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National Security Archive

The National Security Archive is an independent non-governmental research institute, library, and publisher founded in 1985 by journalists and scholars to counter increasing government secrecy, specializing in the collection and dissemination of declassified U.S. documents related to national security, foreign policy, intelligence, and economic matters.^[1] Based at The George Washington University in Washington, D.C., since 1995, it operates as a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization that functions as an award-winning investigative journalism center and archive, emphasizing primary-source documentation to inform public discourse.^[1] The Archive pioneered extensive use of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), filing thousands of requests that have spurred the declassification of millions of pages of government records, transforming classified materials into accessible research resources.^[2] Its key publications include the Digital National Security Archive (DNSA), an online collection exceeding 100,000 declassified records documenting historic U.S. policy decisions, and Electronic Briefing Books that compile and analyze document sets on pivotal events.^[3] Notable achievements encompass evidence-based exposés on topics from Cold War operations to contemporary intelligence failures, earning awards for advancing transparency while maintaining a commitment to empirical verification over narrative-driven interpretations.^[4]

Founding and Historical Development

Establishment and Early Objectives (1985)

The National Security Archive was established in 1985 as a non-governmental, non-profit organization by a group of journalists and scholars who had utilized the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) to access declassified U.S. government records.^[5] Scott Armstrong, a former investigative reporter at The Washington Post, conceived the core idea and served as its founding executive director, motivated by the challenges of scattered and underutilized declassified materials amid growing government classification practices.^[6] The founding responded to perceived over-classification, which hindered informed public and scholarly engagement with national security matters.^[1] The primary early objective was to build a centralized repository of declassified documents on U.S. foreign policy and international affairs, thereby enriching research, journalism, and debate through systematic FOIA filings and dissemination.^[5] Initial efforts emphasized collecting records via over 20,000 FOIA requests—supplemented by inherited requests from external parties—to document pivotal events, such as Cold War crises and covert operations.^[5] This approach aimed not only to preserve historical records but also to pressure agencies for efficient processing and set legal precedents for FOIA compliance, including streamlined responses from the State Department.^[5] By formalizing as an independent entity in 1985, the Archive positioned itself to publish curated document sets, with its first major output, a 678-page chronology on the Iran-Contra affair, appearing in 1987 via Warner Books.^[5] These objectives underscored a commitment to transparency without governmental affiliation, relying on private initiative to aggregate and analyze materials otherwise fragmented across agencies.^[7]

Institutional Growth and Key Milestones (1986–2000)

In the years immediately following its founding, the National Security Archive solidified its operational base by formalizing as a non-profit organization and intensifying Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to amass declassified records on U.S. foreign policy. By 1987, it had compiled extensive documentation on the Iran-Contra scandal, culminating in the publication of The Chronology: The Documented Day-by-Day Account of Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Contras on June 1—a 678-page volume synthesizing over 5,000 FOIA-obtained documents into a timeline that informed congressional hearings and public scrutiny of executive actions.^[8]^[9] This effort not only expanded the Archive's holdings but also demonstrated its methodology of systematic document aggregation to counter government secrecy, attracting foundation grants and scholarly collaboration. The late 1980s saw further growth through targeted litigation and research programs, with the Archive filing suits to enforce FOIA compliance on records pertaining to Central American interventions and arms control, resulting in incremental declassifications that numbered in the thousands of pages. Housed within The George Washington University's Gelman Library by this period, the institution benefited from academic infrastructure, enabling staff expansion from a handful of researchers to a dedicated team focused on verification and contextual analysis of primary sources.^[1] This affiliation, formalized in the early years of operation, provided logistical support for storing and accessing growing collections, while maintaining the Archive's independence as a non-governmental entity. The 1990s marked accelerated institutional maturation amid post-Cold War declassification opportunities, with the Archive launching multi-year projects to unlock historical records. In July 1990, it initiated a sustained effort on the Berlin Crisis (1958–1962), partnering with international historians to secure the release of U.S. diplomatic and intelligence documents through FOIA and interagency negotiations, yielding over 1,000 declassified items that illuminated crisis decision-making.^[7] Similar initiatives targeted U.S.-Soviet summits and nuclear history, contributing to the declassification of millions of pages government-wide by decade's end, as agencies responded to public and legislative pressures amplified by the Archive's advocacy.^[4] By 2000, the Archive had processed over 10,000 FOIA requests cumulatively, fostering partnerships such as the Digital National Security Archive (launched mid-decade with Chadwyck-Healey), which digitized thematic collections like those on the end of the Cold War (1985–1991), encompassing summit transcripts and policy memos to enhance scholarly access.^[10] These milestones reflected causal drivers of growth: FOIA's legal leverage, end-of-era archival openings, and the Archive's reputation for rigorous sourcing, which drew funding from entities like the MacArthur Foundation and positioned it as a pivotal force in transparency without reliance on partisan narratives. Ongoing lawsuits, including challenges to withholding on Reagan-era emails, underscored its role in testing executive privilege boundaries.^[11]

Modern Expansion and Digital Initiatives (2001–Present)

In the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, the National Security Archive intensified its document acquisition and publication efforts on U.S. intelligence failures, counterterrorism strategies, and subsequent military interventions. The organization successfully litigated for the release of key pre-9/11 intelligence documents, including the August 6, 2001 President's Daily Brief titled "Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US," which was declassified and posted online in April 2004, revealing specific warnings about al-Qaeda threats to the homeland. This period marked a surge in Electronic Briefing Books (EBBs), with releases such as EBB No. 45 in May 2001 on intelligence issues expanding rapidly to cover Iraq War planning, Afghanistan operations, and post-9/11 policy shifts, amassing over 800 EBBs by the 2020s containing more than 10,000 declassified records.^[12]^[13] The Archive's digital transformation accelerated with the formalization of the Digital National Security Archive (DNSA) in partnership with ProQuest, evolving from early digitization efforts in 2001 to encompass over 100,000 declassified documents by the 2010s, focusing on pivotal U.S. policy decisions including post-9/11 diplomacy, reconstruction, and intelligence operations.^[3]^[10] Specialized digital vaults emerged, such as the Cyber Vault in 2010 with over 10,000 documents on cybersecurity and the Nuclear Vault in 2017 similarly compiling nuclear history records, enhancing public access to thematic collections.^[1] By 2023, the Archive's holdings exceeded 2.5 million pages, supported by a staff of more than 20 researchers and archivists, reflecting institutional growth amid increased FOIA requests and scholarly collaborations.^[1] Ongoing initiatives include annual expansions of DNSA collections, such as those on Donald Rumsfeld's memos from his final years (released 2021) and Afghanistan's 20-year war (2021), providing granular insights into declassification trends and policy evolution.^[14]^[15] These efforts underscore the Archive's pivot to scalable online platforms, enabling broader dissemination while sustaining advocacy for transparency in an era of heightened national security secrecy.^[1]

Mission, Objectives, and Operational Focus

Core Advocacy for Transparency and Declassification

The National Security Archive's primary advocacy emphasizes the declassification of U.S. government records on national security and foreign policy to enhance public accountability and informed debate. By leveraging the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and mandatory declassification review processes, the organization systematically challenges excessive secrecy, arguing that historical transparency prevents policy repetition and promotes democratic oversight without compromising legitimate security needs.^[1] This approach counters post-Watergate and Cold War-era expansions in classification, prioritizing empirical access to primary documents over narrative interpretations.^[1] Since its founding in 1985, the Archive has submitted over 70,000 targeted FOIA requests to more than 200 federal agencies and offices, yielding collections exceeding 10 million pages of declassified materials.^[1] These efforts include strategic litigation and administrative appeals to expedite releases, as demonstrated by annual FOIA audits that track agency compliance, backlogs, and processing delays—such as identifying requests pending over a decade at entities like the National Archives.^[1]^[16] In 2022 alone, Archive-initiated requests produced 21,197 pages, including documents illuminating covert operations and diplomatic histories.^[17] Key strategies involve compiling and digitizing documents into over 500 electronic briefing books, which contextualize releases with expert analysis while preserving raw source materials for verification.^[1] The organization also engages policymakers through testimony, reports, and endorsements of reforms like the 2024 bipartisan classification improvement bill, which addresses over-classification's erosion of transparency.^[18] This advocacy extends to international declassification diplomacy, such as the Argentina project yielding 47,000 pages on human rights abuses, transferred via executive action in 2019.^[19] Critics of government secrecy, including the Archive, contend that persistent classification—often justified under broad national security exemptions—obscures accountability for past errors, as seen in delayed releases on events like the Cuban Missile Crisis or JFK-era operations.^[20] The Archive's methodology prioritizes verifiable, document-driven revelations over unsubstantiated claims, influencing declassification totals exceeding 15 million pages organization-wide through persistent pressure.^[1]

Program Areas and Research Priorities

The National Security Archive organizes its research activities through specialized projects that focus on obtaining, analyzing, and publishing declassified U.S. government documents on pivotal national security and foreign policy topics. These program areas employ strategic Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to uncover historical records, prioritizing evidence-based investigations into government secrecy and decision-making processes. Each initiative targets domains of enduring public interest, such as nuclear strategy, cyber threats, and regional conflicts, with dedicated efforts to compile online repositories for scholarly and journalistic use.^[21] A core program area is the Cyber Vault Project, launched on March 30, 2016, which documents cyber activities of the U.S., foreign governments, and international organizations through a centralized library of primary-source materials. This initiative addresses cybersecurity issues, including state-sponsored hacking, policy responses, and international norms, by aggregating declassified records to illuminate evolving digital threats and governmental strategies.^[22]^[23] The project extends to subtopics like the Ukraine cyber operations amid Russia's 2014 invasion, emphasizing the intersection of cyber warfare and geopolitical tensions.^[24] The Nuclear Vault represents another foundational area, serving as a comprehensive index and repository of Electronic Briefing Books (EBBs) on U.S. nuclear weapons policy from the Cold War era onward. It cross-references declassified documents on topics including arms control, testing, and proliferation risks, facilitating research into historical nuclear doctrines and their contemporary implications.^[25] Additional program areas encompass regional and thematic projects, such as the Vietnam Project, which compiles records on U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War; the Southern Cone Project, scrutinizing declassified files on human rights abuses and counterinsurgency operations in Latin America during the 1970s and 1980s; and the Russia Project, examining post-Soviet security transitions, including arms reduction efforts. The Nunn-Lugar Project focuses on cooperative threat reduction and non-proliferation initiatives, while the Mexico Project investigates U.S.-Mexico security cooperation, drug policy, and border issues. These efforts collectively prioritize transparency in areas like torture documentation and military reforms, using FOIA litigation and archival donations to build evidence-driven narratives.^[21] Research priorities stress primary-source documentation over secondary interpretations, with an emphasis on topics influencing U.S. foreign affairs, such as Asia-Pacific dynamics and presidential records access. The Archive's methodology integrates journalism, scholarship, and advocacy to counter secrecy trends, ensuring outputs like EBBs inform policy debates without relying on unverified claims.^[1]^[21]

Publications and Dissemination Strategies

The National Security Archive primarily disseminates declassified U.S. government documents through its Electronic Briefing Books (EBBs), which are curated online compilations providing contextual analysis alongside primary sources on topics in national security and foreign policy.^[26] Each EBB typically includes 5 to 100 or more documents, drawn from Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, mandatory declassification reviews, and other archival acquisitions, with over 800 such EBBs published on the organization's website as of recent counts, encompassing more than 10,000 declassified records.^[27] These publications emphasize historical transparency, often highlighting government secrecy patterns or policy implications, and are freely accessible via the Archive's Virtual Reading Room to facilitate public scrutiny and scholarly research.^[28] ![Declassified President's Daily Brief on Bin Ladin][float-right] Complementing the EBBs, the Digital National Security Archive (DNSA) represents a more expansive dissemination effort, comprising over 130 curated collections totaling more than 1.5 million pages of declassified materials on U.S. policy decisions from the Cold War era onward.^[3] Unlike the open-access EBBs, DNSA operates on a subscription model licensed to academic institutions, libraries, and research entities through partnerships like ProQuest, enabling broader institutional access while generating revenue for ongoing FOIA litigation and document acquisition.^[10] This tiered strategy balances unrestricted public availability of select high-impact releases with sustained funding for comprehensive archival projects, prioritizing digital formats to overcome traditional print limitations in volume and searchability.^[1] The Archive's dissemination extends beyond raw document repositories through integrated media and outreach tactics, including news postings, unredacted analyses, and collaborations with journalists to amplify findings in mainstream outlets.^[12] For instance, EBB releases on pivotal events—such as the August 6, 2001, President's Daily Brief titled "Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US"—are timed for relevance and accompanied by expert commentary to influence policy debates and declassification reforms.^[29] This approach leverages the organization's non-governmental status to circumvent official dissemination biases, ensuring primary evidence reaches diverse audiences without reliance on potentially filtered government channels, though access to full collections may require institutional affiliation for DNSA users.^[27]

Governance and Resources

Board of Directors and Leadership

The executive leadership of the National Security Archive is headed by Director Thomas S. Blanton, who has held the position since 1992 and oversees operations from the organization's base at George Washington University.^[30] Blanton has directed efforts to secure over 10 million pages of declassified U.S. government records through Freedom of Information Act requests, emphasizing transparency in national security policy.^[31] The Deputy Director and Research Director is Malcolm Byrne, who joined the Archive in 1986 and assumed research oversight in 1990, with expertise in U.S.-Iran relations, the Iran-Contra affair, and U.S.-Soviet interactions.^[32]^[33] The Board of Directors governs the nonprofit, chaired by Edgar N. James, Esq., a partner at James & Hoffman who provides pro bono litigation support for the Archive's legal challenges.^[34] The Vice Chair is Nancy E. Soderberg, and the Secretary is Cliff Sloan, a professor of practice at Georgetown University Law Center and retired partner at Skadden Arps.^[34] An Advisory Board offers substantive guidance, including members such as Dr. Philip Brenner, a professor of international relations, and Susan Brynteson, former vice provost and university librarian at the University of Delaware.^[34] This structure supports the Archive's focus on declassification advocacy while drawing on expertise from legal, academic, and policy domains.^[34]

Funding Mechanisms and Financial Sustainability

The National Security Archive, operating as a project of The George Washington University through the tax-exempt National Security Archive Fund, Inc., derives its funding exclusively from private sources, eschewing any direct U.S. government support to maintain operational independence in its declassification advocacy.^[35] Primary revenue streams include licensing fees from the Digital National Security Archive (DNSA), a subscription-based digital repository of over 100,000 declassified U.S. policy documents sold to universities, libraries, and research institutions worldwide.^[28] Additional income arises from royalties on print and electronic publications, alongside tax-deductible contributions solicited via the Fund's dedicated channels.^[36] Private philanthropy constitutes a cornerstone of its financial model, with support from foundations such as the Benchmark Fund, Benton Foundation, Herb Block Foundation, and Boehm Foundation, among others listed on its official funders page.^[37] Audited financial statements for fiscal years 2021–2023, prepared by independent auditors, reveal a reliance on contributions that can include major donors accounting for 10% or more of annual revenue, though specific donor identities beyond public acknowledgments remain undisclosed in these reports to protect contributor privacy.^[38] This donor concentration underscores potential vulnerabilities, as the absence of diversified government or endowment funding exposes the organization to fluctuations in philanthropic priorities. Financial sustainability is bolstered by the Fund's non-profit status, which facilitates ongoing audits and compliance with IRS Form 990 requirements, ensuring transparency in revenue recognition from grants, donations, and publication sales.^[39] The Archive's strategy emphasizes self-reliance, with public appeals for individual donations supplementing foundation grants to mitigate risks from economic downturns or shifts in funder interests, thereby preserving its capacity for long-term document collection and FOIA litigation without external policy constraints.^[37]

Legal and Policy Advocacy

Freedom of Information Act Litigation

The National Security Archive has pursued Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) litigation as a core mechanism to overcome agency delays, denials, and excessive withholdings in obtaining declassified government records on U.S. national security matters. Since its founding, the organization has filed dozens of federal lawsuits, primarily in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, targeting agencies such as the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), Department of State, and National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). These suits often invoke FOIA's provisions for expedited processing, fee waivers, and challenges to exemptions, particularly Exemption 1 (national security) and Exemption 5 (deliberative process), aiming to enforce statutory timelines and judicial review of agency claims.^[40]^[41] Key litigation efforts include a 2019 suit against the DIA seeking records on the 1983 Able Archer NATO exercise, interpreted by some U.S. intelligence as a potential Soviet prelude to nuclear war; the case compelled partial disclosures of historical assessments despite agency resistance.^[42] In 2018, the Archive sued the CIA for cables related to Gina Haspel's oversight of enhanced interrogation techniques at a black site, highlighting disputes over post-9/11 program documentation.^[43] A 2017 settlement in another CIA case yielded $350,000 in fees and prompted an internal inspector general probe into processing irregularities, resulting in accelerated releases of records previously stalled for years.^[44] Court outcomes have varied, with successes in establishing standing and forcing releases—such as a 2021 suit preserving Trump administration White House instant message records against deletion policies—but also defeats where judges upheld exemptions, as in a 2014 D.C. Circuit ruling affirming CIA withholding of a draft historical volume under Exemption 5.^[45]^[46] More recently, a 2024 D.C. Circuit decision confirmed the Archive's standing in a CIA suit over refusal to process requests efficiently, though full merits remain pending.^[47] In November 2024, the Archive initiated litigation against NARA for a 12-year backlog on Russia-related presidential records, underscoring persistent administrative failures in FOIA compliance.^[48] These cases demonstrate the Archive's strategic use of litigation to pressure agencies, often resulting in negotiated releases or policy shifts, though critics argue such actions can strain resources and occasionally prioritize advocacy over deference to legitimate security classifications upheld by courts.^[49] The organization's pro bono legal partners, including the Knight First Amendment Institute, have supported efforts like 2017 challenges to Trump-era White House visitor log withholdings under FOIA.^[50] Overall, FOIA suits have facilitated the declassification of thousands of pages, contributing to public datasets on topics from Cold War crises to contemporary intelligence operations, while exposing systemic backlogs averaging years-long delays across agencies.^[51]

Audits of Government Declassification Practices

The National Security Archive evaluates U.S. government declassification practices through empirical audits that test agency compliance with the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and Mandatory Declassification Review (MDR) processes, often by submitting standardized requests across multiple agencies and analyzing patterns in responses, delays, and redactions.^[52] These audits highlight systemic issues such as backlogs, lost requests, overclassification, and inconsistent application of declassification criteria, drawing on data from thousands of FOIA and MDR filings to quantify inefficiencies.^[53] For instance, in audits of the "ten oldest pending FOIA requests," the Archive surveyed dozens of agencies in 2003, 2006, and 2007, revealing persistent backlogs dating to 1987, with some requests from as early as 1989 still unresolved by 2007 due to poor tracking systems.^[52] A notable example is the 2003 audit of agencies' responses to the Ashcroft Memorandum, which encouraged withholding information under FOIA exemptions; the Archive assessed 35 agencies and found widespread delays and varied interpretations that slowed declassification, contributing to broader secrecy trends post-9/11.^[52] Similarly, the 2006 "pseudo-secrets" audit examined policies on sensitive but unclassified information across over 40 agencies, identifying 28 distinct, uncoordinated withholding categories lacking oversight, which effectively expanded classification-like barriers without formal review.^[52] In electronic FOIA compliance checks from 2003, the Archive reviewed 149 agency websites and determined that only 21% proactively posted required records, underscoring failures in automated declassification dissemination.^[52] More recent evaluations focus on MDR outcomes and redaction practices. In 2023, analysis of over 1,000 MDR requests for nuclear-related records showed approximately 70% approvals, including releases on the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, but 30% denials often justified by vague national security claims, with critiques of inconsistent processing and pandemic-era collapses in review capacity.^[20] The Archive's 2019 "Redactions: The Declassified File" compilation documented hundreds of cases of excessive blacking out in declassified documents, arguing that such over-redaction perpetuates "dubious secrets" long after sensitivity has lapsed.^[54] These audits have informed policy reforms, such as Executive Order 13,392 in 2005 and the OPEN Government Act of 2007, which addressed identified backlogs and tracking deficiencies, though the Archive notes ongoing challenges like 17.2% of 2005 audit requests reported as never received by agencies.^[52]

Rosemary Award and Accountability Mechanisms

The Rosemary Award, initiated by the National Security Archive in 2005, annually recognizes the federal agency, official, or entity responsible for the most significant failures in advancing government transparency, with a focus on Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) compliance and declassification practices. Drawing its name from Rose Mary Woods, President Richard Nixon's secretary who claimed to have inadvertently erased 18½ minutes of a pivotal Watergate tape in 1973, the award satirically underscores deliberate or negligent obstructions to public access, such as excessive redactions, protracted delays, record destruction, or false assurances of openness. Selected by Archive researchers based on documented FOIA disputes and secrecy trends, it is typically announced during Sunshine Week in March, accompanied by press releases citing specific evidentiary examples to provoke scrutiny and reform.^[55]^[56] Early recipients highlighted entrenched agency resistance, including the Central Intelligence Agency in 2006 for systemic FOIA backlogs and over-withholding of historical intelligence records, and the U.S. Air Force in 2007 for similar deficiencies in processing requests on military operations. Subsequent awards targeted recurring offenders like the Department of Justice, which received it in 2011 for inadequate responses to inquiries on law enforcement surveillance and again in 2012 for persistent delays amid high-profile cases. In 2013, Director of National Intelligence James Clapper earned the distinction for testifying to Congress on March 12 that the National Security Agency did not collect data on millions of Americans, a statement contradicted by subsequent leaks revealing bulk metadata programs. The Federal Chief Information Officers Council followed in 2014 for failing to implement open data mandates, while the U.S. Secret Service and White House shared the 2017 award for lacking tracking systems on visitor logs, enabling unaccountable access to sensitive areas. Former President Donald Trump received it for 2021 performance, cited for executive orders and appointments that exacerbated FOIA processing slowdowns, with the backlog reaching over 700,000 requests by fiscal year end.^[57]^[58]^[55]^[59]^[56]^[60]^[61]^[62] As an accountability mechanism, the Rosemary Award functions through public shaming and media amplification to pressure recipients toward improved practices, often correlating with subsequent congressional hearings or internal reviews, though measurable causal impacts remain anecdotal. It complements the Archive's broader toolkit, including FOIA litigation and declassification audits, by targeting not just legal violations but cultural inertia in secrecy bureaucracies. The award's persistence over two decades reflects ongoing challenges, with federal FOIA backlogs exceeding 800,000 cases as of fiscal year 2023, underscoring its role in advocating for structural changes like mandatory timelines and reduced exemptions.^[61]^[62]

Events and Public Engagement

Conferences and Collaborative Forums

The National Security Archive organizes and co-sponsors critical oral history conferences that convene former policymakers, intelligence officials, diplomats, and scholars to analyze pivotal national security events through declassified documents and firsthand accounts, fostering collaborative dialogue on historical accountability and policy lessons.^[1] These forums emphasize rigorous examination of primary sources, often revealing gaps or discrepancies in official narratives, and have become a signature method for the Archive's public engagement since the late 1990s.^[63] Pioneering this format, the Archive co-hosted its first critical oral history conference on the Cuban Missile Crisis in Havana in 2002, bringing together U.S., Soviet, and Cuban participants to review declassified records and debate crisis management decisions, followed by a similar event in Moscow in 2005.^[1] Subsequent conferences addressed the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War in 2004, co-organized with the Cold War International History Project at the Wilson Center, where high-level officials from multiple nations discussed chemical weapons use, U.S. tilt toward Iraq, and declassification barriers.^[63] In 2015, the Archive marked the 20th anniversary of the Srebrenica massacre with a critical oral history conference examining U.N., NATO, and Bosnian Serb documents from 1993–1995, highlighting intelligence failures and paths to genocide.^[64] Through specialized projects, the Archive facilitates ongoing collaborative forums, such as the Openness in Russia and Eastern Europe Project, which has sponsored dozens of international conferences, workshops, and seminars on declassification practices, archival reforms, and public access in post-communist states since the early 1990s.^[65] The Iran-U.S. Relations Project similarly coordinates events involving scholars and officials to explore bilateral tensions via released records, excluding routine presentations but focusing on multi-stakeholder discussions of nuclear policy, sanctions, and covert operations.^[66] These initiatives often partner with academic institutions like MIT, Brown University, and the Musgrove Plantation conference center, prioritizing empirical document-based debates over partisan advocacy.^[66] In addition to hosting, the Archive participates in broader forums on transparency and accountability, such as 2025 events on enforced disappearances in Latin America, moderated by its analysts to draw parallels with U.S. policy reckonings using declassified evidence.^[67] Outputs from these conferences, including transcripts and document compilations, are disseminated via Electronic Briefing Books, enhancing scholarly access while critiquing government secrecy trends.^[68]

Recent Developments and Ongoing Projects (2023–2025)

In 2023, the National Security Archive published 33 Electronic Briefing Books, expanding its collection to over 850 declassified document compilations, while filing 1,404 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests and 37 appeals to obtain 31,567 pages of records.^[69] Key releases included multiple sets on U.S.-Russia relations during the Clinton administration, released on January 30, February 7, and June 5, detailing diplomatic exchanges and policy deliberations.^[69] Another significant posting on July 18 featured documents on the nuclear "football," illuminating presidential command and control procedures for nuclear operations.^[69] Ongoing projects advanced, notably the Ayotzinapa investigation, which involved FOIA litigation against Mexican and U.S. agencies since 2015 and produced the "After Ayotzinapa" podcast series, recognized with a 2022 Investigative Reporters and Editors (IRE) Award announced in April 2023.^[69] The Cyber Vault project also progressed, with a February 28 release of declassified records on the 1998 Solar Sunrise cyber intrusions attributed to Israeli teenagers but initially suspected as Russian or Iraqi operations.^[69] During 2024, the Archive expanded the Digital National Security Archive (DNSA) with a December 23 collection focused on CIA behavior control experiments, including MKULTRA, BLUEBIRD, and ARTICHOKE programs, which documented agency efforts to develop drugs and techniques for interrogations and covert operations from the 1950s onward.^[70] On February 29, it marked the 70th anniversary of the Castle Bravo thermonuclear test—the most powerful U.S. nuclear detonation—with declassified records on fallout impacts, including evacuation footage and health effects on Marshall Islanders and U.S. personnel.^[71] A July 9 special exhibit commemorated NATO's 75th anniversary, aggregating thousands of declassified U.S. documents on alliance history, summits, and expansion debates.^[72] FOIA advocacy continued, including a March 15 audit critiquing the National Archives and Records Administration's fiscal year 2025 budget request for insufficient funding to process declassification backlogs.^[73] Through mid-2025, releases included a June 3 Electronic Briefing Book on "The United States and Greenland, Part I: Episodes in Nuclear History," examining declassified records of U.S. strategic interests, including Project Iceworm and potential acquisition efforts under the Trump administration.^[74] On September 25, the Archive posted newly declassified documents and photographs detailing radiation and blast effects from the August 1945 Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings, drawing on historical assessments of human and environmental impacts.^[12] Persistent projects encompassed the Climate Change Transparency initiative, which compiles 35 years of U.S. policy records from Montreal Protocol negotiations through Paris Agreement deliberations, emphasizing interagency debates on emissions and adaptation.^[75] Litigation efforts sustained access to records, with ongoing FOIA suits against the Department of Defense and others initiated in prior years yielding incremental disclosures.^[69]

Impact, Achievements, and Critiques

Contributions to Declassification and Scholarly Access

The National Security Archive has advanced declassification through systematic Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests and litigation, filing over 50 lawsuits against U.S. government agencies, with 30 resulting in successful releases of thousands of documents on topics including intelligence operations, the Vietnam War, and nuclear policy.^[4] These efforts have compelled agencies to disclose records previously withheld, such as extensive collections on U.S. involvement in Chile during the 1970s, where Archive-obtained documents were cited over 150 times in prosecutorial arguments during the 1990s trials of former officials.^[76] By prioritizing primary-source evidence, the organization has pressured executive branch reviews, contributing to broader transparency initiatives without relying on government self-reporting.^[4] A cornerstone of scholarly access is the Archive's publication of curated collections, notably its Electronic Briefing Books (EBBs), which number over 240 and compile 5 to more than 100 declassified documents per volume, accompanied by analytical essays, timelines, and multimedia.^[29] Launched in the early 2000s, these online resources provide immediate, free public access to critical records on events like the Cuban Missile Crisis and post-9/11 intelligence assessments, aggregating materials from FOIA successes and donations to exceed 10,000 documents across hundreds of topical e-books.^[26] The Digital National Security Archive extends this by digitizing and indexing over 700,000 pages for academic and research use, enabling historians and policymakers to cross-reference original sources rather than secondary interpretations.^[1] These initiatives have democratized access to declassified materials, fostering evidence-based scholarship while highlighting systemic delays in government responses; for instance, the Archive's 2003 metric tracking the "Ten Oldest FOIA Requests" exposed processing backlogs persisting into the 2010s, prompting reforms.^[77] By maintaining an open digital library since its 1985 founding, the organization has influenced peer-reviewed studies and public discourse, though its selections reflect advocacy priorities rather than exhaustive coverage of all national security topics.^[1]

Recognitions and Broader Influence

The National Security Archive has received several notable awards for its contributions to transparency and declassified document dissemination. In 2000, it was awarded the George Polk Special Award by Long Island University for "piercing self-serving veils of government secrecy" through its Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) litigation and publications. The organization's Digital National Security Archive (DNSA) collection earned an Outstanding Academic Title designation from Choice magazine in 2018, recognizing its value as a scholarly resource comprising over 100,000 declassified U.S. policy records.^[78] Additional honors include a George Foster Peabody Award and an Emmy Award, typically granted for journalistic excellence in utilizing archival materials for documentaries on national security topics, as well as Forbes' Best of the Web recognition for its online accessibility.^[79] The Archive's work has exerted significant influence on historical scholarship and public discourse by providing primary source access to declassified records on U.S. foreign policy decisions, such as those related to the Iran-Contra affair, Chile's 1973 coup, and Soviet-U.S. nuclear negotiations.^[4] Over 70,000 FOIA requests filed since 1985 have yielded millions of pages of documents, supporting thousands of researchers, journalists, and students in reevaluating official narratives through empirical evidence rather than secondary interpretations.^[4] This has informed congressional hearings, academic publications—including over 100 books and digital briefing books by staff—and media investigations, fostering greater scrutiny of executive branch secrecy practices.^[28] Publications derived from these efforts, such as staff-authored works winning the 1996 Pulitzer Prize for works on declassified intelligence, have shaped understandings of causal factors in Cold War events and post-9/11 policies.^[4]

Criticisms Regarding Selectivity, National Security Risks, and Ideological Leanings

The National Security Archive's practice of curating and publishing declassified documents through Electronic Briefing Books and other compilations has prompted concerns about selectivity, as these selections emphasize specific historical events, such as U.S. support for the 1973 Chilean coup or the Iran-Contra affair, potentially prioritizing narratives critical of American foreign policy decisions. Government agencies responding to its Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests have sometimes highlighted the risks of aggregating such materials, arguing that even declassified records could inadvertently disclose analytical patterns, source-handling techniques, or diplomatic sensitivities useful to adversaries when viewed in totality. For example, in 1990, the U.S. Department of Justice appealed a district court ruling granting the Archive access to over 1,000 documents on U.S. involvement in Afghanistan during the 1980s, asserting that the request's breadth threatened national security exemptions under FOIA and that the Archive did not qualify for preferential treatment as a journalistic entity.^[80] The Supreme Court declined to review the case on March 19, 1990, upholding the lower court's decision and enabling the documents' release.^[80] Critics from within the intelligence and policy communities have occasionally pointed to these publications as potentially undermining national security by amplifying historical operational details that, while individually vetted for declassification, might collectively aid foreign intelligence analysis or erode public confidence in U.S. institutions.^[81] Such risks are compounded, some argue, by the Archive's affiliations with academic environments where systemic biases toward scrutinizing Western actions over those of authoritarian regimes may influence topic selection, though empirical analyses of its output describe minimal editorializing and neutral factual presentation based on primary sources.^[82] Independent ratings confirm high credibility, with no recorded fact-check failures and a focus on verifiable government records rather than interpretive advocacy.^[82] The organization's founding in 1985 by journalists and scholars responding to perceived secrecy excesses during the Reagan administration further contextualizes its emphasis on transparency, yet has led to perceptions of an underlying ideological orientation skeptical of executive branch national security rationales.^[1]

References

[1]
About the National Security Archive
Founded in 1985 by journalists and scholars to check rising government secrecy, the National Security Archive combines a unique range of functions.
[2]
The National Security Archive: Putting Freedom of Information into ...
The Archive is the leading nonprofit user of the US Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), which exists to increase government transparency.
[3]
Digital National Security Archive - The George Washington University
The Digital National Security Archive is an invaluable online collection of more than 100,000 declassified records documenting historic U.S. policy decisions.
[4]
Accomplishments - National Security Archive
As a pioneer of evidence-based research emphasizing primary-source documentation, the Archive has achieved some extraordinary successes over the past 30+ years.Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
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Overview - The National Security Archive
The first major publication of the Archive was a 678-page mass market paperback published by Warner Books in 1987, The Chronology, on the Iran-contra affair.Missing: early objectives
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Celebrating 20 Years of Keeping Government Honest
Dec 9, 2005 · SCOTT ARMSTRONG conceived of the idea for the National Security Archive while working at the Washington Post in 1985 and became the founding ...
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[PDF] Archive Timeline - The National Security Archive
1985: National Security Archive May 1987: Archive's first major publication, The Chronology, a becomes a formal non-govern- mental, non-profit organization ...Missing: early | Show results with:early
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The Chronology: The Documented Day-by-Day Account of Secret ...
Jun 1, 1987 · The Chronology: The Documented Day-by-Day Account of Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Contras. By Scott Armstrong, Malcolm Byrne ...
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1987 postings and publications - National Security Archive - The ...
Jun 1, 1987. The Chronology: The Documented Day-by-Day Account of Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Contras. Book By Scott Armstrong, Malcolm Byrne ...
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Digital National Security Archive - ProQuest
Created in collaboration with the National Security Archive, this database is the most comprehensive collection available of significant primary documents ...Missing: growth | Show results with:growth
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40 Years of FOIA, 20 Years of Delay - The National Security Archive
Jul 2, 2007 · The oldest pending FOIA requests in the federal government date back to the 1980s-one from 1987, two from 1988, and three from 1989. Five ...
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All postings and publications | National Security Archive
The National Security Archive is bringing 2021 to a close by revisiting our most significant postings and the documents behind them. This week, we are looking ...Missing: growth | Show results with:growth
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Guide for Researchers from outside of George Washington University
Electronic Briefing Books. The National Security Archive has published over 800 e-books on our public website presenting more than 10,000 declassified documents ...
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New Digital National Security Archive Collection Features ...
May 28, 2021 · New Digital National Security Archive ... The Snowflakes collections complement a growing number of Archive publications on the post 9-11 era and ...
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Afghanistan 20/20: The 20-Year War in 20 Documents
Aug 19, 2021 · Oct 30, 2001. Source. Digital National Security Archive, obtained through a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit. This is the foundational ...
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FOIA Audits | National Security Archive
Washington, D.C. March 8, 2019 – Five federal agencies have FOIA requests more than a decade old and one, the National Archives and Records Administration, has ...Missing: declassified | Show results with:declassified
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[PDF] The National Security Archive in 2022
Mar 11, 2025 · using the transparency and access law of the United States filed declassification requests for documents about Colombia and delivered ...Missing: core | Show results with:core
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New Classification Bill Highlights Ongoing Bipartisan Efforts to ...
Aug 9, 2024 · The current declassification system is a “crisis that undermines both our national security and government transparency,” according to Senator Gary Peters (D- ...
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Declassification Diplomacy: Trump Administration Turns Over ...
Apr 12, 2019 · Declassification Diplomacy: Trump Administration Turns Over Massive Collection of Intelligence Records on Human Rights and Argentina. 47,000 ...
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Recent Nuclear Declassifications and Denials: The Good, the Bad ...
Dec 6, 2023 · The good: New documents on the Cuban missile crisis, JFK and Germany, South Korea, Taiwan, and other nonproliferation issues.
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Projects - National Security Archive
The National Security Archive organizes its main research activities through ... topics of broad interest in the areas of foreign affairs or national security.
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The Cyber Vault Project | National Security Archive
An online resource documenting cyber activities of the US and foreign governments as well as international organizations.<|control11|><|separator|>
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National Security Archive Launches Cyber Vault Web Site
Mar 30, 2016 · The Cyber Vault will serve as a centralized repository for key parts of the documentary record on this critical topic.
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Ukraine Cyber Vault Library | National Security Archive
The Ukraine section of the Cyber Vault Library contains primary-source materials gathered by the Project relating to the war in that country sparked by Russia' ...
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The Nuclear Vault | National Security Archive
The "Nuclear Vault" includes all previous and forthcoming Archive Electronic Briefing Books on nuclear weapons policy, cross-referenced with an index. It also ...
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Briefing Books | National Security Archive
Washington, D.C., August 21, 2025 - Newly declassified notes from Vladimir Putin's first ... The National Security Archive is committed to digital accessibility.
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[PDF] Guide for Researchers - National Security Archive
A fundamental tenet of the National Security Archive's mission is to expand and enhance public discourse on U.S. foreign, intelligence and economic policy.
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National Security Archive: Home
DNSA ... The Digital National Security Archive (DNSA) is an invaluable online collection of more than 100,000 declassified records documenting historic U.S. ...About · Documents · Jobs and Internships · Dnsa
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Electronic Briefing Books: compilations of declassified documents
National Security Archive hails efforts by investigators, victim's families to uncover truth. Famous Political Figure Carried Messages from Kissinger to Castro.
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Thomas S. Blanton | National Security Archive
Tom Blanton is the director since 1992 of the independent non-governmental National Security Archive at George Washington University (www.nsarchive.org).
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National Security Archive Director Featured on Peter Bergen's “In ...
Oct 18, 2024 · National Security Archive director Tom Blanton reflects on 40 years of working “to dislodge and declassify US government secrets” in the latest edition of “In ...
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Malcolm Byrne | National Security Archive
Malcolm Byrne, Deputy Director and Director of Research, has worked at the Archive since 1986, and since 1990 has supervised the research process.
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Staff and Fellows | National Security Archive
Management ; Thomas S. Blanton. Director ; Malcolm Byrne. Deputy Director; Research Director. Focus: US-Iran; Iran-Contra Affair; US-Soviet & East Europe; ...
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Governance - National Security Archive
Board of Directors. Chair: Edgar N. James, Esq. (Partner, James & Hoffman; pro bono litigator on behalf of the Archive); Vice Chair: Nancy E. Soderberg ...
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The National Security Archive
The National Security Archive is an independent non-governmental research institute and library located at The George Washington University in Washington, DCSearch · Electronic Briefing Books · Mexico's San Fernando... · PublicationsMissing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
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[PDF] The National Security Archive Fund, Inc.
Publication royalties and tax- deductible contributions through The National Security Archive Fund, Inc. underwrite the Archive's budget. National Security ...Missing: mechanisms | Show results with:mechanisms
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Funders and Supporters | National Security Archive
Benchmark Fund; Benton Foundation · Herb Block Foundation; Boehm Foundation ... The National Security Archive is committed to digital accessibility. If you ...
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[PDF] Independent Auditors' Report - National Security Archive
Mar 25, 2025 · NSAF considers a major donor as one that represents ten percent or more of the total revenue. Page 18. NATIONAL SECURITY ARCHIVE FUND, INC.
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[PDF] National-Security-Archive-Fund-Inc-Audited-Financial-Statements ...
We have audited the financial statements of the National Security Archive Fund, Inc., which comprise the statements of financial position as of December 31 ...
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The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) - National Security Archive
The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) has been on the books, it has helped revolutionize Americans' understanding of how their government works in practice.Missing: 1980s 1990s
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Effective FOIA Requesting for Everyone | National Security Archive
It focuses primarily on the Freedom of Information Act process. But it also briefly treats other means of accessing government records, including through ...Missing: mission statement
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National Security Archive Sues DIA for Able Archer 83 Document
Feb 28, 2019 · The National Security Archive today filed a FOIA lawsuit to compel the Defense Intelligence Agency to release documents likely containing a letter from former ...
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National Security Archive Sues CIA for Gina Haspel Torture Cables
Apr 27, 2018 · The National Security Archive filed suit under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) against the CIA today in federal district court in ...
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$$350000 FOIA Settlement to National Security Archive Spurred CIA ...
Jul 13, 2017 · ... Freedom of Information Act case, led to the opening of an Inspector ... [National Security Archive being] approved for release between December ...<|separator|>
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Lawsuit Saves Trump White House Records
Feb 11, 2021 · The lawsuit argued that Trump White House policy that only saved via screen shots the instant messages of government business – such as Jared Kushner's ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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National Security Archive v. CIA, No. 12-5201 (D.C. Cir. 2014) :: Justia
The CIA claims that the draft of Volume V is exempt from disclosure under Exemption 5 of FOIA. The court affirmed the district court's grant of summary judgment ...
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National Security Archive v. CIA, No. 23-5017 (D.C. Cir. 2024) :: Justia
Jun 7, 2024 · The case revolves around a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request made by The National Security Archive ("Archive") to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)Missing: litigation | Show results with:litigation
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National Security Archive Files Lawsuit Against 12-Year Freedom of ...
Nov 21, 2024 · The National Security Archive filed suit in federal court today to contest the estimated 12-year backlog of Freedom of Information requests for presidential ...Missing: litigation | Show results with:litigation
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2nd Circuit Helps White House Hide Visitor Logs
May 18, 2020 · ... National Security Archive's lawsuit to restore the routine disclosure, under the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), of the White House ...
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Trump Visitor Logs Subject to FOIA Lawsuit | National Security Archive
Apr 10, 2017 · ... Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) lawsuit against the Department of ... The National Security Archive, the Knight First Amendment ...
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Complaint: National Security Archive v. National Archives & Records ...
Nov 21, 2024 · National Security Archive Files Lawsuit Against 12-Year Freedom of Information Backlog. Nov 21, 2024. National Security Archive Suite 700 ...Missing: litigation | Show results with:litigation
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[PDF] The National Security Archive - The Carter Center
Founded in 1985 by journalists and scholars to check rising government secrecy and create an institutional memory for government information released under ...
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https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/foia
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Redactions: The Declassified File | National Security Archive
Apr 18, 2019 · The National Security Archive has published hundreds of examples over the years of “dubious secrets” where US government censors blacked out documents.
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Justice Department Wins Rosemary Award for Worst Open ...
Feb 14, 2012 · The award is named after President Nixon's secretary, Rose Mary Woods, who erased 18 1/2 minutes of a crucial Watergate tape. The Rosemary Award ...
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Spy Chief James Clapper Wins Rosemary Award
Mar 24, 2014 · Director of National Intelligence James Clapper has won the infamous Rosemary Award for worst open government performance in 2013.
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CIA Wins 2006 "Rosemary Award" for Worst Freedom of Information ...
The Central Intelligence Agency has won the second annual Rosemary Award, recognizing the worst performance by a federal agency in complying with the Freedom ...
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United States and Canada - National Security Archive
Washington D.C., 16 March 2007 - The U.S. Air Force today won the third annual Rosemary Award, which recognizes the worst Freedom of Information Act performance ...
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Justice Department Repeats as Rosemary Award Winner For Worst ...
Mar 15, 2013 · The Archive established the Rosemary Award in 2005 to highlight the lowlights of government secrecy, and named the prize after President Nixon's ...
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Federal Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council Wins Rosemary ...
Mar 18, 2015 · The Federal Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council has won the infamous Rosemary Award for worst open government performance of 2014.
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Secret Service and White House Win Rosemary Award for Worst in ...
Mar 12, 2018 · The award, which the Archive began bestowing in 2005, is named after President Nixon's secretary, Rose Mary Woods, who testified she had ...
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Former President Trump Wins Rosemary Award for Worst in Open ...
Mar 16, 2022 · Trump has the dubious honor of winning the National Security Archive's infamous Rosemary Award for worst performance in open government in 2021; ...
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The 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War: A CWIHP Critical Oral History ...
Aug 11, 2004 · In the past, CWIHP and the National Security Archive have hosted similar history workshops involving former high-level officials from several ...
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Srebrenica Massacre in July 1995 "Critical Oral History" Conference ...
"Critical Oral History" Conference Marks 20th Anniversary of Srebrenica Massacre in July 1995 ... National Security Archive at George Washington University. It is ...
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Openness in Russia and Eastern Europe Project: List of Conferences
The following are the main international events the Openness Project has organized. They do not include the many dozens of smaller conferences, workshops, ...
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Iran-U.S. Project Conferences | National Security Archive
ConferencesThe following is a list of conferences and events that ... National Security Archive, MIT and Brown University, Musgrove Conference Center, St.
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Lessons from Latin America as the United States Reckons With ...
Apr 23, 2025 · Kate Doyle, Senior Analyst at the National Security Archive, will moderate. Carolina Jiménez Sandoval, President of WOLA, will introduce the ...
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Srebrenica conference documents detail path to genocide from ...
Jul 1, 2015 · "Critical Oral History" Conference Marks 20th Anniversary of Srebrenica Massacre. ... National Security Archive (https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu).
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[PDF] The National Security Archive in 2023
Mar 10, 2025 · Our audit found that the public still cannot send FOIA requests to the CIA or other prominent agencies through the national portal seven years ...
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CIA Behavior Control Experiments Focus of New Scholarly Collection
Dec 23, 2024 · Agency Sought Drugs and Behavior Control Techniques to Use in “Special Interrogations” and Offensive Operations.
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Castle BRAVO at 70: The Worst Nuclear Test in U.S. History
Feb 29, 2024 · The film includes footage of both the Bravo detonation and the evacuation of U.S. personnel and Marshall Islanders in the wake of the test. The ...
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NATO @ 75 | National Security Archive
Jul 9, 2024 · This Special Exhibit marking the NATO 75th Anniversary Summit in Washington, DC, is a one-stop portal for thousands of declassified US documents.<|separator|>
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U.S. National Archives' 2025 Budget Request Threatens Mission ...
Mar 15, 2024 · The inadequate budget request for FY 2025 continues a trend first identified by the National Security Archive in 2022 (see below), when we found ...
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The United States and Greenland, Part I: Episodes in Nuclear ...
Jun 3, 2025 · Washington, D.C., June 3, 2025 - The Trump administration's intention to acquire Greenland, including possibly by force, has put a focus on ...
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Climate Change Transparency Project | National Security Archive
Covers 35 years of key developments and controversy in U.S. climate change policy, from Montreal to Kyoto to Paris. Features top-level White House, State ...
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About the National Security Archive - Cloned
The Chronology is go-to Iran-Contra Resource. May 1987. Archive's first major publication, The Chronology, a 678-page paperback, hits the streets on the eve ...
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25-Year-Old FOIA Request Confirms FOIA Delays Continue Unabated
Mar 8, 2019 · The National Security Archive has conducted 17 FOIA Audits since 2002. Modeled after the California Sunshine Survey and subsequent state "FOI ...
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"Choice" Magazine Names "Digital National Security Archive" an ...
Jan 7, 2019 · "Choice" Magazine Names "Digital National Security Archive" an Outstanding Academic Title for 2018. 2018 Choice award seal. Published ...
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Awards | National Security Archive
This is a partial listing of prizes and awards to the National Security Archive as well as to individual staff and fellows.Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
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Researchers Win Fight With U.S. on Documents - The New York Times
Mar 20, 1990 · The Bush Administration filed a strongly worded appeal to the Supreme Court, arguing that the National Security Archive is ''not a member of the ...
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Spinning Secrets: The Dangers of Selective Declassification
Jan 3, 2021 · This Note explores the uses and dangers of selective declassification through case studies from the three most recent presidencies.
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National Security Archive (NSA) - Bias and Credibility
Jun 16, 2024 · Overall, the National Security Archive (NSA) is rated as least biased based on minimal editorializing of historical and contemporary issues ...