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Native element mineral

Native element minerals are naturally occurring minerals composed entirely of a single chemical element in its uncombined form, distinguishing them from compound minerals that involve multiple elements.^[1]^[2] They represent one of the fundamental classes in mineralogical classification, alongside groups like silicates and oxides, and are categorized based on their physical properties into metals, semimetals (or metalloids), and nonmetals.^[1]^[3] Of the approximately 118 known chemical elements, only about 20 occur naturally as native minerals due to their stability in Earth's varied geological environments.^[4] Metallic native elements include the most economically significant examples, such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), and platinum (Pt), which often exhibit high luster, electrical conductivity, and malleability.^[1]^[5] These metals commonly form in hydrothermal veins, placer deposits, or as alloys in igneous and metamorphic rocks, with rarer occurrences of iron (Fe), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb).^[1]^[6] Semimetallic native elements, like arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi), are less common and typically appear in hydrothermal deposits, valued more for their chemical properties than direct economic use.^[1] Nonmetallic native elements encompass diamond and graphite (both forms of carbon, C), as well as sulfur (S); diamond's exceptional hardness (10 on the Mohs scale) arises from its tetrahedral crystal structure in the mantle, while graphite's layered sheets provide lubricity, and sulfur forms in volcanic or evaporite settings.^[1]^[2]^[6] Native element minerals have played a pivotal role in human history and modern industry, serving as the earliest metals smelted and shaped by ancient civilizations for tools, ornaments, and currency.^[4]^[6] Today, they underpin global economies through applications like gold and platinum in jewelry and electronics, copper in wiring and antimicrobial surfaces, diamonds in cutting tools and gems, and sulfur in fertilizers and chemicals.^[2]^[4] Their formation reflects diverse geological processes, from deep mantle upwellings for diamonds to surface weathering for placer gold, highlighting their importance in understanding Earth's mineral resources.^[1]^[6]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Native element minerals are naturally occurring chemical elements that exist in pure, uncombined form as substances possessing a distinct ordered atomic arrangement, typically as crystalline solids but including the liquid native mercury. These minerals consist solely of atoms of a single element, setting them apart from compound minerals, which involve chemical combinations of two or more elements.^[7]^[4]^[8] For a chemical element to qualify as a native element mineral, it must demonstrate thermodynamic stability under Earth's ambient surface or near-surface conditions, thereby persisting without reacting to form compounds. Additionally, they must manifest in natural deposits as macroscopic forms such as nuggets, sheets, or wires, or as microscopic crystals and aggregates, confirming their mineralogical status.^[7]^[4] Human recognition of native elements dates to ancient times, with metals like gold and copper valued for their utility in early metallurgy due to their elemental purity. Their systematic identification and classification in mineralogy, however, emerged in the late 18th and 19th centuries amid pioneering crystallographic studies by René-Just Haüy, whose work on crystal geometry laid foundational principles for mineral taxonomy, with chemical classifications further developed by later scientists.^[7]^[9]^[10] Native element minerals are strictly limited to those formed through natural geological processes, excluding synthetic elements created in laboratories and alloys produced by artificial means; only unadulterated, naturally derived elemental solids meet the criteria.^[4]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Native element minerals exhibit a range of physical properties stemming from their pure elemental composition, which allows for diverse atomic arrangements without the influence of bonding to other elements. These minerals often display high luster, which can be metallic for native metals or adamantine for certain nonmetals like diamond, contributing to their distinctive appearance. Hardness varies significantly across types; for instance, diamond achieves the maximum value of 10 on the Mohs scale due to its rigid tetrahedral network, while native gold registers 2.5 to 3 on the same scale, reflecting its softness and malleability.^[11]^[12]^[13] Density also spans a broad range, with native metals generally exhibiting high values—osmium, for example, holds the record at 22.6 g/cm³ among elements—while nonmetals like graphite are lighter at around 2.1 g/cm³. Native metals further demonstrate excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, arising from the delocalized electrons in their metallic bonding, as seen in gold and copper.^[11]^[14]^[11] Chemically, native element minerals' properties are dictated by the inherent reactivity of their constituent atoms. Noble metals such as gold exhibit remarkable inertness, resisting corrosion and oxidation even in harsh environments due to their high electrode potential and stable electron configuration. In contrast, more reactive native elements like iron oxidize rapidly upon exposure to air or water. This elemental purity underscores their lack of compound formation in natural states, leading to behaviors that range from chemical stability in precious metals to high susceptibility in certain metals.^[11]^[13]^[11] The crystal structures of native element minerals reflect their atomic packing efficiency and bonding types, often resulting in simple, high-symmetry lattices. Diamond adopts a cubic structure with each carbon atom tetrahedrally coordinated, while graphite features a hexagonal layered arrangement where carbon atoms form planar sheets. Gold, like other face-centered cubic metals, arranges atoms in a close-packed lattice that facilitates ductility. Isomorphism is common among related elements, such as the platinum group metals, which share cubic structures due to similar atomic sizes and valence electron counts, allowing them to substitute in solid solutions.^[11]^[11]^[15] Allotropy, the existence of multiple crystal forms of the same element, exemplifies how bonding variations yield contrasting properties in native minerals. Carbon's allotropes provide a classic case: diamond's sp³ hybridization creates strong, three-dimensional covalent bonds, yielding exceptional hardness, whereas graphite's sp² hybridization forms weaker van der Waals interlayer bonds in its hexagonal sheets, resulting in softness and lubricity. These differences arise from the distinct orbital overlaps—tetrahedral in diamond versus trigonal planar in graphite—without altering the elemental composition.^[11]^[16]

Classification Systems

Nickel-Strunz Classification

The Nickel-Strunz classification system, in its 10th edition (2009 update of the 9th edition), places native element minerals within Class 1, coded as 01, as the first major category encompassing elements in their uncombined, naturally occurring forms. This class is subdivided according to chemical similarity into three primary divisions: 1.A for metals and intermetallic alloys, 1.B for semimetals (metalloids), and 1.C for nonmetals, reflecting a hierarchical organization that groups species with comparable bonding and physical behaviors.^[17]^[18] The system's hierarchy employs a detailed alphanumeric coding to denote further subgroups based on specific chemical groups, crystal structures, and related properties; for example, the platinum group elements, including platinum and related metals, are assigned code 1.AF.10 within the metals division. This structure facilitates systematic arrangement, with divisions like 1.A encompassing pure metals and alloys, 1.B focusing on semimetallic elements with intermediate conductivity, and 1.C covering nonmetallic forms such as allotropes.^[17] The rationale for this classification emphasizes chemical composition as the primary criterion, supplemented by crystal structure and geological occurrence to ensure logical grouping and ease of identification, while allowing periodic revisions to integrate newly approved mineral species or structural insights.^[19] Key subgroups include 1.A, which features noble metals like gold (Au) and silver (Ag); 1.B, comprising semimetals such as arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi); and 1.C, which incorporates nonmetals including carbon (C) in diamond or graphite forms, sulfur (S), and selenium (Se).^[17] Despite its comprehensiveness, the system has limitations, as it primarily addresses stable, naturally occurring species and excludes rare or highly unstable native elements like francium, which decay too rapidly to form persistent minerals. This focused approach distinguishes it from broader chemical and structural classifications that may incorporate additional criteria.^[20]

Chemical and Structural Classification

Native element minerals are classified chemically according to their position in the periodic table, grouping them by shared electron configurations and reactivity patterns that influence their occurrence as uncombined species. Alkali and alkaline earth metals (groups 1 and 2) rarely form native minerals due to high reactivity, with no well-documented natural occurrences for elements like cesium or radium under standard conditions. Transition metals (groups 3–12), particularly those in groups 8–11 such as iron, platinum, and gold, commonly appear as native forms owing to their stability in metallic states. Post-transition metals (groups 13–15, e.g., tin, lead, bismuth) and metalloids (e.g., arsenic, antimony) also form native minerals, while nonmetals from groups 14 (carbon) and 16 (sulfur, selenium) exhibit native occurrences through covalent or molecular structures. Noble gases (group 18) do not form solid native minerals, though hypothetical van der Waals solids have been considered in theoretical contexts.^[4]^[21] Structurally, native elements are categorized by the dominant type of interatomic bonding, which determines their physical properties and stability. Metallic bonding, characterized by delocalized electrons, predominates in native metals like copper and gold, resulting in high electrical conductivity and malleability with close-packed crystal lattices. Covalent network bonding occurs in forms like diamond (carbon), where strong directional bonds form a tetrahedral framework, conferring exceptional hardness. Molecular structures, such as the S8 rings in orthorhombic sulfur, rely on covalent bonds within molecules and weaker intermolecular forces, leading to lower density and brittleness. Semimetals exhibit intermediate bonding, blending metallic and covalent characteristics, as seen in arsenic's layered structure with directional bonds to three neighbors. This structural diversity contrasts with the more codified subgroups in systems like Nickel-Strunz.^[21]^[4] The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognizes native forms for 31 of the 118 known elements, with approvals based on verified natural occurrence, composition, and structure; provisional classifications may apply to rare or newly discovered species, though synthetic elements like hassium remain unapproved as natives. This limited set underscores that only elements with sufficient thermodynamic stability avoid combining with oxygen or silicates in Earth's crust. Geochemically, these classifications reflect evolutionary partitioning during planetary differentiation: siderophile elements (e.g., nickel, platinum) affinity for metallic phases allows native occurrences in iron-rich environments like meteorites, while lithophile elements (e.g., carbon in graphite) favor silicate associations but persist natively in reducing conditions. Chalcophile tendencies in elements like sulfur further influence native sulfur deposits in volcanic settings.^[22]^[23]

Types of Native Element Minerals

Native Metals

Native metals are metallic elements that occur in nature in their uncombined, elemental form, distinguished by metallic bonding that results in high electrical and thermal conductivity, luster, and malleability.^[24] These properties arise from the delocalized electrons in their crystal lattices, allowing them to deform without breaking, unlike brittle nonmetals.^[4] Only about 15 to 20 metallic elements are recognized as forming native minerals, though most occurrences are rare except for a few like gold and copper.^[25] Native metals are often categorized into subgroups based on chemical reactivity and physical traits. Noble metals, such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), and platinum (Pt), exhibit high resistance to oxidation and corrosion due to their stable electron configurations, enabling them to persist in surface environments.^[4] In contrast, base metals like copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) are more reactive, forming compounds more readily but still occurring natively under reducing conditions.^[26] The platinum-group metals (PGMs), including osmium (Os), iridium (Ir), ruthenium (Ru), rhodium (Rh), palladium (Pd), and platinum (Pt), are characterized by their extreme density, high melting points, and corrosion resistance, often found as natural alloys rather than pure elements.^[27] Prominent examples illustrate the diversity of native metal forms. Gold commonly appears as nuggets, placer deposits, or thin wires in quartz veins, prized for its ductility.^[28] Silver occurs as wires, tree-like dendrites, or masses, frequently associated with sulfides.^[25] Copper forms well-developed crystals, notably in the native copper district of Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula, where large sheets and intricate arborescent structures have been mined.^[26] Iron, primarily sourced from meteorites, appears as compact masses or grains, with rare terrestrial occurrences in basaltic rocks.^[24] Platinum-group metals, such as in the alloy isoferroplatinum (a natural Pt-Fe intermetallic), typically form dense nuggets or grains in ultramafic intrusions.^[29] Allotropy, or the existence of multiple crystal structures for the same element, is uncommon among native metals due to their stable lattices, but iron exhibits polymorphism with alpha-iron (body-centered cubic) stable at room temperature and gamma-iron (face-centered cubic) at higher temperatures up to 912°C.^[30] This phase transition influences the mechanical properties of native iron meteorites, where shock metamorphism can induce such changes.^[1]

Native Nonmetals

Native nonmetals constitute a subset of native element minerals composed of nonmetallic elements that feature covalent or molecular bonding structures, resulting in materials that are generally brittle and exhibit poor electrical conductivity. These elements occur in uncombined form in nature, contrasting with their more common occurrence in compounds, and their insulating properties stem from the localized nature of their electron bonds.^[24] Carbon exemplifies native nonmetals through its allotropic forms of diamond and graphite, representing the extremes of hardness and softness among minerals. Diamond, formed under high-pressure conditions in the Earth's mantle, is the hardest known natural substance, while graphite's layered structure—consisting of planar sheets of carbon atoms bonded by weak van der Waals forces—confers exceptional lubricity and makes it one of the softest minerals. Diamond's occurrence is notably rare, comprising only a minute fraction of the Earth's total carbon reserves, primarily due to the specific geological conditions required for its crystallization.^[24]^[31] Sulfur appears as vibrant yellow crystals in rhombic and monoclinic forms, often associated with volcanic and sedimentary environments. This element displays remarkable allotropy, with more than 30 distinct structural modifications documented, allowing it to adapt to varying temperature and pressure conditions.^[32] Selenium, another key native nonmetal, manifests in a gray, metallic form and red, amorphous varieties, typically found in association with sulfide deposits.^[33] Iodine occurs as striking violet crystals within evaporite sequences, highlighting its role in saline depositional settings. In total, four nonmetals are known to exist as native elements: carbon, sulfur, selenium, and iodine.^[34] Among the halogens, only iodine forms stable native solids, appearing as violet crystals in evaporitic environments; highly reactive halogens like chlorine and fluorine do not occur as native elements due to their tendency to rapidly form compounds rather than persist in uncombined, solid states.^[35]^[24]

Native Semimetals

Native semimetals are a subset of native element minerals consisting of elements that occur in uncombined form in nature and display hybrid properties intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals, such as moderate electrical conductivity, brittleness, and luster that is more metallic than nonmetals but less so than true metals.^[7] These elements typically exhibit poor malleability and ductility compared to native metals, often forming brittle masses or crystals.^[26] The primary examples of native semimetals include arsenic, antimony, bismuth, and the rarer tellurium. Arsenic occurs as gray, brittle masses with a rhombohedral crystal structure, characterized by puckered layers of atoms that contribute to its anisotropy and moderate semiconducting behavior.^[36] Antimony shares a similar rhombohedral structure and properties with arsenic, appearing as tin-white, brittle crystals or masses that tarnish to gray.^[37] Bismuth, also rhombohedral, is notable for its diamagnetic nature—the strongest among metals—and exceptionally low thermal conductivity, forming hopper-shaped crystals or irregular masses with a reddish-white tint.^[38] Tellurium, less commonly found in native form, consists of parallel helical chains of atoms in a trigonal structure, leading to anisotropic electrical properties and a silvery appearance.^[39] Only three to four elements are recognized as native semimetals, with their occurrences limited by a strong geochemical tendency to form compounds rather than remaining uncombined.^[40] Their layered or chain-like atomic arrangements often result in directional properties, such as varying conductivity along different axes, distinguishing them from the more isotropic native metals.^[37] Native arsenic, in particular, is sometimes misidentified in the field due to its resemblance to arsenopyrite, a common iron arsenic sulfide mineral, though careful hardness testing reveals the distinction—native arsenic is softer (Mohs 3.5) compared to arsenopyrite's 5.5-6.^[41]

Occurrence and Formation

Geological Processes

Native element minerals form through a variety of geological processes that promote the segregation and stabilization of elements in their uncombined state, often under specific temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions that minimize bonding with other species.^[42] These processes include magmatic segregation, hydrothermal deposition, and supergene weathering, each exploiting differences in solubility, density, and reactivity to concentrate elements like platinum, gold, and copper.^[43] Magmatic segregation occurs in mafic and ultramafic intrusions where dense immiscible liquids, such as sulfides or oxides, separate from the host magma, scavenging and concentrating compatible elements.^[44] For instance, platinum-group elements like native platinum form in ultramafic rocks through this process, as the metals partition into early-formed sulfide droplets that settle to the base of the intrusion due to gravitational forces.^[45] This segregation is driven by the low solubility of these elements in silicate melts under high-temperature conditions, typically above 1000°C, allowing native forms to crystallize directly or alloy with similar metals.^[43] Hydrothermal deposition involves the transport of elements in aqueous fluids derived from cooling magmas or metamorphic reactions, followed by precipitation in fractures or veins when conditions change.^[46] Native gold, for example, deposits in quartz veins through reduction of soluble gold-sulfur complexes, such as Au(HS)₂⁻, when the fluid encounters reducing agents like ferrous iron or organic matter, destabilizing the complex and lowering gold solubility.^[47] These fluids are typically near-neutral to acidic, with temperatures ranging from 200–400°C, and the reduction process can be enhanced by fluid boiling or mixing with cooler waters. Supergene weathering, or secondary enrichment, transforms primary sulfide minerals at or near the Earth's surface through oxidative dissolution and downward migration of metals in meteoric waters.^[48] Native copper forms from the weathering of copper sulfides like chalcopyrite, where oxidation releases Cu²⁺ ions that migrate and precipitate as elemental copper below the oxidized zone in response to reducing conditions at the water table.^[49] This process is facilitated by acidic, oxygenated surface waters that leach the sulfides, concentrating copper up to several percent in the enriched zone.^[50] Redox conditions play a critical role in stabilizing native metals, as low oxygen environments prevent oxidation to more soluble forms.^[51] In anoxic settings, such as ancient ocean basins, native iron can form or persist without converting to oxides, though such occurrences are rare on Earth outside meteoritic sources.^[52] Conversely, high-pressure conditions in the deep mantle, exceeding 5 GPa and temperatures around 900–1300°C, drive the synthesis of native carbon as diamond by compressing graphite or other carbon phases into a thermodynamically stable cubic structure.^[53] Biogenic influences contribute rarely but notably to native sulfur formation, primarily through microbial sulfate reduction in anoxic sediments.^[54] Sulfate-reducing bacteria, such as Desulfovibrio species, enzymatically reduce sulfate (SO₄²⁻) to hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), which can oxidize abiotically or react to precipitate elemental sulfur under fluctuating redox gradients.^[55] This process dominates in organic-rich, sulfate-abundant environments like evaporite basins, where bacterial activity plays a major role in sulfur cycling.^[56] Thermodynamic stability underpins the persistence of native forms, governed by minima in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) that favor elemental states over compounds across wide pH and temperature ranges.^[57] For native gold, ΔG values indicate stability in most hydrothermal and weathering conditions, with precipitation occurring when the activity of ligands like chloride or bisulfide drops, rendering complexes unstable.^[58] This inherent stability explains gold's occurrence as unaltered nuggets even in oxidized zones.^[59] Historical events, such as meteoritic impacts, have delivered native iron-nickel alloys to Earth's surface, introducing extraterrestrial native elements into the crust.^[60] These meteorites, primarily iron meteorites with 5–20% nickel, weather slowly due to protective oxide coatings but contribute minor native metal occurrences, as seen in Greenland's iron deposits.^[61] Such deliveries represent a non-magmatic, exogenous process for native element formation.^[62]

Common Environments

Native element minerals occur in a variety of geological environments, primarily associated with specific tectonic and sedimentary processes that allow elements to precipitate in their uncombined form. These settings range from surface-related deposits to deep-seated formations, with native elements often appearing as traces within broader mineral assemblages.^[63] Native gold is commonly found in placer deposits within river gravels (sedimentary environments), where it accumulates through mechanical weathering and erosion of primary sources in surrounding igneous terrains.^[64] Diamonds, another key native element, form and are transported in kimberlite pipes, which are volcanic conduits originating from the mantle and erupting through continental crust.^[65] Sedimentary environments host native sulfur in evaporite sequences, where this element precipitates from concentrated brines in restricted basins, often alongside gypsum and halite.^[66] Native graphite occurs in metamorphosed coal seams, derived from carbonaceous sedimentary deposits subjected to regional metamorphism, yielding high-carbon graphitic layers.^[63] Metamorphic settings feature native bismuth in skarn deposits, which develop at contacts between intrusions and carbonate rocks, concentrating bismuth through metasomatic alteration.^[67] Arsenic appears as native element in contact metamorphic zones, particularly around igneous intrusions where hydrothermal fluids interact with sediments, mobilizing and depositing arsenic in altered rocks.^[68] Exotic environments include meteoritic sources for native iron-nickel alloys, such as those in iron meteorites, which represent primordial solar system material and occasionally influence terrestrial deposits through impacts. Globally, native element minerals are present as trace occurrences in the Earth's crust, with elements like carbon and sulfur comprising significant portions of crustal composition but rarely in native form outside specific locales; hypothetical native elements may exist in the deep mantle under extreme pressures.^[69] Vertical zonation in hydrothermal systems influences their distribution, with epithermal veins hosting native silver in shallow, low-temperature settings and hypothermal deposits favoring native gold in deeper, higher-temperature zones.^[46]

Economic and Scientific Importance

Industrial Uses

Native element minerals, particularly metals, nonmetals, and semimetals, play crucial roles in various industrial sectors due to their inherent physical and chemical properties. Among native metals, gold is extensively utilized in jewelry fabrication and electronics manufacturing, where its superior electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion are essential for components like connectors and circuit boards.^[70] Silver, another key native metal, finds applications in jewelry, electronics, and photovoltaic solar panels, leveraging its high thermal and electrical conductivity; industrial demand for silver in these areas reached a record 680.5 million ounces in 2024.^[71] Platinum, valued for its catalytic properties, is primarily used in automotive exhaust systems to convert harmful emissions into less toxic substances through catalytic converters.^[72] Native nonmetals also contribute significantly to industry. Diamonds, prized for their exceptional hardness, are employed in cutting, grinding, and polishing tools, as well as in wire-drawing dies and heat sinks for electronic devices.^[73] Sulfur, extracted as a native element, serves as the primary raw material for producing sulfuric acid, which is vital for manufacturing fertilizers, particularly phosphate-based ones, and in petroleum refining.^[74] Graphite, a native form of carbon, is integral to lithium-ion batteries as an anode material, in addition to its use as a lubricant and in pencil leads due to its layered structure and conductivity.^[75] Native semimetals have niche but important industrial roles. Bismuth is incorporated into low-toxicity alloys for applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and aerospace components, offering a non-toxic alternative to lead in solders and radiation shielding.^[76] Antimony, often in its native form or as compounds derived from it, is used in flame retardants for plastics and textiles, enhancing fire resistance in consumer goods and building materials.^[77] Extraction methods for native element minerals vary by type and deposit. For placer deposits of gold, panning remains a traditional artisanal technique, involving the use of a shallow pan to separate heavier gold particles from sediment through water agitation and gravity.^[78] Sulfur is commonly mined via the Frasch process, where superheated water is injected into underground deposits to melt the sulfur, which is then pumped to the surface using compressed air, yielding high-purity product.^[79] Refining processes, such as electrolysis for gold, achieve purities up to 99.99%, removing impurities like silver and copper to meet industrial standards.^[80] Global markets underscore the economic scale of these minerals. Annual gold mine production reached 3,661 metric tons in 2024, driven by demand in electronics and investment sectors.^[81] The global natural diamond jewelry market was estimated at approximately $61 billion in 2024, reflecting ongoing trade in rough and polished natural stones.^[82] However, environmental concerns persist, particularly from artisanal gold mining, where mercury amalgamation contaminates water sources and bioaccumulates in ecosystems, affecting fish populations and human health through vapor inhalation and ingestion.^[83] As of mid-2025, silver industrial demand remains robust amid projections of a slight overall market decline, with total demand expected at 1.12 billion ounces for the year.^[84]

Scientific Significance

Native element minerals play a pivotal role in mineralogy and crystallography, particularly through their well-defined crystal lattices that serve as benchmarks for structural analysis. Diamond, with its cubic crystal structure, has been instrumental in advancing X-ray crystallography techniques, providing high-quality diffraction patterns that enable precise determination of atomic arrangements in other materials due to its exceptional lattice perfection and transparency to X-rays.^[85] Similarly, graphite's layered hexagonal structure has facilitated groundbreaking research in two-dimensional materials, notably as the precursor for isolating graphene via mechanical exfoliation, revealing properties like extraordinary electrical conductivity and mechanical strength.^[86] In geochemistry, native element minerals act as critical tracers for understanding Earth's differentiation processes. Siderophile elements, such as native iron and nickel, which preferentially partition into metallic phases during planetary accretion, provide evidence of core formation by showing depletion patterns in the mantle relative to chondritic abundances, helping model the timing and mechanisms of early Earth segregation.^[87] These elements' occurrences in native form highlight redox conditions and metal-silicate partitioning behaviors that shaped the planet's internal structure. Astrogeology benefits significantly from native elements preserved in meteorites, offering direct insights into solar system history. Iron-nickel alloys (kamacite and taenite) in iron meteorites represent remnants of planetary cores from differentiated asteroids, with their compositions and textures revealing accretion timelines, collisional events, and thermal histories dating back over 4.5 billion years.^[88] Such meteoritic natives contrast with terrestrial ones, underscoring nebular processes and volatile loss during solar system formation.^[89] Native carbon allotropes have profoundly influenced materials science, inspiring the development of nanotechnology through structural analogies. The discovery of fullerenes, such as C60 buckyballs, drew from the geometric principles of graphite and diamond lattices, leading to engineered carbon nanostructures with applications in electronics and drug delivery due to their tunable electronic properties and stability.^[90] Recent advances extend this legacy to synthetic analogs of unstable elements; for instance, theoretical predictions for oganesson (element 118), a synthetic noble gas, suggest it may form metallic or solid phases unlike lighter native nobles like helium, guiding experiments on superheavy element behavior via relativistic quantum calculations.^[91] Additionally, isotopic studies of native sulfur minerals have illuminated paleoclimate dynamics, with sulfur isotope excursions in deposits recording ancient atmospheric oxygen levels and microbial sulfate reduction events over geological epochs.^[92] In education, native element minerals exemplify elemental periodicity, demonstrating how a single element's properties vary with bonding and structure—such as carbon's transformation from insulating diamond to conductive graphite—serving as tangible illustrations of the periodic table's principles in classroom settings.^[6]

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[29]
Allotropes of Sulfur: Types, Uses & FAQs - Allen
Sulfur allotropes are forms with different chemical properties but same physical properties. There are about 30, including rhombic, monoclinic, plastic, and ...
[30]
Native Selenium: Mineral information, data and localities.
Formula: Se. Colour: Gray to grayish black, reddish gray, red. Lustre: Metallic. Hardness: 2. Specific Gravity: 4.8. Crystal System: Trigonal.
[31]
Uniquely high-grade iodide mineralization in the oxidation zone of ...
Jan 5, 2012 · Unusual, high-grade iodide mineralization comprising marshite, miersite, and iodargyrite has been discovered in the oxidation zone of the ...
[32]
Natural arsenic with a unique order structure: potential for new ... - NIH
Apr 18, 2019 · It is crystallized in a rhombohedral structure with space group R 3 ¯ m (A7-type structure). Black arsenic (black to dark-grey, Bmab-As) is ...
[33]
[PDF] Classification and Nomenclature of Minerals
* The native semi-metals include arsenic (As), antimony. (Sb), and bismuth ... * Arsenic, antimony and bismuth crystallize in the hexagonal ...
[34]
Bismuth: Economic geology and value chains - ScienceDirect.com
Bismuth is diamagnetic and has one of the lowest thermal conductivity values amongst metals (Mintser, 1979, Mohan, 2010). It is a chalcophile element, with a ...
[35]
Crystal structure of Te. a The structure consists of helical Te chains...
Crystalline tellurium consists of parallel helical chains of Te atoms [27] . In order to reveal the interactions between the chains, mIGM analysis is ...
[36]
The Complete Classification of Minerals - Geology In
Semimetals. The native semi-metals include arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi), as well as the less common elements selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te).
[37]
Identity Help : What is it? Arsenic or family - Mindat
Native arsenic is too soft ( H = ca. 3,5) while i.e. arsenopyrite has H= ca 6. Such large pieces of native arsenic would also be much more uncommon than ...Missing: misidentified | Show results with:misidentified
[38]
[PDF] 18. Theory of Deposit Formation - USGS Publications Warehouse
The theory of deposit formation involves volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits formed by hydrothermal solutions near the sea floor, driven by magmatic heat.
[39]
[PDF] Magmatic Ore Deposits in Layered Intrusions—Descriptive Model for ...
This report describes a model for magmatic ore deposits in layered intrusions, specifically reef-type PGE and contact-type Cu-Ni-PGE deposits.
[40]
[PDF] Magmatic Sulfide-Rich Nickel-Copper Deposits Related to Picrite ...
Magmatic sulfide deposits form when mantle-derived, sulfur undersaturated picritic or tholeiitic basalt magmas become sulfide saturated, commonly following ...
[41]
[PDF] crustal setting of mafic and ultramafic rocks and
They further noted that deposits of titaniferous magnetite, native platinum, platinum sulf ides, and high- iron chromite may occur. ... Some magmatic segregation ...
[42]
[PDF] Descriptive Models for Epithermal Gold-Silver Deposits
... forming hydrothermal fluids. In this descriptive model, epithermal gold-silver deposits are separated into low-, intermediate-, and high-sulfidation ...
[43]
Critical minerals in orogenic (gold) and Coeur d'Alene-type mineral ...
May 30, 2025 · Additional mechanisms of lesser importance that may result in gold precipitation include pH decrease of the hydrothermal fluid, fluid mixing, ...
[44]
[PDF] 12. Supergene Ore and Gangue Characteristics
Supergene ore and gangue minerals result from reactions between hypogene sulfides and acidic meteoric waters, forming a copper-rich enrichment over a gossan.
[45]
[PDF] Sediment-Hosted Copper Deposits of the World
Native copper occurs in deposits deficient in sulfide. ... Downdip and away from outcrop, supergene alteration and enrichment in chalcocite may occur.
[46]
[PDF] THE ENRICHMENT OF ORE DEPOSITS
This document covers the enrichment of ore deposits, including physical conditions, chemistry, and the development of theory.
[47]
[PDF] Metal Biogeochemistry in Surface-Water Systems A Review of ...
Changes in the redox potential between oxidizing and reducing conditions profoundly affect metal partitioning. Because of the solubilization of iron and ...
[48]
[PDF] 13. Weathering Processes - USGS Publications Warehouse
In principle, the process of seafloor weathering can produce intermediate stages of supergene enrichments by complete or partial replacement of primary sulfides ...<|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Geophysics and Petrology of the Deep Crust and Upper Mantle
The presence and composition of high- pressure megacrysts, particularly diamond, show other mantle chemical heterogeneities that apparently are ancient, but ...
[50]
[PDF] Petrography of a Sulfur Occurrence in the Castile Formation ...
The biogenic origin of native sulfur in the Castile Formation of southwest Texas by sulfate- reducing bacteria (Desulfovibrio desulfuricans) was documented by ...
[51]
[PDF] Report (pdf)
Bacterial reduction of sulfate yields HgS gas which must be trapped and oxidized to native sulfur to produce an economic deposit. HgS may migrate higher into ...
[52]
[PDF] Descriptive Model of Salt-Dome Sulfur
Bacterial reduction of sulfate yields HjS gas which must be trapped and oxidized to native sulfur to produce an economic deposit. HjS may migrate higher ...
[53]
[PDF] Selected Annotated Bibliography on the Geochemistry of Gold
Gold was found to be very stable in the zone of weathering where it is a major element with quartz but was found to be unstable as a trace element in micaceous ...
[54]
[PDF] Gold in Minerals and the Composition of Native Gold
Helgeson and Garrels (1968), on the basis of thermodynamic calculations, think that all but marginal or low-grade hydrothermal native gold deposits form above ...
[55]
[PDF] Geochemistry of Gold in the Weathering Cycle
Much of the gold ( 42-66 percent) was dissolved from ores containing free native gold, but gold in massive pyrite and in gold telluride was not attacked.
[56]
[PDF] RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF NICKEL IN THE EARTH'S CRUST
Native nickel is rare and is found mainly as a minor constituent of native iron, the best known occurrences of which are in western Greenland, though small ...
[57]
[PDF] Nickel Deposits of North America
(Clark and Kullerud, 1963), and native nickel-iron (Nickel, 1959). These are ... sulfides, the bolide, a copper-rich nickel-iron meteorite, is still partially pre ...
[58]
[PDF] Feasibility Study for the Quantitative Assessment of Mineral ...
Apr 21, 2017 · Native iron-nickel alloys make up nearly all of metallic asteroids and as much as 25 percent of carbonaceous chondrites. The primary source of ...
[59]
[PDF] Graphite - USGS Publications Warehouse
Deposits in metamorphosed massive coal seams may contain as much as 90 percent graphitic carbon, whereas deposits in other carbonaceous sediments or impure coal ...
[60]
[PDF] Placer Gold Deposits of Nevada - USGS Publications Warehouse
The placer gold was probably derived from gold-silver ores in veins in the igneous rocks of the area that have been mined near the head of the canyon ...
[61]
Grade-tonnage and other models for diamond kimberlite pipes
Diamond kimberlite pipes contain a median 26 million metric tons (mt); the median diamond grade is 0.25 carat/metric ton (ct/mt).
[62]
[PDF] 8.0 Chemical-sedimentary deposits - USGS.gov
Redox fronts control copper deposition. Alteration is due to oxidized brines that have passed through source-rocks creating albite-rich rocks with. Na ...
[63]
[PDF] Geology - Gold-Bearing Skarns
Other commodities produced by Au-bearing skarns include silver, copper, zinc, iron, lead, arsenic, bismuth, tungsten, and tin as principal or byproduct ...
[64]
Geology and Mineral Resources - Arsenic - Virginia Energy
Hydrothermal environments including hot springs, certain volcanic environments, and areas of contact metamorphism may host arsenic-bearing minerals. ... Young, ...
[65]
[PDF] THE COMPOSITION OF- THE EARTH'S CRUST
Groups of minerals formed by· the metallogenic elements .. ... but the products of magmatic segregation, in oliVine the truly primary nature of the metals ...
[66]
10 Common Uses of Industrial Precious Metals
Jul 24, 2025 · Gold and Silver: These metals are commonly used in connectors, switches, circuit boards, and other components in electronic devices like ...
[67]
What are the main uses of silver? | By Industry and Year - BullionVault
Aug 8, 2025 · Learn what silver is used for and how much silver is used each year from 2016 to 2024 in electronics, solar panels, medicine, jewelry, ...
[68]
4 Platinum Uses for Investors to Know | INN - Investing News Network
the metal can be used in autocatalysts and jewelry, as well as for medical and industrial purposes.
[69]
Industrial Diamonds - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
This combination of properties makes it uniquely useful as “heat sinks” for cooling miniature solid-state electronic devices, or as windows for very high ...
[70]
Sulfur - The Essential Chemical Industry
Sulfur is one of the most important elements. It is used to make sulfuric acid, which is the most abundantly made industrial chemical.
[71]
Main uses of graphite - ECGA
Graphite also has a myriad of other industrial uses in lubricants, carbon brushes for electric motors, fire retardants, and insulation and reinforcements ...
[72]
Geology and Mineral Resources - Other Critical ... - Virginia Energy
Bismuth is used in the pharmaceutical industry, for pigments and cosmetics, and as an alloying agent for aerospace and defense industries. Bismuth is commonly ...
[73]
[PDF] Mineral Commodity Profiles: Antimony
These compounds are used variously as flame retardants, pigments, heat and radiation stabilizers for plastics, and catalyst precursors. COMMERCIAL FORMS, GRADES ...<|separator|>
[74]
Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Without Mercury | US EPA
Sep 12, 2025 · Panning uses water to separate heavy gold particles from other lighter particles within a medium sized pan. In this process sediment or ore ...
[75]
Sulfur Production - Georgia Gulf Sulfur Corporation
The Frasch process utilizes a steel tube made up of three concentric pipes that are driven underground to reach the sulfur deposit. Superheated water is then ...
[76]
How Gold Is Refined: A Step-By-Step Guide - Pease Curren
The refiners will then pass an electric current through the cell. At the end of this process, the gold will be 99.99 percent pure.
[77]
Global mine production by country - World Gold Council
Jun 12, 2025 · At a country level, China was the largest producer in the world in 2024 and accounted for around 10 per cent of total global production.
[78]
Diamond Market Size, Share, Trends, Report, 2032
According to Fortune Business Insights, the global diamond market was valued at USD 97.57 billion in 2024 and is expected to reach USD 138.66 billion by 2032.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[79]
Reducing Mercury Pollution from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold ...
Studies have found emissions from gold shops pose a major hazard both in terms of indoor concentrations and in the form of emissions to community residents in ...
[80]
[PDF] Diamond x-ray optics: transparent, resilient, high-resolution, and ...
Natural diamonds have insufficient crystal lattice perfection for most x-ray optics appli- cations. Man-made diamond crystals turn out to feature much higher ...
[81]
Graphite to Graphene: From a Mineral to an Advanced ...
Jun 1, 2019 · The focus of this article is on graphite and, more particularly, on the closely related material graphene. And graphene is important because of its ...
[82]
Siderophile Elements in Tracing Planetary Formation and Evolution
For most siderophile elements, increasing temperatures and pressures leads to decreases in Dmetal/silicate values.
[83]
[PDF] METEORITES AND THE EARLY SOLAR SYSTEM Edward Anders
Meteorites, especially chondrites, contain information about the early solar system, acting as a record of the solar nebula's conditions. Chondrites are the ...
[84]
Meteorites lend clues to solar system's origin
Dec 16, 2019 · The isotopic composition of meteorites and terrestrial planets holds important clues about the earliest history of the solar system and the processes of planet ...
[85]
Broad Family of Carbon Nanoallotropes: Classification, Chemistry ...
May 27, 2015 · Fullerenes are the smallest known stable carbon nanostructures and lie on the boundary between molecules and nanomaterials. As an example, C60 ...
[86]
Oganesson | Definition & Facts | Britannica
Oct 27, 2025 · Oganesson (Og), a transuranium element that occupies position 118 in the periodic table and is one of the noble gases.
[87]
Major excursions in sulfur isotopes linked to permafrost change in ...
Aug 1, 2025 · We identify a major sulfur isotope excursion in Eurasian faunal bone collagen from the last 50,000 years, here termed the Late Pleniglacial ...Missing: native | Show results with:native