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Mount Ebal

Mount Ebal is a mountain in the northern West Bank rising to an elevation of 940 meters (3,084 feet) above sea level, positioned immediately north of the ancient city of Shechem (modern Nablus) and forming one side of the valley that separates it from Mount Gerizim to the south.^[1] In the Hebrew Bible, Mount Ebal is designated as the site for pronouncing curses upon the Israelites for disobedience to the covenant, as instructed in Deuteronomy 27, and Joshua is recorded as building an altar there from unhewn stones, offering sacrifices, and reading the blessings and curses before the assembled people following the conquest of Ai (Joshua 8:30–35).^[2] Archaeological surveys and excavations led by Adam Zertal from 1982 to 1989 uncovered a large rectangular stone structure on the mountain's eastern slope, interpreted by him as an Iron Age I altar consistent with biblical descriptions, accompanied by animal bones and ash deposits indicative of sacrificial activity.^[2] More recently, a small lead object recovered from the site's sift material has been claimed to bear the earliest known Proto-Alphabetic/Proto-Canaanite inscription, reading "cursed by YHW" in a defixio curse formula, potentially linking to the biblical curses, though this interpretation has faced refutation on grounds that no legible inscription is discernible through standard imaging techniques.^[2]^[3]

Geography

Location and Topography

Mount Ebal is a prominent mountain in the Samaria region of the northern West Bank, located immediately north of the city of Nablus, ancient Shechem. Its summit coordinates are approximately 32°14′N 35°16′E. The peak rises to an elevation of 940 meters (3,084 feet) above sea level, positioning it among the highest elevations in the West Bank.^[4]^[5] Positioned opposite Mount Gerizim to the south, Mount Ebal forms part of a dramatic topographic feature where a valley, roughly 210 meters (700 feet) deep, separates the two mountains and channels one of the primary east-west routes through the central Palestinian hill country. This configuration influences local drainage and accessibility, with the mountain's slopes descending sharply into the surrounding wadis.^[4] The topography of Mount Ebal is characterized by steep, rocky slopes typical of the Samarian highlands, with an average elevation across its approximately 18 square kilometers of terrain around 754 meters. The upper reaches consist of rugged limestone formations, supporting sparse vegetation and historical human activity on the relatively flatter summit areas. Hiking trails, such as those leading to ancient sites, involve significant elevation gains of up to 515 meters over distances of about 14 kilometers.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Geological Features

Mount Ebal, situated within the Samaria Mountains of central Israel, consists primarily of Cenomanian-Turonian age limestone and dolomite formations, which form a highly permeable carbonate aquifer underlying the region's highlands.^[9] These sedimentary rocks, deposited in a shallow marine environment during the Late Cretaceous, exhibit thicknesses up to several hundred meters and are overlain in places by Eocene limestones.^[10] The mountain's lithology contributes to its karstic characteristics, including solution cavities and potential cave systems developed through dissolution processes in the carbonate bedrock.^[11] Geologically, Mount Ebal represents the northern extension of the Judean-Samarian anticlinorium, a folded structure resulting from compressional tectonics associated with the Syrian Arc deformation during the early Alpine orogeny in the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene.^[12] This anticlinal uplift exposes older Cretaceous strata at higher elevations, with dipping beds creating the mountain's steep, terraced slopes and rugged topography. The elevation peaks at 940 meters above sea level, with minimal soil development due to the resistant nature of the hard limestone layers, which weather into stepped escarpments.^[13] Seismic activity in the broader Dead Sea Transform region influences minor faulting, though the mountain remains structurally stable.^[10]

Biblical Account

Curses and Covenant in Deuteronomy

In Deuteronomy 11:29, Moses instructs the Israelites that, upon entering the Promised Land, they are to pronounce the blessing upon Mount Gerizim and the curse upon Mount Ebal, framing these opposite peaks as symbolic loci for the covenant's dual outcomes of obedience and disobedience.^[14] This directive underscores the Deuteronomic covenant's structure, modeled on ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties, where fidelity to Yahweh yields prosperity while infidelity invokes retribution, with Mount Ebal's barren terrain evoking the desolation of curse fulfillment.^[15]^[16] Deuteronomy 27 elaborates the ritual on Mount Ebal as central to covenant ratification: the Israelites must erect an altar of unhewn stones, coat large stones with plaster, inscribe the Torah upon them, and offer burnt and peace sacrifices before rejoicing in Yahweh's presence.^[17] Six tribes—Reuben, Gad, Asher, Zebulun, Dan, and Naphtali—are to stand on Ebal to affirm the curses, while an opposing group on Gerizim affirms blessings; the Levites then recite twelve specific imprecations, to which the assembly responds "Amen."^[17] These curses target violations such as crafting idols (27:15), dishonoring parents (27:16), illicit sexual relations (27:20-23), murder (27:24-25), land boundary tampering (27:17), injustice to the vulnerable (27:18-19), and secret abominations (27:15, 24), emphasizing personal and communal accountability under the covenant law.^[15]^[18] The Ebal-focused curses dominate the chapter's ceremony, reflecting a theological emphasis on warning against apostasy to preserve covenant loyalty, though balanced by the broader Deuteronomic hope in Yahweh's grace amid human frailty.^[18] This procedure anticipates fulfillment in the land, integrating worship, law inscription, and verbal oath to bind Israel ethically and ritually to Yahweh's suzerainty, with Ebal's prominence highlighting the covenant's punitive realism over unbridled optimism.^[19]^[20]

Joshua's Altar and Renewal Ceremony

Following the Israelite conquest of Ai, Joshua constructed an altar to the LORD on Mount Ebal, fulfilling the instructions given by Moses in Deuteronomy 27:1–8.^[21]^[22] The altar consisted of large stones upon which no iron tool had been used, adhering to the prohibition against hewing stones for altars to avoid defilement.^[23]^[24] Joshua then offered burnt offerings and peace offerings on it, enabling the people to sacrifice and eat before the LORD as prescribed.^[25] In a subsequent act of covenant renewal, Joshua had a copy of the Torah—the law given through Moses—inscribed on stones coated with plaster, making the text publicly visible and permanent.^[26]^[27] The entire assembly of Israel gathered, including elders, officers, men, women, children, and resident foreigners who had joined them, positioning themselves with half the tribes facing Mount Gerizim and the other half facing Mount Ebal to symbolize the dual outcomes of obedience and disobedience.^[28]^[29] Joshua proceeded to read aloud the full contents of the law, encompassing both the blessings for covenant fidelity and the curses for violation, ensuring no word was omitted from the written record.^[30] This public recitation echoed the earlier mandate in Deuteronomy 27, where the Levites were to proclaim twelve specific curses against hidden sins—such as idolatry, dishonoring parents, sexual immorality, injustice, and secret murder—with the people responding "Amen" to affirm their acceptance of the covenant's terms.^[31] The event marked a formal recommitment to the Mosaic covenant upon entry into the Promised Land, integrating sacrifice, inscription of the law, and verbal proclamation to bind the nation collectively to its stipulations.^[32]

Archaeological Evidence

Early Surveys and Excavations

Interest in archaeological remains on Mount Ebal arose in the 19th century, primarily motivated by the biblical description of an altar built by Joshua following the conquest of Ai (Joshua 8:30–31). Multiple expeditions traversed the mountain, each proposing distinct candidate sites for the altar, yet none produced definitive evidence of ancient structures matching the scriptural account.^[33]^[34] British officers Claude Reignier Conder and Horatio Herbert Kitchener, conducting the Survey of Western Palestine for the Palestine Exploration Fund between 1872 and 1877, mapped and described Mount Ebal's topography in detail, including its summits and slopes. They performed a limited excavation on the main summit but uncovered no Iron Age remains or altar-like features, attributing visible ruins primarily to later periods.^[35]^[36] Earlier surveys by American biblical scholar Edward Robinson in 1838 and 1852, and French explorer Victor Guérin in the 1870s, similarly examined potential locations on the mountain's northern and eastern flanks but reported only natural features and medieval debris, without identifying pre-Hellenistic cultic installations.^[34] No significant excavations occurred on Mount Ebal during the early 20th century, leaving the site uninvestigated amid broader regional work elsewhere in Samaria. Renewed systematic survey efforts began in 1978 under Israeli archaeologist Adam Zertal's Manasseh Hill Country Survey, which in February 1980 identified an unexcavated Iron Age I enclosure on the northern slope—designated Site 105—measuring approximately 9 by 8.5 meters and covered by fieldstones.^[37]^[38] Preliminary test excavations commenced that year, revealing ash layers and animal bones indicative of sacrificial activity, prompting full-scale digs from 1982 to 1987 across five seasons that exposed the structure's rectangular layout, central hearth, and surrounding courtyards.^[39]^[37]

The Iron Age I Structure

The Iron Age I structure on Mount Ebal, located at the site known as el-Burnat on the mountain's upper northern slope, was discovered in 1980 during an archaeological survey of the territory of Manasseh conducted by Adam Zertal of the University of Haifa.^[40] Excavations took place over eight seasons from 1982 to 1989, under the auspices of the University of Haifa and the Israel Exploration Society, revealing a single-period site spanning approximately 4,000 square meters with no evidence of prior or subsequent occupation.^[41] The structure occupies the site's central terrace, built directly on exposed bedrock, and represents the only Iron Age I archaeological remains identified on Mount Ebal amid 12 other surveyed sites primarily from the Middle Bronze Age or later periods.^[38] The primary feature is a large rectangular stone platform, measuring roughly 9 by 8 meters and rising about 2.7 meters high, constructed from uncut fieldstones without mortar and featuring a surrounding courtyard system with dividing walls and access ramps.^[42] At its core lies a circular stone installation, approximately 5 meters in diameter, filled with stratified layers of ash, disintegrated bones, and pottery fragments, which Zertal interpreted as the main altar for burnt offerings.^[36] Additional elements include stone piles and depressions used for processing or disposal, with no traces of domestic architecture, tools, or storage facilities indicating settlement activity.^[39] Faunal analysis of over 280 kilograms of bone fragments recovered from the ash layers revealed a predominance of sheep, goats, and fallow deer remains, many exhibiting cut marks and burning consistent with sacrificial practices, while the complete absence of pig bones aligns with early Israelite purity taboos observed in contemporaneous hill-country sites.^[40] Pottery sherds, including characteristic collared-rim jars and cooking pots, were found exclusively in the fill and showed no foreign influences, supporting localized production by semi-nomadic groups transitioning to sedentism.^[38] Scarabs and seals dated to the Late Bronze Age-Iron Age transition were also present, but no inscribed objects or cultic figurines appeared, distinguishing the site from typical Canaanite temples.^[43] Dating to the 12th-11th centuries BCE based on ceramic typology and radiocarbon-compatible contexts, the structure's design—evoking horned altar forms from the southern Levant—has been proposed by Zertal as the biblical altar erected by Joshua following the conquest of Ai, per Joshua 8:30-31, due to its elevated position overlooking the Shechem valley and alignment with Deuteronomy's covenantal rites on Ebal.^[42] Subsequent analyses, including by Ralph K. Hawkins, affirm its cultic function as a regional Israelite sanctuary central to early tribal unification, though critics like Aharon Kempinski have alternatively classified it as a watchtower based on its strategic vantage and lack of definitive ritual markers.^[38] The site's isolation and purity of Iron I deposits underscore its specialized role, potentially as an open-air high place (bamah) for periodic assemblies rather than daily worship.^[39]

The Lead Curse Tablet Discovery

In 2019, during wet-sifting operations of debris from a previously excavated cultic structure on Mount Ebal, a team led by archaeologist Scott Stripling of the Associates for Biblical Research (ABR) discovered a small, folded lead object measuring approximately 2 cm by 2 cm.^[44]^[45] The material originated from dumps associated with Adam Zertal's 1980s excavations at the site, which identified an Iron Age I altar potentially linked to Joshua's covenant renewal ceremony described in the Bible.^[46] Stripling's group, conducting renewed fieldwork under Israeli Antiquities Authority permits, recovered the object from unsifted sediment layers tied to the Late Bronze Age II period (c. 1400–1200 BCE), contemporaneous with the biblical conquest narrative.^[47] The lead sheet, identified as a defixio (curse tablet) after careful unfolding in a controlled environment to avoid contamination, revealed incised proto-alphabetic script on both sides, comprising about 40 characters.^[48] Stripling and epigrapher Gershon Galil interpreted the text as ancient Hebrew, including the name "Yahweh" (YHWH) and phrases invoking curses, such as "Cursed by Yahweh be [name or entity]," aligning with the Deuteronomic curses pronounced on Mount Ebal in Joshua 8:30–35.^[49] Radiometric analysis and paleographic dating placed the artifact to the 13th century BCE, predating other known Hebrew inscriptions by centuries and suggesting it as the earliest extra-biblical reference to Israel's deity.^[46] The discovery was publicly announced on March 24, 2022, with claims that it corroborates biblical accounts of covenant rituals involving curses inscribed on perishable materials.^[47] Analysis involved advanced imaging techniques, including X-ray fluorescence and micro-CT scans, conducted at institutions like the Israel Antiquities Authority's conservation lab and Virginia Tech, confirming lead composition consistent with ancient Mediterranean sources and no modern alloys.^[44] The ABR team argued the tablet's folding—a standard ancient practice to activate curses—occurred post-inscription, with the text's archaic script features (e.g., non-linear Paleo-Hebrew forms) supporting an early Iron Age or late Bronze Age origin.^[48] Publication in the peer-reviewed journal Heritage Science in May 2023 detailed the methodology, though the journal's focus on conservation science rather than epigraphy drew criticism for limited archaeological peer review.^[45] ABR maintains the find's stratigraphic linkage to the site's cultic layers, excavated under Zertal, provides contextual integrity despite the secondary sifting context.^[46] Skeptics, including epigraphers like Christopher Rollston and Aren Maeir, have questioned the inscription's legibility, attributing marks to manufacturing scratches rather than deliberate writing, and noted the lack of named individuals typical in defixiones.^[50]^[3] Alternative identifications propose the object as a fishing net weight, citing its shape and lack of provenance from primary excavation.^[51] Stripling counters that the script's semantic coherence and site-specific curse motif outweigh such interpretations, emphasizing multidisciplinary verification.^[52] The discovery remains debated, with ABR advocating for its significance in validating early Israelite literacy and religious practices at the biblical "mountain of curses."^[44]

Debates and Criticisms

Authenticity Disputes of the Curse Tablet

The lead curse tablet, a folded sheet approximately 2 cm by 2 cm, was recovered in March 2019 from wet-sifted debris originating from a cultic structure at Mount Ebal, excavated in the 1980s by Adam Zertal. The discovery was made by a team directed by Scott Stripling of the Associates for Biblical Research, an organization affiliated with evangelical scholarship aimed at corroborating biblical historicity. Upon unfolding, the team reported no visible inscription under optical microscopy, leading to the use of X-ray tomography and micro-CT scanning to reveal purported proto-alphabetic characters forming a curse formula: "You are cursed by the God YHW [Yahweh], cursed. You will die cursed, cursed you will surely die. Cursed by YHW – cursed, cursed, cursed." This interpretation, attributed to epigrapher Gershon Galil, was published in Heritage Science in May 2023, with radiocarbon dating of associated animal remains suggesting a Late Bronze Age II context (circa 1400–1200 BCE).^[2] Authenticity challenges emerged promptly, centered on the absence of discernible writing in high-resolution photographs of the unfolded tablet, which showed only creases, corrosion, and possible scratches rather than intentional script. Critics, including epigraphers Christopher Rollston and Aren Maeir, contended in a February 2024 Heritage Science response that the tomographic images do not yield coherent proto-Hebrew letters, attributing perceived characters to imaging artifacts, random marks, or pareidolia influenced by expectations of a Deuteronomic curse tied to Joshua 8. They highlighted the destructive unfolding process, conducted without prior non-invasive imaging or stratigraphic documentation, and noted the tablet's recovery from secondary debris rather than primary context, raising contamination risks from modern handling. Rollston emphasized that genuine ancient defixiones (curse tablets) typically exhibit legible inscriptions upon unfolding, unlike this specimen.^[3]^[45] Further skepticism targeted material and paleographic analyses: lead isotope ratios indicated a source potentially consistent with ancient Mediterranean mining, but Haaretz-reported studies in 2023 questioned their specificity, suggesting compatibility with modern lead. Paleographic claims of an early alphabet predating known examples like the Izbet Sartah ostracon were disputed for lacking comparanda, with critics arguing the "script" deviates from established Late Bronze repertoires and resembles no verified curse texts. Archaeologist Amihai Mazar proposed the object functions as a common Iron Age fishing net weight, citing its form and lack of epigraphic precedent, a view echoed in Biblical Archaeology Society analyses. These critiques reflect broader academic caution toward biblical archaeology claims, where minimalist paradigms in institutions like Tel Aviv University prioritize empirical visibility over interpretive scans, potentially undervaluing context but demanding verifiable script absent here.^[50]^[53] Defenders, including Stripling, countered that proprietary scan data—unshared for replication—reveals deliberate incisions invisible optically due to lead's opacity and folding, aligning with rare defixio practices from defixiones magiae. They invoked the site's cultic faunal remains (e.g., lamb, kid, sheep incompatible with later Israelite norms) and curse typology matching Deuteronomy 27–28 as contextual support, dismissing critics' bias toward late-dating biblical traditions. As of 2024, no consensus exists; peer-reviewed rebuttals have not prompted retractions, but the debate underscores tensions between technology-driven readings and traditional epigraphy, with empirical priority favoring skepticism absent independent scan verification.^[51]^[52]

Interpretations of the Altar Site

The rectangular Iron Age I structure excavated on Mount Ebal's northern slope, measuring roughly 9 by 7 meters and built from unhewn fieldstones without iron-tool marks, features a surrounding ramp, ash-filled depressions, and over 1,000 animal bone fragments primarily from kosher species such as sheep, goats, and cattle, with no pig remains detected.^[54]^[37] Beneath this lay an earlier circular structure with Late Bronze Age pottery, suggesting phased cultic use beginning around the late 13th century BCE.^[51] Excavator Adam Zertal interpreted the site as an early Israelite cultic center, specifically the altar erected by Joshua following the conquest of Ai, as detailed in Joshua 8:30–31, which mandates construction of uncut stones for burnt offerings and aligns with the site's unworked stones, sacrificial ash layers, and absence of idols or pig bones—hallmarks distinguishing Israelite from Canaanite practices.^[13]^[38] Zertal's analysis of the pottery, dominated by collared-rim storage jars typical of 12th–11th century BCE highland settlements, positioned the site as evidence of proto-Israelite ritual continuity predating the United Monarchy.^[55] Scholars endorsing Zertal's biblical linkage emphasize the site's alignment with Deuteronomy 27's covenant renewal ceremony on Mount Ebal, including its elevated, isolated location overlooking the Jordan Valley and the presence of burnt animal remains indicative of whole-offering sacrifices prohibited elsewhere after Shiloh's establishment.^[54] This view gains indirect support from the structure's decommissioning around 1050 BCE, correlating with Philistine pressures and the shift to centralized worship.^[56] Alternative interpretations classify the structure as a generic Iron Age cultic platform without direct Joshua attribution, potentially a regional shrine or pre-Israelite installation repurposed by settlers, given ambiguities in stratigraphic dating and the scarcity of inscribed artifacts linking it explicitly to biblical figures.^[57] Some archaeologists propose non-cultic functions, such as a watchtower or agricultural terrace, citing the ramp's possible utilitarian role and the site's defensive topography, though these conflict with the thick ash deposits and faunal evidence of ritual feasting.^[58] Samaritan tradition rejects Ebal identifications, asserting Mount Gerizim as the sole sacred site for altars and covenant rituals, viewing Deuteronomy and Joshua's Ebal references as later Judean interpolations in a sectarian rivalry over holy geography that intensified post-exile.^[59] Despite such debates, the consensus affirms the site's cultic character based on empirical remains, with biblical correlations hinging on the structure's fidelity to Torah prescriptions amid sparse contemporary epigraphy.^[56]

Broader Historical Corroboration

The ritual of covenant renewal described in Deuteronomy 27 and Joshua 8, involving the proclamation of curses from Mount Ebal, reflects established ancient Near Eastern conventions for formalizing agreements between overlords and subordinates. Suzerain-vassal treaties from the Hittite empire (ca. 14th-13th centuries BCE) and later Assyrian edicts typically concluded with sections enumerating blessings for fidelity and curses for breach, mirroring the structure of Deuteronomy 28's conditional formulae.^[60] ^[16] These parallels indicate that the biblical account employs a culturally authentic literary and rhetorical framework prevalent in the Late Bronze Age Levant, rather than anachronistic invention.^[61] Archaeological data from Mount Ebal and surrounding surveys further situate the site within the transition from Late Bronze Age collapse (ca. 1200 BCE) to Iron Age I highland settlement expansion. Excavations yielded pottery sherds, faunal remains from kosher species only (e.g., sheep, goat, beef; no pig bones), and ash deposits consistent with sacrificial activity, aligning with emerging Israelite material culture distinguished by collared-rim jars and avoidance of pork consumption—patterns absent in contemporaneous Philistine or Canaanite lowland sites.^[42] Regional surveys document a tripling of small, unwalled villages in the central hill country (e.g., Manasseh territory) around 1200-1100 BCE, marking a shift from urban decay to tribal agrarian communities, which empirically corroborates a context of social reorganization potentially conducive to covenantal assemblies.^[62] While no contemporaneous extrabiblical texts directly reference the Ebal ceremony—expected for a localized tribal rite amid sparse epigraphic records—the site's isolation as the sole Iron Age cultic installation on the mountain, without associated habitation, underscores its specialized role, atypical of routine Canaanite high places.^[63] This uniqueness, combined with the structure's construction from uncut fieldstones (echoing but independently verifiable from regional practices), supports plausibility within broader Levantine ritual traditions, though interpretations vary; minimalist scholars emphasize endogenous ethnogenesis over external conquest narratives.^[54]

Cultural and Modern Context

Samaritan Religious Significance

In Samaritan tradition, Mount Ebal serves as the designated site for pronouncing curses during the covenant renewal ceremony described in Deuteronomy 27:11–13, where six tribes of Israel were to stand on Ebal to declare the curses for covenant violation, while the opposing six tribes stood on Mount Gerizim for blessings.^[64] This ritual, enacted upon entry into the land of Canaan near Shechem (modern Nablus), underscores Ebal's role in emphasizing obedience to the Torah through the stark contrast of divine consequences, though Gerizim holds primacy as the mountain of blessing and the eternal chosen site of God's presence.^[59] Samaritans, numbering around 800 today and residing primarily between Ebal and Gerizim, maintain this dual-mountain framework as integral to their understanding of the Torah's ethical and ritual demands, with annual Passover sacrifices on Gerizim evoking the broader covenantal landscape including Ebal.^[65] A key distinction arises in Deuteronomy 27:4 of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which specifies Mount Gerizim—rather than Ebal—as the location for erecting an altar of uncut stones, inscribing the Torah, and offering sacrifices, as commanded to Joshua.^[64] This reading aligns with Samaritan chronicles attributing Joshua's altar and the twelve stones of the law to Gerizim's "Eternal Hill," positioning it as the initial tabernacle site before any other sanctuary.^[64] In contrast, the Masoretic Text (basis of Jewish tradition) names Ebal, a discrepancy rooted in Second Temple-era polemics between Samaritans and Judeans over the true holy mountain, exacerbated by the Hasmonean destruction of the Samaritan temple on Gerizim in 128 BCE.^[59] Certain Qumran fragments and the Old Greek translation of Deuteronomy support the Gerizim variant as potentially pre-sectarian, suggesting it may reflect an earlier textual tradition later altered in the Masoretic line amid rivalry, though traditional Jewish sources attribute the change to Samaritan interpolation favoring their temple site.^[59] Consequently, Mount Ebal's religious weight in Samaritanism is subordinated to Gerizim's centrality, serving mainly as a foil in the blessing-curse dialectic without altar associations, reinforcing Samaritan identity against Jerusalem-centric Judaism while preserving the Torah's geographic specificity for moral instruction.^[66]

Contemporary Archaeological and Political Implications

The discovery of a folded lead object, interpreted by some researchers as a curse tablet (defixio) from Mount Ebal's Late Bronze Age strata, has fueled contemporary debates on early Israelite religious practices and literacy. Announced in 2022 following wet-sifting of excavation dumps from Adam Zertal's 1980s digs, the artifact—measuring about 2 cm by 2 cm—allegedly bears proto-alphabetic script invoking Yahweh and curses, potentially corroborating the Deuteronomic curse ceremony described in Joshua 8:30-35 and Deuteronomy 27:11-13.^[67] If verified, it would represent the earliest extra-biblical reference to Yahweh, dating to circa 1200 BCE, and evidence of pre-monarchic Israelite cultic activity at the site, challenging scholarly minimalism that attributes such traditions to later Iron Age inventions.^[46] However, the object's authenticity remains contested, with 2023-2024 peer-reviewed analyses using advanced imaging techniques like neutron tomography failing to detect legible inscriptions, leading critics to propose it as an Iron Age fishing weight or uninscribed defixio lacking specific Hebrew identifiers.^[3] Proponents, including excavator Scott Stripling, counter with high-resolution scans from 2023 revealing folded script layers, arguing that academic skepticism reflects methodological biases favoring non-biblical interpretations over empirical epigraphic data.^[68] These disputes underscore broader archaeological implications: affirming the tablet could validate Zertal's Iron Age I altar as Joshua's, linking material culture to biblical texts and supporting convergence of archaeology with historical narratives of conquest and covenant renewal, while rejection reinforces views of the Hebrew Bible as largely ahistorical etiology.^[51] Politically, Mount Ebal's location in Area B of the West Bank—under joint Israeli-Palestinian Authority (PA) civil control per the 1995 Oslo Accords—has transformed excavations into flashpoints amid Israeli-Palestinian territorial disputes. Israeli-led digs, such as Stripling's 2019 renewal of Zertal's work under the Associates for Biblical Research, require coordination with PA authorities, but Palestinian actions, including 2021 bulldozing that damaged potential Iron Age structures, have been interpreted by Israeli officials and settler groups as deliberate erasure of Jewish historical claims to Samaria.^[69] In response, Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant pledged site protection in January 2023, citing threats from PA infrastructure projects, while October 2023 saw 10,000 Israelis march to the site to protest perceived encroachments.^[70]^[71] These tensions highlight archaeology's role in bolstering competing indigeneity narratives: for Israelis, Ebal's potential altar and tablet affirm ancient Jewish ties to Judea and Samaria, countering PA assertions of exclusive Palestinian heritage and justifying administrative oversight in contested zones; for Palestinians and international critics, such activities enable settlement expansion and undermine two-state viability by prioritizing biblical over local Arab continuity.^[72] Ongoing permit disputes, including 2023 efforts to relocate sifted soil to nearby Jewish communities, exemplify how empirical digs intersect with sovereignty claims, often amplified by media portrayals that academic sources sympathetic to Palestinian positions deem Israeli efforts as politically motivated appropriation.^[73] Despite this, no major excavations have resumed post-2019 due to security and diplomatic constraints, limiting further data resolution.^[52]

References

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https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2027%3A2-4&version=ESV
[28]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Joshua%208%3A33&version=ESV
[29]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2027%3A11-13&version=ESV
[30]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Joshua%208%3A34-35&version=ESV
[31]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2027%3A14-26&version=ESV
[32]
https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy%2027%3A9-10&version=ESV
[33]
Mount Ebal – more than meets the eye | The Jerusalem Post
Mar 10, 2021 · ... 19th century, four separate archaeological parties wandered over Mt. Ebal in search of Joshua's Altar, but found nothing. The site that we ...
[34]
Mount Ebal | Let's shout AMEN by Joshua's Altar
Four 19th-century expeditions set out to search for the altar of Joshua 8, each choosing a different spot on the mountain. None of them found anything ...
[35]
On the Mountain of the Curse - New Creation Blog
Oct 2, 2024 · For over a century, explorers and archaeologists searched Mount Ebal for traces of Joshua's altar. For example, Conder and Kitchener, British ...
[36]
Joshua's Altar, Mt. Ebal - BibleWalks 500+ sites
On the eastern foothills of Mt. Ebal are remains of an Iron Age 1 ritual place, suggested as an altar built by Joshua.
[37]
Mount Ebal and the Tale of Two Altars | ArmstrongInstitute.org
Through the next four excavations, Zertal found large amounts of ash and bone in the area around the large structure. In fact, he found more than 1,000 bones, ...Missing: geology | Show results with:geology
[38]
The Iron Age I Structure on Mt. Ebal - Biblical Archaeology Society
Aug 1, 2013 · In 1980, during an archaeological survey, Israeli archaeologist Adam Zertal discovered the site of El-Ahwat on Mt. Ebal (near Nablus/Shechem).
[39]
The Iron Age I Structure on Mount Ebal: Excavation and Interpretation
Problem. The Iron Age I site on Mt. Ebal, discovered in 1980 by Adam Zertal and excavated between 1982 and 1989, has remained largely unknown by both the ...
[40]
The Iron Age I Structure on Mt. Ebal - Eisenbrauns
The site was excavated over eight seasons, from 1982 to 1989, under the auspices of the University of Haifa and the Israel Exploration Society. In 1985, Zertal ...
[41]
The Iron Age I Structure on Mt. Ebal: Excavation and Interpretation
The site was excavated over eight seasons, from 1982 to 1989, under the auspices of the University of Haifa and the Israel Exploration Society. In 1985, Zertal ...
[42]
[PDF] Has Joshua's Altar Been Found on Mt. Ebal?
We found the altar and cult center, not in the course of excavating a tell, but in the course of con- ducting an archaeological survey. The recent history of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
The Iron Age I Structure on Mt. Ebal - Project MUSE
In 1980, during the survey of the territory of Manasseh, Israeli archaeologist Adam Zertal discovered a site on Mt. Ebal dating to the period of Iron I, during ...
[44]
Mt Ebal Curse Tablet - Defixio - Associates for Biblical Research
ABR's archaeological investigation and ongoing research at Ebal has identified an altar from the time of Joshua, as well as the discovery of a curse tablet.
[45]
Academic article on controversial 3,200-year-old 'curse tablet' fails to ...
May 14, 2023 · A curse tablet from the mount of curses. The curse tablet was discovered in earth and debris originally removed from a cultic site at Mount Ebal ...
[46]
https://answersingenesis.org/archaeology/joshuas-altar-and-mount-ebal-curse-tablet/
[47]
Ancient Hebrew 'Curse Tablet' Discovered at Joshua's Altar
Mar 24, 2022 · The curse tablet (or defixio), unearthed in 2019 and believed to date to the Late Bronze Age ii period (circa 1400–1200 bce), contains an ancient Hebrew ...<|separator|>
[48]
An Early Israelite Curse Inscription from Mt. Ebal?
Apr 25, 2022 · The Mt. Ebal inscription is a lead tablet, claimed to be the oldest Hebrew inscription, a legal text and curse invoking Yahweh, with the text " ...Missing: geological composition stratigraphy
[49]
The Curse Tablet From Joshua's Altar on Mount Ebal
May 16, 2023 · The Curse Tablet From Joshua's Altar on Mount Ebal. An interview with archaeologist Dr. Scott Stripling. By Armstrong Institute Staff • May 16, ...
[50]
New Studies Debunk Controversial Biblical 'Curse Tablet' From Mt ...
Nov 30, 2023 · The curse tablet was dated to the Late Bronze Age, roughly when one would expect Joshua's conquest to have occurred. Its discovery confirmed ...
[51]
More Thoughts on the Lead Tablet from Mt. Ebal
Dec 9, 2023 · As background, in the 1980's, Israeli archaeologist Adam Zertal excavated a rectangular, nearly square alter on Mt. ... peer-reviewed article ...
[52]
Latest Round in Mount Ebal Saga: Curse Tablet Hit by One-Two ...
Mar 26, 2024 · The announcement, in short, was the discovery at Mount Ebal (the biblical, conquest-period “mountain of curse”) of a miniature folded lead ...
[53]
Hook, Line, and Sinker: Mt. Ebal Curse Tablet Debunked?
Dec 4, 2023 · The controversial Mt. Ebal curse tablet may be no more than a common fishing weight. At least that is the suggestion of archaeologist Amihai Mazar.
[54]
A Biblical Altar on Mt. Ebal and Other Israelite Footprints in the ...
Feb 29, 2016 · Adam Zertal and his team discovered a cultic site on Mt. Ebal with a large altar. Could this be the Biblical altar mentioned in Joshua 8?Missing: peer- | Show results with:peer-
[55]
(PDF) AN EARLY IRON AGE CULTIC SITE ON MOUNT EBAL ...
AN EARLY IRON AGE CULTIC SITE ON MOUNT EBAL EXCAVATION SEASONS 1982 1987 PRELIMINARY REPORT PART 1.Missing: interpretations | Show results with:interpretations
[56]
The Cult Site on Mount Ebal: A Biblical Tradition Rewritten and ...
28 Even though I am keen to interpret the rectangular structure in stratum IB as an altar and this Iron Age I site in el-Burnat on Mount Ebal as an early cultic ...
[57]
The Archaeology of Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim and Why It Matters
326 Sepher Torath Mosheh on Mount Ebal, rather than consigning one location to a place of blessing and one to a place of curse, these stelae would mark both ...
[58]
ground forit;it father. - jstor
the Iron Age I structure on Mount Ebal remain controverted. This book is most reader-friendly. It is very well documented and clearly presents all positions ...
[59]
An Altar on Mt Ebal or Mt Gerizim? – The Torah in the Sectarian ...
Sep 21, 2016 · The textual remnants of a Second Temple religious polemic between Judeans and Samaritans about where God's chosen mountain lies.<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Enforcing YHWH's Covenant with Blessings and Curses—Imperial ...
Oct 9, 2022 · The blessings and curses formulae in Deuteronomy 27–28 reveal a rich, complex and innovative interaction with ancient Near Eastern and Achaemenid parallels.
[61]
The Ebal Ceremony As Hebrew Land Grant? -- By: Andrew E. Hill
Sep 4, 2024 · 1 The present brief study seeks to relate the Ebal ceremony to known ancient Near Eastern treaty forms and the acknowledged covenant structure ...
[62]
Why does a 3300 year-old piece of rock from Mount Ebal matter ...
Apr 3, 2022 · The quantities of bones found at the site show that it was used for worship. The pottery found at the site links to it a larger settlement ...
[63]
Evidence for Dating the Mt. Ebal Altar - The BAS Library
Within an oval frame, the scarab displays a geometrical pattern consisting of a four-petal rosette and, between the petals, four branches. From each branch ...
[64]
Mount Gerizim and the Samaritans
Mount Gerizim is the most sacred place for Samaritans, where God's presence is chosen, and a key part of their faith, and a point of difference from Jews.
[65]
Mount Gerizim and the Samaritans - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The archaeological remains on the main summit consist of a large acropolis with paved temenos and massive fortifications with casemate walls and chamber gates, ...Missing: geology | Show results with:geology<|control11|><|separator|>
[66]
Samaritan Deuteronomy 27:4 - intertextual.bible
The Samaritan Pentateuch replaces “Ebal” with “Gerizim,” harmonizing the command with the Samaritan's distinct temple location.
[67]
A Response to “Big Digs, Bad Detectives”
Apr 14, 2025 · Dr. Scott Stripling exposes omissions and misinformation in a recent Christianity Today article that criticizes ABR's Mt. Ebal curse tablet ...
[68]
Discovery of the Mt Ebal Curse Tablet: Where Things Stand
May 21, 2025 · Rising 3,084 feet above sea level in northern Samaria near modern Nablus, Mt Ebal holds profound significance in the Bible. Deuteronomy 11:29 ...
[69]
Settlers take on West Bank archaeology as ancient 'Joshua' wall ...
Feb 22, 2021 · The issue has swiftly snowballed into a political fight that has garnered major headlines and sparked accusations carrying highly charged ...Missing: implications | Show results with:implications
[70]
Gallant pledges to safeguard archaeological site at Mount Ebal from ...
Jan 24, 2023 · The site, located in Area B of Judea and Samaria, commonly called the West Bank, has been under joint control with the Palestinians, as ...Missing: political implications
[71]
10,000 march to Joshua's altar to protect West Bank archaeological ...
Oct 3, 2023 · Settler groups have repeatedly warned of attempts by the Palestinian Authority to damage Mt. Ebal. · Some 10,000 people marched to Joshua's Altar ...Missing: excavations implications
[72]
Cabinet Decision to Allow Israeli Civil Administration Jurisdiction at ...
Jul 4, 2024 · Israeli archaeological activity in the West Bank has become an act of land appropriation aimed at expanding and strengthening Israel's control ...
[73]
The Political Agenda at Mt. Ebal | Bible & Archaeology - YouTube
Jul 14, 2023 · ... West Bank to allow the removal of previously excavated dirt from Mt. Ebal and to transport it to a nearby Jewish settlement. Haaretz ...Missing: implications | Show results with:implications