrm{He} + ^3\mathrm{H} releases approximately 4.8 MeV of energy and produces tritium (³H), making enriched LiF valuable for tritium generation in fusion fuel cycles or as a neutron multiplier in certain reactor designs. Natural lithium in LiF contains about 7.5% ⁶Li, with the remainder being ⁷Li, but for optimized nuclear performance, the salt is often isotopically enriched—either to increase ⁶Li content for enhanced neutron capture and tritium yield or to deplete ⁶Li (enriching ⁷Li to >99%) to minimize unwanted tritium production and corrosion in coolant applications.^[42]^[43]^[44] In the nuclear fuel cycle, LiF-based molten salts facilitate the dissolution and reprocessing of uranium fuels, allowing for pyrochemical separation of actinides without aqueous solvents. Uranium oxide or metal can be dissolved directly into LiF mixtures at elevated temperatures, enabling electrochemical extraction of uranium and other elements for recycling, which supports closed fuel cycles in advanced reactors by reducing waste volume and recovering fissile material. This approach was explored in early fluoride volatility processes and remains relevant for thorium-uranium cycles in MSRs.^[45]^[46] Historically, LiF's nuclear applications were demonstrated in the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, operational from 1965 to 1969. The MSRE utilized a carrier salt of 65 mol% LiF, 29 mol% BeF₂, and 5 mol% ZrF₄, with 0.9 mol% UF₄ as fuel, achieving over 13,000 hours of critical operation and validating the stability of LiF salts under neutron irradiation and high temperatures up to 650°C. This experiment provided foundational data on corrosion resistance, fission product behavior, and salt chemistry, influencing subsequent MSR concepts.^[47]^[48] As of 2025, LiF remains integral to Generation IV reactor developments, particularly in fluoride-salt-cooled high-temperature reactors and MSRs aimed at sustainable fuel use and waste minimization. Companies like Kairos Power are advancing FLiBe (LiF-BeF₂) systems for demonstration units, with construction of the Hermes low-power MSR underway in Tennessee using ⁷Li-enriched salts to support commercial deployment by the early 2030s, aligning with international efforts under the Generation IV International Forum.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Organic electronics

Lithium fluoride (LiF) serves as an effective cathode interlayer in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and polymer light-emitting diodes (PLEDs), typically deposited as an ultrathin layer (0.5–2 nm) between the electron transport layer and aluminum (Al) cathode to enhance electron injection. This configuration addresses the mismatch between the high work function of Al (~4.3 eV) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) levels of organic semiconductors, which often results in poor electron injection efficiency. By inserting the LiF layer, the effective work function at the cathode interface is reduced to approximately 3.0 eV, facilitating better energy level alignment and lowering the electron injection barrier.^[52]^[53] The mechanism involves the formation of an interfacial dipole at the LiF/organic interface or partial dissociation of LiF during deposition, which n-dopes the adjacent organic layer and promotes electron tunneling through the thin insulating LiF film. This improvement was first demonstrated in 1997 by Hung et al., who reported that a 1–2 nm LiF layer on Al cathodes in tris(8-hydroxyquinoline)aluminum (Alq₃)-based OLEDs reduced the operating voltage by more than half (from 8.5 V to 4.5 V at 100 cd/m²) and increased the external quantum efficiency from 0.3% to 1.5%. LiF is commonly deposited via thermal evaporation in a vacuum environment, ensuring uniform, pinhole-free layers critical for device reliability.^[53]^[52] In PLEDs, the LiF/Al cathode similarly boosts device performance, with efficiency enhancements of 20–50% in luminance and current efficiency compared to bare Al cathodes, attributed to optimized built-in potential and reduced injection barriers at optimal LiF thicknesses around 1–7 nm. These gains arise from improved charge balance, minimizing non-radiative recombination and elevating overall electroluminescence output. Today, LiF interlayers remain integral to commercial flexible OLED displays in consumer electronics, such as foldable smartphones and wearable devices, where they contribute to higher power efficiency and operational stability on plastic substrates.^[52] LiF is also employed in emerging perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) as an ultrathin interlayer to improve electron injection, reduce interfacial barriers, and enhance device efficiency and stability. Similar to its role in OLEDs, LiF facilitates better charge balance and mitigates non-radiative recombination in PeLEDs, enabling high external quantum efficiencies and supporting applications in next-generation displays.^[54]

Occurrence

Natural minerals

Lithium fluoride occurs naturally in extremely rare minerals, primarily as the distinct species griceite (LiF). Griceite, the only known mineral composed essentially of lithium fluoride, forms colorless to white cubic crystals or compact, powdery botryoidal masses, often as inclusions within sodalite xenoliths or lining cavities in lithium-bearing assemblages.^[55] It exhibits an isometric crystal system with space group Fm\overline{3}m, analogous to the halite structure, and has a Mohs hardness of 4½.^[56] The type locality for griceite is the Poudrette quarry, Mont Saint-Hilaire, Quebec, Canada, where it represents the first documented natural occurrence of lithium fluoride as a discrete phase.^[55] Additional occurrences include the Lovozero Tundry massif in the Kola Peninsula, Russia, associated with alkaline pegmatites, and volcanic sites such as Barranco Hondo and Granadilla de Abona on Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain.^[56]^[57] Griceite commonly associates with villiaumite (NaF), a sodium analog in the halite group, in fluorine- and lithium-enriched environments like nepheline syenites and alkaline intrusions.^[56] Villiaumite itself, while primarily NaF, contributes to lithium fluoride mineralization through paragenesis, though pure LiF inclusions display the characteristic cubic habit. No other distinct lithium fluoride minerals, such as hydrated or complex variants, have been verified in natural settings. Due to the scarcity and inaccessibility of these deposits, lithium fluoride is not extracted commercially from natural minerals; lithium for industrial LiF production is instead sourced from concentrated brines or hard-rock deposits like spodumene.^[42]

Environmental presence

Lithium fluoride (LiF) exhibits low solubility in water, approximately 0.134 g per 100 mL at 25°C, which allows it to partially dissociate into Li⁺ and F⁻ ions under natural conditions.^[1] This limited solubility contributes to trace levels of these ions in groundwater, where lithium concentrations typically range from 0.006 to 0.008 mg/L (median values in U.S. public supply wells), though higher levels of 0.1–1 mg/L occur in regions with elevated geogenic sources.^[58] Fluoride ions from LiF and other sources average around 0.5 mg/L in many groundwaters globally.^[59] The primary natural sources of these ions include the weathering of lithium-bearing rocks such as spodumene (LiAlSi₂O₆), which releases Li⁺ through mineral dissolution, combined with fluoride from associated fluorine-rich minerals like apatite or fluorite during geochemical processes.^[60]^[61] The bioavailability of LiF in the environment is generally low due to its sparing solubility, limiting the formation and persistence of the undissociated compound; however, the released F⁻ ions contribute to the total fluoride content in drinking water sources, where they can be taken up by organisms.^[1] Globally, trace Li⁺ and F⁻ from LiF-related dissolution show variable distribution, with notably higher concentrations in geothermal waters—for instance, lithium levels in Yellowstone National Park thermal features reach up to 6.8 mg/L, with means of 3–5 mg/L across basins like Firehole River and Norris Geyser Basin.^[62] These elevated levels arise from magmatic interactions and hydrothermal circulation, contrasting with lower background values in non-thermal groundwaters. Ecological impacts of environmental LiF are minimal at trace concentrations, as the compound does not significantly bioaccumulate in aquatic or terrestrial organisms, and lithium ions exhibit limited trophic transfer in most ecosystems. Monitoring of fluoride from such sources focuses on drinking water standards, with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency setting a maximum contaminant level of 4 mg/L to prevent health risks like fluorosis.^[63] No specific regulatory limits exist for lithium in water, though screening levels around 10 μg/L guide assessments of geogenic exposure.^[60]

History

Discovery and synthesis

Lithium fluoride saw initial applications as a flux in metallurgical processes during the 19th century, aiding in the reduction of melting points and impurity removal in metal production.^[64]

Commercial development

Following World War II, lithium fluoride (LiF) saw significant commercial development through U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) projects focused on nuclear applications. In the 1950s, LiF was investigated for molten salt compositions in experimental reactors. By the 1960s, LiF's adoption expanded in both nuclear and radiation detection technologies. It served as the primary salt in the Molten Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE), an 8-MWt facility that achieved criticality in 1965 and operated until 1969, validating LiF-based fluoride salts for advanced reactor coolants and fuels.^[65] Concurrently, LiF's thermoluminescent properties led to its commercialization as a tissue-equivalent dosimeter material in thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), with widespread industrial availability by the mid-1960s for personnel and environmental radiation monitoring.^[36] The 1990s marked a surge in LiF's use within the burgeoning lithium-ion battery sector. With Sony's commercialization of the first rechargeable Li-ion battery in 1991, LiF emerged as a critical component in the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer formed via decomposition of the LiPF6 electrolyte, enhancing battery stability and performance in early commercial cells.^[66] From the 2010s to 2025, LiF experienced robust growth in optical and electronics applications. In extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography, LiF coatings improved photoresist performance and resolution for sub-7nm semiconductor nodes, with integration into ASML's EUV tools by equipment partners like Applied Materials and Carl Zeiss SMT, driving adoption in high-volume manufacturing since around 2015.^[67] In organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), a 2005 patent by Eastman Kodak advanced LiF's role as an electron-injection layer in cathodes, boosting device efficiency and enabling broader commercial deployment in displays.^[68] As of 2025, global LiF production is estimated at approximately 83,000 metric tons annually, supporting a market valued at around USD 700 million, fueled by demand in batteries, optics, and nuclear sectors.^[69]^[20]

Safety and handling

Health hazards

Lithium fluoride exhibits moderate acute toxicity upon ingestion, with an oral LD50 of 608 mg/kg in male rats according to OECD Test Guideline 401.^[70] Symptoms of acute exposure primarily stem from the fluoride ion and may include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, resembling those of fluoride poisoning.^[71] Chronic exposure to lithium fluoride can lead to nephrotoxicity due to accumulation of the lithium ion, potentially resulting in chronic kidney disease over prolonged periods.^[72] Additionally, excessive fluoride intake exceeding 1.5 mg/L in drinking water is associated with dental fluorosis, characterized by mottling or discoloration of tooth enamel in children.^[73] Inhalation of lithium fluoride dust irritates the respiratory tract, causing symptoms such as coughing, throat discomfort, and potential pulmonary inflammation.^[74] Primary irritation arises from the dust, with possible minor release of hydrogen fluoride upon contact with acids.^[70] Under the Globally Harmonized System (GHS), lithium fluoride is classified as Acute Toxicity Category 4 for oral exposure and Skin Irritation Category 2, indicating potential for harmful effects if swallowed and mild skin redness upon contact.^[75] Occupational exposure limits for lithium fluoride are established based on fluoride content: the OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 2.5 mg/m³ as fluorine (8-hour time-weighted average), while the ACGIH threshold limit value (TLV) is also 2.5 mg/m³ as fluorine (TWA).^[75]

Regulatory aspects

Lithium fluoride is registered under the European Union's REACH regulation (EC No. 1907/2006) due to its toxic properties, including acute toxicity if swallowed (H301) and potential for skin, eye, and respiratory irritation.^[76] As a classified hazardous substance, it requires the provision of safety data sheets (SDS) detailing handling, storage, and emergency measures to ensure safe use throughout the supply chain. In the United States, lithium fluoride is listed on the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Chemical Substance Inventory, subjecting manufacturers and importers to certification requirements for compliance with TSCA import/export rules.^[77] Under the TSCA Chemical Data Reporting (CDR) rule (40 CFR Part 711), entities must report production or import volumes exceeding 25,000 pounds per year at a single site during the principal reporting year, providing data on manufacturing, processing, and use to the Environmental Protection Agency every four years.^[78]^[77] Safe handling of lithium fluoride mandates the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), including chemical-resistant gloves, safety goggles, and protective clothing to prevent skin and eye contact, as well as respiratory protection in dusty environments to avoid inhalation.^[70] It should be stored in tightly sealed, dry containers in a cool, well-ventilated area away from moisture, acids, and incompatible materials like strong oxidizers, as it can react with water to release hydrofluoric acid.^[75]^[70] Environmental precautions include avoiding release to waterways to prevent fluoride contamination. For disposal, lithium fluoride waste is typically managed as a hazardous waste under regulations like RCRA in the U.S., requiring neutralization with lime (calcium hydroxide) to form insoluble calcium fluoride before landfilling or incineration to mitigate fluoride leaching risks.^[79] Pure lithium fluoride is not a listed RCRA hazardous waste. It may be managed as characteristic hazardous waste if it exhibits toxicity, ignitability, corrosivity, or reactivity, though fluoride leaching is not directly regulated under TCLP toxicity criteria; wastes with fluoride concentrations below 20% are often classified as non-hazardous for Subtitle D landfills after treatment.^[79] Transportation of lithium fluoride is regulated as a toxic substance under UN number 3288 (Toxic solid, inorganic, n.o.s. (lithium fluoride)), classified in Hazard Class 6.1 (inhalation hazard, Packing Group III), requiring proper labeling, packaging, and documentation for road, rail, sea, and air shipment per DOT, IMDG, and IATA standards.^[80]^[81] The EU Battery Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 mandates a minimum 65% recycling efficiency for lithium recovery from lithium-ion batteries by 2025, applying to batteries that may involve lithium fluoride in electrolytes or decomposition products, requiring producers to ensure collection, treatment, and material recovery to promote circular economy principles and restrict environmental release of fluorides.^[82]

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Jul 4, 2022 · P2: Standard Reduction Potentials by Value ; Li+(aq) + e- ⇌ Li(s), -3.040 ; Rb+ + e- ⇌ Rb (s), -2.98 ; K+(aq) + e- ⇌ K(s), -2.93 ; Ba2+ + 2e− ⇌ Ba(s) ...Missing: Li+ / | Show results with:Li+ /
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WebElements Periodic Table » Lithium » lithium fluoride
Synthesis. One way to make lithium fluoride is to react the hydroxide with hydrofluoric acid. The resulting salt can then be purified by recrystallization.Missing: laboratory | Show results with:laboratory
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Production of high-purity lithium fluoride - Justia Patents
Mar 20, 2018 · The present invention relates to a process for preparing high-purity lithium fluoride proceeding from lithium carbonate, and to lithium ...
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[PDF] Safe Handling of Hydrogen Fluoride and Hydrofluoric Acid
Avoid contact with HF solutions, wear PPE, be prepared for emergencies, use compatible labware, and be trained on procedures involving HF.
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Hydrofluoric Acid: Burns and Systemic Toxicity, Protective Measures ...
HF acid causes burns and tissue necrosis, while when absorbed and distributed through the bloodstream, its extremely high toxic potential is expressed.
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[PDF] The production research of single crystals of lithium fluoride - CORE
... lithium fluoride with the unavoid- able water adsorbed on fine crystal surfaces. The average yield for lithium was 97.4%. The lithium fluoride prepared is a ...
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US3326631A - Method of producing lithium fluoride - Google Patents
A method of producing lithium fluoride consists in reacting solid lithium carbonate with an aqueous solution of hydrofluoric acid.
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18 Lithium Fluoride Manufacturers in 2025 - Metoree
Lithium fluoride is typically produced by reacting water-soluble lithium salts (e.g., lithium sulfate, carbonate, nitrate, or chloride) with hydrofluoric acid.
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Lithium fluoride production - US3241914A - Google Patents
A METHOD OF PRODUCING LITHIUM FLUORIDE WHICH COMPRISES: (1) PROVIDING AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION OF LITHIUM HYDROXIDE; (2) PROVIDING A SOLUBLE SILICOFLUORIDE; (3) ...
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Lithium Fluoride Market Size, Share, Growth & Forecast 2035
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[PDF] Estimating cost and energy demand in producing Lithium ...
Making Lithium Hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6). LiPF6 is predominantly produced from the reaction of phosphorus pentafluoride (PF5) and lithium fluoride (LiF) ...
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LiPF6 Hydrolysis Mechanism in Lithium Ion Batteries
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Reevaluating the Effect of a LiF-Containing Solid Electrolyte ...
Apr 30, 2025 · This work reexamines LiF's protective mechanisms while advancing SEI chemistry understanding, providing critical insights for developing high-performance LMBs.Supporting Information · Author Information · References
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Battery Grade High Purity Lithium Fluoride 2025 Trends and ...
Rating 4.8 (1,980) Mar 16, 2025 · Assuming a conservative Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 15% for the forecast period (2025-2033), the market is projected to reach ...
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Basic method for water detection in LiPF 6 -based electrolytes
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[PDF] Engineering Database of Liquid Salt Thermophysical and ...
Freezing (melting) temperature as low as possible, preferably lower than 525°C. Large specific heat and thermal conductivity.
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Molten salts have favorable material properties for use in high-temperature energy systems, including thermal energy storage systems, concentrating solar power ...
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The current efficiency decreases when the composition follows a liquidus isotherm, but increases when lithium fluoride is added at constant aluminium fluoride.
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[PDF] Excimer Projection Lithography at 193-nm Wavelength - DTIC
In this paper we address three such aspects which are specific to the short wavelength and pulsed operation of excimer lasers: the development of new resist ...
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High index fluoride materials for 193 nm immersion lithography
... lithium fluoride ... We expect that these fluoride high index materials are useful for the last lens material of the next generation immersion lithography.
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The performance of a lithium fluoride prism in an infra‐red spectrograph is described. Coverage of the spectral range from 2 to 5.9μ with considerably ...Missing: spectrophotometers analysis
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HGO grows LiF crystals in house using Czochralski technology. LiF crystal or lithium fluoride crystal is an optical material with outstanding transmittance ...
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In recent years lithium fluoride has become the most popular thermoluminescent material and is now available commercially as a microcrystalline powder.
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Jan 1, 2001 · Two emission bands were observed for all glow peaks with peak energies at around 3.0 eV and 2.75 eV. Key Words: Thermoluminescence, LiF.Mg,Ti, ...
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... lithium fluoride mineralization. Griceite forms as a late-stage mineral, occasionally lining and filling cavities within sodalite xenoliths such as this.
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Lithium fluoride forms the basic constituent of the fluoride salt mixture in liquid fluoride nuclear reactors.
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(73) Assignee: Eastman Kodak Company ... One such cathode is comprised of a thin layer of LiF ... treating a cathode or a first cathode sublayer of an OLED.
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Lithium Fluoride Market Size, Share | CAGR of 11.5%
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None
### Summary of Handling, Storage, Disposal, and Transport Information for Lithium Fluoride (Aldrich - 203645)
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Fluoride overdose Information | Mount Sinai - New York
Symptoms · Abdominal pain · Abnormal taste in the mouth (salty or soapy taste) · Diarrhea · Drooling · Eye irritation (if it gets in the eyes) · Headache · Abnormal ...Missing: lithium | Show results with:lithium
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Substance accumulation, in the human body, may occur and may cause some concern following repeated or long-term occupational exposure.Missing: bioaccumulate | Show results with:bioaccumulate<|separator|>
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[PDF] SAFETY DATA SHEET - Fisher Scientific
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[PDF] Toxicology of the Lithium Ion Battery Fire | Mass.gov
(erythema) and severe, throbbing pain; rapid tissue destruction (whitish discoloration followed by blistering (vesication)); and acute whole-body (systemic) ...
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Registration Dossier - ECHA
### Summary of REACH Classification and Hazards for Lithium Fluoride
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Lithium fluoride | FLi | CID 224478 - PubChem
2 Color / Form. Cubic crystals (NaCl lattice) or white fluffy powder. O'Neil ... crystal structure type · optical absorption · melting transition · electron ...
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TSCA Chemical Data Reporting Fact Sheet: Reporting Thresholds ...
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https://www.gfschemicals.com/Portals/0/msds/A4341msds.pdf
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https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/US/en/sds/Aldrich/237965
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[PDF] SAFETY DATA SHEET Lithium Fluoride (pieces)
Bioaccumulative potential Bio-Accumulative Potential No data available on bioaccumulation. Partition coefficient Not applicable. Mobility in soil Mobility No ...
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New rules to boost recycling efficiency from waste batteries
Jul 4, 2025 · The Commission published new rules on Friday for calculating and verifying recycling efficiency and the recovery of materials from waste batteries.Missing: directive electrolytes