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Nazm

Nazm (Urdu: نظم, lit. 'order' or 'arrangement', derived from Persian poetic traditions) is a prominent form of Urdu poetry characterized by a structured composition that develops a single, unified theme through logically connected verses, often in rhymed or unrhymed meter, contrasting with the independent couplets of the ghazal.^[1]^[2]^[3] Originating in the 16th and 17th centuries in the Deccan region under Muslim courts, where poets like Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1565–1612) composed over 50,000 verses in Dakhini Urdu blending Persian and local elements, nazm evolved from early Sufi-influenced narratives to more refined expressions during the 18th century in the Delhi and Lucknow schools.^[4]^[3] Key figures such as Wali of Aurangabad (1667–1707), often called the "Father of Rekhta," introduced simpler styles to Delhi, while poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Nasikh, and Anis advanced ornate narrative and elegiac forms, including masnavis for storytelling and marsiyas for elegies.^[5] The 19th century marked a pivotal shift post-1857, with the Aligarh Movement and Western influences prompting reformers like Altaf Hussain Hali and Muhammad Husain Azad to use nazm for social critique and patriotism, as seen in Hali's musaddas Madd-o-Jazr-e-Islam (1879) on the ebb and flow of Islamic civilization.^[3] In the 20th century, nazm gained modern prominence through progressive writers addressing colonialism, social justice, and existential themes, with Muhammad Iqbal's philosophical works like Shikwa (1909) exemplifying its didactic potential, and later poets such as Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Josh Malihabadi, and Akhtarul Iman incorporating free verse and Marxist influences for themes of equality and resistance.^[6]^[2] Unlike the ghazal's strict qafiya (rhyme) and radeef (refrain) across 5–15 couplets, nazm allows flexibility in length, structure, and title, encompassing subgenres like qasida (panegyric), musaddas (sextet stanza), blank verse (nazm-e-mu'arra), and free verse (azad nazm), often serving narrative, descriptive, satirical, or philosophical purposes.^[2]^[3] This versatility has made nazm a vehicle for cultural identity and social commentary in Urdu literature, with centers like Delhi, Lucknow, and Rampur fostering its growth.

Definition and Characteristics

Etymology and Meaning

The term nazm derives from the Arabic root naẓm, which signifies "order," "arrangement," or "stringing together," evoking the image of threading pearls into a necklace to denote the structured composition of poetic elements.^[7] In classical Arabic literary theory, this concept underscores poetry as an organized assembly of verses, contrasting with the scattered or dispersed nature of prose.^[7] In Persian literature, nazm emerged as a broad designation for all forms of rhymed, metered verse, serving as the counterpart to nathr (prose), which lacks such rhythmic constraints and is characterized by free-flowing expression.^[8] This dichotomy, rooted in early Islamic scholarly treatises on rhetoric and poetics, highlights nazm's emphasis on harmonious arrangement to achieve aesthetic and structural integrity, as seen in classical works by poets like Rudaki and Ferdowsi from the 9th to 11th centuries.^[7] Upon its adoption into Urdu poetry during the 18th and 19th centuries, nazm evolved to specifically denote a cohesive poetic form unified by a single theme, allowing for narrative progression and logical development across the entire composition, distinct from the more episodic ghazal.^[3] This transition reflected Urdu's synthesis of Persian traditions with local vernacular influences, with early exemplars appearing in the works of poets such as Nazir Akbarabadi (c. 1735–1830), who employed nazm for didactic and descriptive purposes.^[9] By the late 19th century, the form gained further prominence through literary gatherings like the 1874 Munazama symposium in Lahore, solidifying its role in Urdu's poetic canon.^[3]

Key Features

The nazm is characterized by a unified central theme that unfolds through a logical progression across its verses, ensuring coherence and interconnectedness rather than the disjointed structure of independent couplets found in forms like the ghazal.^[2]^[3] This progression allows the poem to develop a single presiding idea, often building from introduction to culmination in a purposeful manner.^[10] In terms of form, the nazm offers significant flexibility in meter, which can follow quantitative patterns based on long and short syllables or accentual rhythms, and in rhyme schemes, encompassing rhymed verses, unrhymed blank verse, or free verse without fixed constraints.^[2]^[3] This adaptability enables poets to prioritize thematic flow over rigid prosodic rules, with stanzas typically linked to maintain the poem's overall unity.^[10] The length of a nazm varies widely, from concise reflective pieces of a dozen lines to extended narratives spanning hundreds of verses, always emphasizing the interconnection of stanzas to support the central motif.^[2]^[3] It often adopts an objective tone suited to narrative or philosophical expression, employing controlled imagery and symbolism to convey ideas with precision and depth rather than overt emotionalism.^[3]^[10]

Comparison with Ghazal

The ghazal in Urdu poetry is structured as a series of independent couplets known as sher, typically numbering between 5 and 15, each functioning as a self-contained unit while unified by a consistent meter, a recurring rhyme (qaafiya), and a refrain (radeef). The first couplet, or matla, features the rhyme in both lines, and the final couplet, or makta, often incorporates the poet's takhallus (pen name). This form emphasizes lyrical brevity and emotional intensity, frequently exploring romantic or mystical themes such as love and longing.^[11]^[10] In contrast, the nazm exhibits a continuous, cohesive flow with thematic unity across its entirety, unbound by mandatory refrains or independent couplets, allowing for varied stanzaic arrangements or even free verse. While the ghazal's structure prioritizes discrete, evocative expressions, the nazm's integrated progression enables exploration of diverse subjects beyond romance, including narrative, philosophical, or didactic elements, maintaining rhythm through line length and optional rhyme without rigid constraints.^[11]^[10]^[12] Thematically, the ghazal tends toward subjective lyricism, delving into personal emotions and conventionalized experiences often detached from broader social contexts, whereas the nazm adopts a more expansive scope, facilitating narrative depth, philosophical inquiry, or instructional tones that address societal or intellectual concerns. This distinction underscores the nazm's emphasis on holistic unity, where ideas interconnect progressively rather than episodically.^[10]^[12] Historically, the ghazal dominated Urdu poetry from the 18th to 19th centuries as the primary vehicle for emotional and lyrical expression, rooted in Eastern traditions. The nazm, influenced by Western literary forms post-1857, emerged prominently in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly from the 1870s onward, as a medium for social commentary and modernist sensibilities, gradually challenging the ghazal's preeminence despite initial resistance.^[10]^[12]

Historical Development

Origins in Persian Literature

The concept of nazm, referring to structured verse poetry in Persian literature, emerged in the 10th century as New Persian developed as a literary medium following the Arab conquest, distinguishing itself from Arabic influences through rhymed compositions that encompassed both epic narratives and lyrical expressions.^[13] Rudaki (d. 940 CE), often hailed as the father of Persian poetry, pioneered this form at the Samanid court, producing qasidas, ghazals, and fragments of rubaiyat that exemplified nazm's rhythmic and metrical arrangement, drawing on pre-Islamic oral traditions while adapting Islamic-era prosody.^[13] His works, such as the Kalila wa Dimna preface and various odes, established nazm as a vehicle for moral, panegyric, and descriptive themes, with over 1,000 surviving verses attesting to its early versatility.^[13] A landmark in nazm's epic dimension came with Firdausi's Shahnameh (completed ca. 1010 CE), a vast masnavi comprising approximately 50,000 rhyming couplets that chronicled Persia's mythical and historical kings, heroes, and legends, thereby preserving pre-Islamic cultural heritage in a unified poetic structure.^[14] This masnavi form, characterized by continuous rhyme (aa, bb, cc) and quantitative meter, represented nazm's capacity for extended narrative without the constraints of monorhyme, influencing subsequent epic and didactic poetry.^[7] Firdausi's composition, dedicated to Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna, not only revitalized Persian identity but also integrated subtle Sufi undertones of divine order and moral struggle within its rhymed framework.^[14] The theoretical distinction between nazm (poetry, literally "arrangement" or "stringing," evoking pearls on a necklace) and nathr (prose, "scattered") was formalized in the 13th century by Shams Qays Razi in his treatise Al-Mu'jam fi Ma'ayir Ash'ar al-'Ajam, the earliest comprehensive manual of Persian poetics, which defined nazm's core elements including the bayt (hemistich couplet) as the minimal semantic unit and emphasized sequential coherence in verse construction.^[15] Razi's work codified prosodic rules, rhetorical devices, and the aesthetic principles of nazm, drawing on earlier Arab models while tailoring them to Persian meters like the ramal and hazaj, thereby solidifying its status as a disciplined art form.^[16] Early nazm also incorporated Sufi themes, as seen in rhymed mystical verses by poets like Sana'i (d. 1131 CE), who used the form to explore spiritual ascent and divine unity, prefiguring later developments in didactic masnavis.^[17] This Persian nazm tradition proliferated through cultural exchanges, reaching the Indian subcontinent via Timurid and Mughal patronage from the 16th century onward, where courtly poets and scholars adapted its forms amid Indo-Persian synthesis, setting the stage for vernacular evolutions.^[18]

Emergence in Urdu Poetry

The nazm form, drawing from its Persian roots as a structured poem, began to emerge in Urdu literature during the 16th and 17th centuries in the Deccan region under Qutb Shahi patronage, where poets like Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1565–1612) composed nazms and other verses in Dakhini Urdu, blending Persian conventions with local linguistic elements.^[19]^[20] Wali Muhammad Wali, commonly known as Wali Dakhani (1667–1707), advanced this development by adapting Persian poetic conventions within the Deccani dialect of Urdu and introducing them to northern India during his visit to Delhi around 1700 CE, blending them with indigenous elements to create accessible expressions of Sufi themes and everyday sentiments and formalizing nazm as a vehicle for narrative and reflective verse across the subcontinent.^[5]^[21] By the 19th century, nazm consolidated within the distinct poetic traditions of the Delhi and Lucknow schools, where it increasingly addressed ethical dilemmas and satirical critiques of society. In the Delhi school, poets employed nazm to explore moral introspection and social commentary amid the declining Mughal patronage, often using simple diction to convey philosophical and ethical insights. The Lucknow school, flourishing under Nawabi support, elevated nazm through elaborate verbal artistry, incorporating satirical elements to lampoon courtly excesses and ethical lapses, as seen in forms like marsiya that extended nazm's scope for moral narrative. This period saw nazm evolve from courtly recitation to a medium for broader ethical discourse, reflecting the socio-political shifts in northern India.^[22]^[23] The British colonial period further propelled nazm's growth by shifting its dissemination from oral and courtly modes to print-based formats, which facilitated longer, more complex compositions and wider accessibility. The advent of printing presses in the early 19th century enabled the publication of nazm collections in periodicals and books, democratizing Urdu poetry beyond elite circles and allowing ethical and satirical themes to reach urban and rural audiences. This transition, influenced by colonial administrative changes and European literary models, encouraged nazm's adaptation into extended forms suitable for social critique and moral instruction.^[24]^[25] Early milestones in Urdu nazm are exemplified by Nazeer Akbarabadi (1735–1830), whose compositions on everyday life and social observations pioneered the form's focus on common human experiences, diverging from abstract mysticism toward relatable vignettes of festivals, labor, and societal roles. His nazms, such as those depicting ordinary Indian customs, established nazm as a pioneering genre for democratic poetic expression in Urdu, bridging 18th- and 19th-century traditions.^[26]

20th Century Evolution

In the early 20th century, the nazm underwent a romantic transformation, shifting toward an emphasis on personal emotion, nature, and individualism as a response to colonial influences and cultural introspection. This trend marked a departure from earlier structured forms, allowing poets to explore themes of nostalgia, joy, and human sensitivity through more fluid expressions. The romantic nazm gained prominence as Urdu literature absorbed elements of European romanticism, fostering a lyrical style that celebrated the inner world amid social changes.^[27] The Progressive Writers' Movement, emerging in the 1930s and peaking through the 1950s, introduced social realism to the nazm, redirecting its focus toward anti-colonial struggles, class oppression, and Marxist-inspired critiques of societal inequities. Influenced by global leftist ideologies, this phase transformed the nazm into a vehicle for political activism, prioritizing concrete human experiences over abstract sentiment and addressing issues like poverty and imperialism in accessible, narrative-driven verse. The movement's manifestos and gatherings solidified the nazm's role in advocating social reform during India's pre-independence era.^[28] Post-1950s, the nazm entered a modernist phase characterized by experimental free verse, existential themes, and psychological depth, drawing from Western literary innovations while grappling with urban alienation and identity crises. This evolution discarded traditional rhyme and meter in favor of innovative structures, enabling explorations of surrealism and personal disillusionment in a rapidly modernizing South Asia. The 1947 Partition of India profoundly shaped this period, infusing nazms with motifs of loss, displacement, and fractured national identity as writers processed the trauma of communal violence and migration. Concurrently, the rise of mushaira performances in the mid-20th century elevated the nazm's oral tradition, transforming public recitations into dynamic platforms for ideological discourse and cultural dissemination across divided communities.^[27]^[29]^[30]

Forms of Nazm

Traditional Forms

Traditional forms of Nazm in Urdu poetry adhere to classical structures derived from Persian and Arabic influences, emphasizing fixed rhyme schemes, meters, and thematic purposes such as narration, praise, or philosophical reflection. These sub-genres, including Masnavi, Qasida, Rubai, and Musaddas, maintain a disciplined form while allowing thematic depth within Nazm's broader flexibility.^[31]^[3] The Masnavi is a narrative genre composed of rhyming couplets, where each couplet follows a consistent metric pattern but features unique rhyming words, enabling extended storytelling.^[32] This form typically employs internal rhymes within lines and is structured in units of 10 or 11 syllables per half-line, though variations exist in Urdu adaptations.^[33] Traditionally used for epics, romances, or didactic tales, Masnavi poems develop a single subject logically from beginning to end, often exploring romantic, religious, or moral themes.^[3] Notable characteristics include its length, which can span hundreds of couplets, and its suitability for detailed plots, as seen in works like Mir Hasan's Sihr-ul-Bayan.^[32] In Urdu, the form's rhyme scheme follows an aa/bb/cc pattern, distinguishing it from stricter Arabic styles.^[33]^[34] The Qasida serves as a panegyric or elegiac ode, structured as a long poem with a single rhyme throughout, typically comprising 15 to over 100 couplets in a uniform meter.^[31] Its rhyme scheme adheres to AA-BA-CA-DA, where the first couplet sets the rhyme that repeats in the second line of each subsequent couplet, often without a refrain.^[33] Traditionally, Qasidas praise rulers, nobles, or patrons, or lament significant losses, maintaining a formal tone and logical progression toward a conclusion.^[3] This form's purpose is to eulogize human subjects or commemorate events, with themes encompassing battles, ethics, or nature, though it avoids overt spirituality in secular variants.^[31]^[33] The Rubai, or Rubaiyat in plural, consists of self-contained quatrains that encapsulate a single idea, following a strict aaba rhyme scheme where the first, second, and fourth lines rhyme, and the third stands independent.^[31] Each stanza is four lines long, with no fixed overall length for collections, and it employs a consistent meter to convey wit or profundity.^[33] Traditionally philosophical or satirical, Rubais explore themes of existence, love, or transience in a concise, standalone manner, drawing from Persian roots as exemplified in Omar Khayyam's collections.^[31] In Urdu Nazm, this form's brevity highlights epigrammatic insight without narrative extension.^[33] The Musaddas features stanzas of six lines each, known as sesta ins, with a rhyme scheme of aaaabb (a rhyming quatrain followed by a couplet on a new rhyme), repeatable across units.^[31] Derived from the Arabic root "sad" meaning six, it allows for rhythmic repetition and is often metered uniformly within stanzas.^[33] Popularized in the 19th century for religious, moral, or elegiac themes—such as the tragedy of Karbala or social reform—Musaddas conveys complex emotions through its structured lamentation or exhortation.^[3] In Urdu, it gained prominence through works like Altaf Hussain Hali's Musaddas-e-Madd-o-Jazr, focusing on historical or ethical reflections.^[33]^[31]

Modern Forms

In the mid-20th century, the nazm underwent significant transformation through the adoption of free verse, known as azad nazm, which marked a departure from traditional metrical constraints in favor of natural linguistic rhythm and thematic freedom. Emerging prominently after the 1940s, this form abandoned strict behr (meter) and rhyme schemes, allowing poets to prioritize emotional and intellectual expression through varying line lengths and internal cadences that mimic spoken language. Influenced by global poetic trends, azad nazm enabled explorations of complex social and existential themes, with early exemplars like N.M. Rashid's works in the late 1930s evolving into widespread practice post-Partition, as seen in poets such as Miraji who emphasized psychological depth over formal rigidity.^[3]^[35]^[10] Another key innovation was the integration of the sonnet form into Urdu prosody, introduced in the early 20th century by Azmatullah Khan (1887–1923), who adapted the 14-line structure of Shakespearean and Petrarchan models to suit Urdu's phonetic and rhythmic qualities. This hybrid form retained the sonnet's volta and thematic progression—often contrasting love or nature with philosophical reflection—while incorporating Urdu's syllabic flexibility, thus bridging European traditions with indigenous expression. Azmatullah's experiments, including advocacy for matra-based chhand (syllabic meters) from Hindi influences, paved the way for subsequent poets like Akhtar Juna Garhi, whose 1914 sonnet "Shehr-e-Khamoshan" exemplified this fusion in literary circles.^[36]^[10] The influence of English modernism further reshaped the nazm during the 1950s to 1970s, particularly among post-Partition diaspora writers who produced shorter, imagistic compositions emphasizing fragmentation, symbolism, and urban alienation. Drawing from T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, these nazms featured concise imagery to capture displacement and cultural hybridity, as evident in the works of Pakistani and Indian émigré poets published in journals like Adab-e-Latif. This period saw the nazm evolve into a vehicle for modernist ambiguity, with poets such as Majeed Amjad and Shahryar blending Eastern introspection with Western techniques to address identity crises in a divided subcontinent.^[37]^[38]^[29]

Notable Poets and Works

Early and Classical Poets

Nazeer Akbarabadi (1735–1830), born Wali Muhammad in Agra, is widely regarded as the father of the Urdu nazm for his pioneering use of the form to depict everyday Indian life and folk themes. Unlike many contemporaries who adhered to Persianate conventions, Akbarabadi composed accessible nazms drawing from colloquial Urdu, Khari Boli, Braj, and Awadhi dialects, focusing on subjects like seasons, festivals such as Holi and Diwali, fruits, human society, and satirical observations of social follies.^[39] He authored over 200,000 verses, with approximately 6,000 extant, including masnavis like Laila and Majnun and works on Sufi spirituality, often blending Hindu and Muslim elements without sectarian bias. Despite offers from royal courts during the declining Mughal era and early British colonial period, he declined patronage to maintain independence, working instead as a tutor and minor official in Agra and Farrukhabad, reflecting the challenges of artistic integrity amid political upheaval. Altaf Hussain Hali (1837–1914), born in Panipat to a scholarly family, emerged as a key reformist poet in the late 19th century, shaping the nazm's role in social critique under British colonial rule. Educated in Persian, Arabic, and Urdu, Hali served as a pupil and biographer of Ghalib and later as literary assistant to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, contributing to Aligarh Movement publications like Muarif. His seminal nazm Musaddas-e-Hali (1879), commissioned by Sir Syed as a lament for post-1857 Muslim decline, critiques social and moral decay while advocating regeneration through education and ethics, marking a shift toward didactic and patriotic expression. Hali's other nazms, such as Shikwa-e-Hind and Chup ki Dad, employ simple, sincere language to address national issues, drawing from his experiences in Lahore and Delhi courts and the constraints of colonial censorship.^[40] These early poets facilitated the nazm's transition from Persian imitation to indigenous Urdu expression, emphasizing moral, ethical, and realistic themes over ornate mysticism. Akbarabadi's folk-oriented nazms introduced native imagery and satire, broadening the form's appeal beyond elite circles, while Hali's reformist works promoted simplicity and social relevance, influencing the Aligarh school's push for modern Urdu literature amid 19th-century colonial challenges. Their courtly associations—Akbarabadi's rejections and Hali's engagements—highlighted the tensions between traditional patronage and emerging nationalist sentiments in Urdu poetry's formative phase.

Progressive and Modern Poets

Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938), often regarded as the poet-philosopher of the Muslim world, advanced the nazm form through philosophical explorations that fused Sufi mysticism with nationalist fervor, aiming to revive Muslim consciousness. His seminal works, "Shikwa" (Complaint) and "Jawab-e-Shikwa" (Answer), presented as a dialogue with the divine, critiqued the decline of the Muslim ummah while urging self-realization and action, drawing on the philosophy of khudi (selfhood) to inspire revival.^[41]^[42] Faiz Ahmed Faiz (1911–1984), a leading voice of the Progressive Writers' Movement, infused nazms with social critique, focusing on themes of oppression and human suffering in the context of colonial and post-colonial turmoil. His nazm "Subh-e-Azadi" (Dawn of Freedom), written in the aftermath of the 1947 Partition, poignantly captured the trauma and disillusionment of independence, portraying it as a marred dawn amid violence and betrayal rather than liberation.^[43]^[44] Josh Malihabadi (1898–1982), known as Shayar-e-Inqilab (Poet of Revolution), brought a stormy, passionate intensity to progressive nazms, emphasizing rebellion against injustice through vivid, rhetorical imagery. His works often rallied against imperialism and social inequities, marking a shift toward politically charged expression in Urdu poetry.^[43] Firaq Gorakhpuri (1896–1982) contributed to lyrical modernism in nazms, blending romantic subtlety with contemporary introspection to explore human emotions and existential concerns. His style, influenced by classical traditions yet innovative, earned him recognition as a bridge between traditional and modern sensibilities in Urdu verse.^[45] Kaifi Azmi (1919–2002) integrated nazms into film and popular culture while maintaining progressive ideals, using accessible language to address labor struggles and social reform. As a member of the Progressive Writers' Association, his poetry, such as those recited in mushairas, amplified calls for equality and justice through dramatic, performative forms.^[46]^[47] Akhtarul Iman (1915–1996) pioneered realistic narratives in nazms, employing colloquial prose-like diction to depict everyday human conflicts and societal flaws, diverging from ornate traditions toward stark modernism. His collections, like Yadein, portrayed the grit of urban life and personal alienation with unflinching detail.^[48]^[49] Noon Meem Rashid (1910–1975) pushed modernist experiments in nazms through free verse (azad nazm) and abstract symbolism, challenging conventional rhyme and meter to explore psychological depths and philosophical abstraction. Works like those in Iran Mein Ajnabi introduced surreal elements and innovative structures, establishing him as a trailblazer in Urdu's avant-garde evolution.^[50]^[51]

Themes and Cultural Significance

Common Themes

Nazm, as a versatile form of Urdu poetry, encompasses a wide array of philosophical and spiritual themes, particularly the quest for self-discovery, divine connection, and the essence of existence. These motifs often explore profound questions about human purpose and the universe, drawing from Sufi traditions that emphasize inner enlightenment and unity with the divine. For instance, the reconstruction of religious and philosophical thought serves as a central pursuit, urging introspection and spiritual awakening across various nazms.^[52]^[53] Social and political critiques form another dominant strand, with nazms frequently addressing colonialism, socioeconomic inequality, and the trauma of partition, especially prominent during the progressive era. These works highlight resistance against oppression, advocating for justice, equality, and communal harmony amid historical upheavals like the 1947 division of India, which permeated post-independence Urdu literature.^[54]^[55]^[56] Romantic portrayals of nature and human emotions also recur, capturing the beauty of the natural world, sensations of loss, and the nuances of everyday life, particularly in earlier nazms that shifted from classical amatory focuses. This emotional depth evokes personal longing and sensory experiences, blending lyricism with observations of seasonal changes and human vulnerability.^[3] The narrative scope of nazm demonstrates remarkable diversity, ranging from epic tales of heroism and valor to intimate personal reflections, yet these are often unified by underlying moral undertones that impart didactic lessons on ethics, societal reform, and human conduct. Over time, these themes have evolved to reflect shifting socio-political contexts while maintaining nazm's capacity for logical progression and purposeful storytelling.^[3]

Influence and Legacy

The nazm has profoundly shaped Urdu literature by transitioning from the ghazal's dominance, which emphasized lyrical brevity and romantic motifs, to a more expansive form capable of addressing social, political, and philosophical themes with prose-like depth and narrative coherence. This shift, accelerated in the early 20th century under progressive influences, allowed nazm to serve as a primary vehicle for modernity, incorporating Western literary techniques while retaining indigenous structures, thereby broadening Urdu poetry's expressive range beyond the ghazal's constraints.^[57]^[3]^[24] In South Asian culture, nazm holds a central place in mushairas, where poets recite works blending emotional intensity with social commentary, fostering communal engagement across generations. Its integration into Indian cinema, particularly through lyricist Kaifi Azmi's adaptations of nazm-style verses into songs for films like Kaagaz Ke Phool (1959) and Heer Ranjha (1970), popularized Urdu poetic sensibilities among mass audiences, bridging elite literature with everyday entertainment. In education, nazm features prominently in curricula at institutions across South Asia, such as university programs in India and Pakistan, where it exemplifies modern Urdu expression and cultural identity formation.^[46]^[58]^[59]^[60]^[61]^[62]^[63] Globally, nazm's reach extends through English translations of key works by poets like Faiz Ahmed Faiz, which have influenced diaspora communities in the UK, US, and Canada by preserving cultural heritage amid migration. These translations, featured in anthologies and academic studies, highlight nazm's thematic versatility, resonating with expatriate experiences of identity and displacement. Post-1950s, nazm's evolution toward free verse—termed azad nazm—draws parallels with Western modernist movements like Imagism, sharing emphases on fragmented imagery and unrhymed structures, though rooted in Eastern traditions.^[64]^[65]^[66]^[67] In the 21st century, nazm has experienced a revival via digital platforms, with sites like Rekhta.org hosting vast archives that democratize access and encourage new compositions shared on social media. Feminist nazms, prominent since the 2000s through poets like Kishwar Naheed and emerging voices, address gender inequities and patriarchal norms, gaining traction in online forums and publications that amplify women's perspectives in Urdu literature.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]

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[22]
The great leveller: How Urdu blossomed in the 19th century
Jan 7, 2019 · How Urdu blossomed in the 19th century when the king, the poet and the common man articulated their thoughts in the rich language.
[23]
All writings of Nazeer Akbarabadi - Rekhta
Nazeer Akbarabadi collection of poetry, ghazal, Nazm in Urdu, Hindi & English. Read more about Nazeer Akbarabadi and access their famous audio, video, ...Nazm30 · नज़ीर अकबराबादी · نظیر اکبرآبادی
[24]
[PDF] TWENTIETH-CENTURY URDU LITERATURE1 Omar Qureshi This ...
To date the beginnings of the romantic movement in Urdu would be difficult as there were similar inclinations in the writings of the pre-Iqbal generation ...
[25]
The progressive writers' movement: origins, impact, and legacy
Jul 4, 2025 · The Progressive Writers Movement has emerged as a constant refrain in almost all the studies of modernist Urdu literature ever since the 1930s.Missing: Nazm 1950s
[26]
Urdu literature after the Partition | Literati | thenews.com.pk
Aug 14, 2022 · Among most classical poets, we find a common theme of deriding and mocking religious identity markers. ... Sajjad Baqir Rizvi categorically put ...
[27]
Mushaira: a history of thunderous and traditional waah-waahs
Mushaira is a gathering of the poets who write, recite and listen to poetry of one another written in Urdu language, with a participative and responsive ...
[28]
Forms of Urdu Poetry - Rekhta
It's an Arabic word that means “conversing with the beloved.” It developed in Persia in the 10th century AD from the Arabic verse form qasida. A Qasida (Ballad) ...
[29]
Masnavi - Rekhta
Masnavi. A genre of Urdu narrative poetry where each poem comprises couplets having the same rhyming scheme written under a particular metric pattern with ...
[30]
Types of Urdu Poetry - PoetrySoup.com
Musaddas is a type of poem of six verses. Just like any other poem, this one also consists of stanzas. The word “musaddas” has been derived from the Arabic root ...
[31]
literary notes: Some Urdu and Persian masnavis - Newspaper - Dawn
Sep 30, 2024 · A masnavi is a poetic structure that has two rhyming lines, hence the name. A masnavi is also a genre of poetry, a type of long poem, that has two rhyming ...Missing: nazm | Show results with:nazm
[32]
Ephemeral Asia - Poetry of NM Rashed - jstor
volume is a formally innovative free-verse poem in thirteen parts that describes the experiences of an Indian soldier in Iran during World War II.
[33]
[PDF] Some development in Urdu poetry since 1936 - Durham E-Theses
This thesis discusses developments in Urdu poetry since 1936, including language, verse forms, themes, and the influence of English and colloquial vocabulary.
[34]
Modernism in Urdu Nazm (Jadeediyat in Urdu Nazm) - Rekhta
Modernism in Urdu poetry may be traced back to the call for “New Nazm” given by Mohammad Hussain Azad and Altaf Hussain Hali who appeared on the literary map ...
[35]
Poetically inclined - Newspaper - DAWN.COM
Dec 25, 2016 · In Urdu, when we say nazm we refer to a poem with modern sensitivity, composed in any form or poetic metre [behr], or even without a metre.
[36]
Nazeer: India's Great Sufi, Folk, Satirist Poet Selected Poems ...
... Nazeer Akbarabadi (1735-1830) is an Indian poet known as the 'Father of Nazm', who wrote mainly Urdu ghazals and nazms. The canvas of Nazir's nazms is so ...
[37]
Musaddas E Haali - Altaf Hussain Haali - Google Books
His famous long poem, Musaddas-e-Hali, examines the state of social and moral degradation prevalent in the contemporary Muslim society.Missing: reformist | Show results with:reformist
[38]
shikwa wa jawab-e-shikwa by Allama Iqbal - Rekhta
The poet-philosopher of the East who addressed the Muslim ummah, believed in the philosophy of wahdatul wujood, and propounded the philosohy of khudi, or ...Missing: Muhammad | Show results with:Muhammad
[39]
(PDF) A Stylistic Analysis of Iqbal's Shikwah Sardar Fayyaz ul Hassan
Iqbal's themes in 'Shikwah' include chivalry, decline, and direct complaints to God.
[40]
The Art of Opposition: Progressive Politics and Poetry from 1931-47
... Faiz Ahmed Faiz. Entitled Subh-e Aazaadi (Freedom's Morning) it exemplifies the somber and mournful tone of the time. These tarnished rays, this night ...
[41]
https://www.rekhta.org/ebooks/detail/shikwa-wa-jawab-e-shikwa-allama-iqbal-ebooks
[42]
Josh Malihabadi - Wikipedia
Josh Malihabadi popularly known as Shayar-e-Inqalab (poet of revolution) was Indian born Pakistani Urdu poet. Josh Malihabadi. HI PB. Josh (1949). Born.
[43]
(PDF) Classic Poetry Series - Academia.edu
) was a classical Urdu and Persian poet from India during British colonial rule. ... Nazm Tabatabai of Hyderabad during the rule of the last Nizam of Hyderabad.
[44]
Nazms of Kaifi Azmi - Rekhta
Kaifi Azmi Nazms available in Hindi, Urdu and Roman scripts. Access to nazm videos, audios & Ebooks of Kaifi Azmi.Missing: integrated | Show results with:integrated
[45]
Kaifi Azmi reciting his ghazal/nazm at All India Mushaira
One of prominent progressive poets with popular appeal. Also film lyricist famous for his lyrics in films like Heer Ranjha, Kaghaz ke Phool etc. Kaifi Azmi ...Missing: integrated | Show results with:integrated
[46]
اختر الایمان کا فکری اسلوب | Jahan-e-Tahqeeq
Mar 29, 2024 · Akhtar ul Iman, a trailblazer in modern Urdu poetry, chose nazm over the more popular ghazal. His language, often described as coarse and unpoetic, serves a ...
[47]
sab rang by Akhtarul Iman - Rekhta
Akhtarul Iman is a unique poet who set new standards for Urdu poetry, and whose poems are an invaluable part of the treasure of Urdu literature.Missing: narratives | Show results with:narratives<|control11|><|separator|>
[48]
Remembering Noon Meem Rashid: Abstractionist Par Excellence
Oct 15, 2017 · A pioneer of free Urdu poetic verses (Azad Nazm), Rashid has remained an enduring favourite among Urdu poetry lovers all over the world. The ...Missing: modernist experiments
[49]
Experiments in Form in Modern Urdu Poetry - jstor
of the first stanza. Azmatullah Khan introduced the form of Hindi poetry into Urdu poetry and advocated for its acceptance. He propagated the "Matra. Chhand ...
[50]
the philosophy of life and death in allama iqbal's urdu poetry
Allama Iqbal's poetry offers a profound and philosophically rich exploration of the themes of life and death, viewed not as opposites but as interconnected ...
[51]
[PDF] sufi influences in the poetry of allama iqbal and kazi nazrul islam
This scholarly study delves into the exploration of Sufi influences in the poetry of Allama Iqbal and Kazi Nazrul. Islam, focusing specifically on themes of ...
[52]
A Brief Analysis of Modern Urdu Nazm and Linguistic Structures
Feb 11, 2025 · Then Urdu Nazm began to focus on social justice, equality, and freedom, with poets using their work as a form of resistance against colonialism ...
[53]
The wounded sensibility —Urdu writing in the post-partition era - jstor
Firstly, the diminishing number of Urdu periodicals, Urdu magazines,. Urdu booksellers and publishers restricted its impact and led to a sense of despair ...Missing: loss | Show results with:loss
[54]
[PDF] Modernism and the Progressive Movement in Urdu Literature
The Progressive writers wrote on social problems caused by sexual deprivations, urbanization and industrialization. They used psychoanalysis to explore the ...
[55]
Ghazal and modern Urdu poem: two genres, two worlds - Dawn
Mar 9, 2015 · Modern Urdu poem is almost as popular as ghazal and there are many among common readers, poets and critics who prefer nazm to ghazal.
[56]
Remembering Kaifi Azmi, the people's poet - The Indian Express
Feb 24, 2019 · Poet, writer and literary critic Ranjit Hoskote describes Kaifi as the standard bearer of the golden age of the Hindi film lyric. “Kaifi Azmi ...
[57]
Kaifi Azmi: The king of romance and conscience - Siasat.com
May 12, 2025 · Essentially an Urdu poet, Kaifi Azmi moved to Hindi cinema where he gave poetic articulation to the Nehruvian political commitment, social and ...
[58]
Urdu | South Asian Languages and Civilizations
Urdu poetry is celebrated for its eloquence and musicality, embracing genres such as the ghazal, nazm, and marsiya. These traditions weave together love, ...
[59]
[PDF] THE ROLE OF URDU LITERATURE IN SHAPING SOUTH ASIAN ...
Urdu literature has been a catalyst for social and political awareness, particularly during colonial rule and post-independence struggles. The Progressive ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
[PDF] Urdu Literature in Translation - manuu-dde
This course covers Urdu poetry, prose, novels, and drama, including works by Makhdoom Mohiuddin, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Krishna Chandar.
[61]
[PDF] Global Journal of Multidisciplinary Sciences and Arts - Neliti
The literary transformation in Urdu literature rose to a noticeable extent which caused its impact on the poetic tradition. Holding to ghazal and nazm poetry ...
[62]
Urdu Writing in India and Pakistan - Words Without Borders
Oct 8, 2010 · Even so, Urdu iswidely spoken in India, Pakistan, and in diaspora communities scattered throughout the Western world. For those who speak it, it ...
[63]
Free verse in Urdu - Dr. Saadat Saeed
The poets writing in free verse were completely inspired by the western Imagist movement in art and poetry. N. M Raashid, Mira Jee, Mukhtar Siddiqi, Zia ...
[64]
From Dusty Books to Glowing Screens – How Urdu Got a Digital ...
Nov 14, 2018 · ... Digital Revival ... Urdu poetry like ghazals and nazms. Anwar began the page on social media and later expanded to organising poetry festivals.Missing: feminist 2000s
[65]
Latest Feminist Nazm collections - Rekhta
Enjoy beautiful Feminist Nazm collection, heart touching Feminist Nazm in Hindi, English, and Urdu at Rekhta.Missing: contemporary 2000s
[66]
Urdu Feminist Writing: New Approaches - Words Without Borders
Mar 3, 2020 · This issue of WWB is concerned with exploring new approaches to Urdu feminist writing. The field of Urdu writing generally, and Urdu ...Missing: nazm 2000s revival
[67]
Popularity of Feminism: Impacts on Urdu Poetesses
Sep 22, 2022 · This research paper examines the ways in which feminist ideas appear in and the poetry of selected female Urdu poets of the modern era have been reviewed.Missing: nazm 2000s revival
[68]
The Feminist Urdu Poem And Feminism After The Creation Of Pakistan
Aug 8, 2025 · This research work looks at the influence of the Western Movement of Feminism on Urdu poetry of Pakistani women poets. It includes several women ...Missing: nazm media revival<|separator|>