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Nephrosis

Nephrosis is a historical term for non-inflammatory kidney disease, now often used synonymously with nephrotic syndrome, a disorder characterized by damage to the glomeruli—the kidney's filtering units—resulting in heavy proteinuria (>3.5 g/day in adults or >40 mg/m²/hour in children), hypoalbuminemia (<3 g/dL), hyperlipidemia, and edema from fluid retention.^[1] Unlike nephritis, it lacks inflammation or neoplastic involvement and may occur as a primary glomerular condition or secondary to systemic diseases.^[2] It affects individuals of all ages, with an annual incidence of approximately 2–7 cases per 100,000 children and 3 cases per 100,000 adults.^[1]^[3] The condition is more prevalent and severe in populations of African or Hispanic ancestry, potentially progressing to chronic kidney disease if untreated.^[1]

Definition and Overview

Definition

Nephrosis is defined as a noninflammatory disease of the kidneys, historically encompassing any degenerative renal pathology without inflammation or neoplasia. Introduced in 1905 by German pathologist Friedrich Müller as a broad term for non-inflammatory kidney diseases replacing "parenchymatous nephritis," it originally applied to various nephropathies.^[4] In modern usage, the term is often used synonymously with nephrotic syndrome, referring to conditions involving damage to the glomeruli, the kidney's filtering units, leading to excessive proteinuria.^[1] This includes structural changes such as increased glomerular permeability, distinct from inflammatory nephritides like glomerulonephritis. Key characteristics of nephrosis include the clinical manifestations of nephrotic syndrome, such as heavy proteinuria exceeding 3.5 grams per day in adults, hypoalbuminemia, generalized edema, and hyperlipidemia.^[5] While some forms historically emphasized tubular degeneration, contemporary understanding focuses on glomerular involvement, though specific subtypes like osmotic nephrosis involve tubular vacuolization and swelling induced by hyperosmotic agents such as mannitol.^[6] Renal amyloidosis, often termed amyloid nephrosis, primarily features extracellular deposition of amyloid proteins in the glomeruli, disrupting filtration and causing proteinuria.^[7]

Relation to Nephrotic Syndrome

Nephrosis represents a pathological entity involving noninflammatory renal damage, often glomerular in nature, without predominant inflammatory involvement.^[8] In distinction, nephrotic syndrome is a clinical syndrome characterized by heavy proteinuria exceeding 3.5 g per day in adults (or >2 g/g protein-to-creatinine ratio in children), hypoalbuminemia with serum albumin levels below 3 g/dL, peripheral edema, and hyperlipidemia.^[9] This differentiation highlights nephrosis as an underlying pathological process, while nephrotic syndrome encompasses the observable symptomatic manifestations arising from renal protein loss. The development of nephrotic syndrome in nephrosis typically occurs through glomerular barrier dysfunction, where damage to the glomerular filtration apparatus allows excessive leakage of proteins like albumin into the tubular lumen, exceeding the reabsorption capacity of the proximal tubules and resulting in nephrotic-range proteinuria.^[1] This leads to reduced oncotic pressure, fluid retention, and lipid dysregulation. Although many cases of nephrosis present with nephrotic syndrome due to severe glomerular impairment, not all nephrotic syndrome arises from isolated degenerative processes; a substantial proportion stems from primary glomerular disorders such as minimal change disease or membranous nephropathy, or secondary causes like diabetic nephropathy.^[10] In the context of nephrosis, diagnosis of accompanying nephrotic syndrome relies on criteria including a urine protein-to-creatinine ratio greater than 3.5 mg/mg in adults (or >2 mg/mg in children), serum albumin below 3 g/dL, often confirmed alongside edema and exclusion of primary glomerular or other pathologies via biopsy.^[11]^[12]

History

Etymology and Early Descriptions

The term "nephrosis" originates from the Greek roots nephros (kidney) and -osis (indicating a pathological condition or process), reflecting a degenerative rather than inflammatory kidney disorder. It was first coined in 1905 by the German pathologist Friedrich Müller during a presentation at the German Pathological Society meeting in Meran, where he proposed it to categorize non-inflammatory renal diseases characterized by degenerative changes, primarily in the renal tubules, as observed in autopsy findings.^[13] This usage contrasted sharply with "nephritis," which denoted inflammatory or suppurative kidney conditions, allowing for a clearer histopathological distinction in early 20th-century renal pathology.^[14] Müller also introduced the adjective "nephrotic" in the same 1905 context to describe clinical states involving heavy proteinuria without accompanying inflammation, emphasizing the proteinuric and edematous features seen in these degenerative processes.^[15] Early descriptions under nephrosis focused on autopsy-proven tubular degeneration, such as lipid accumulation in renal cells, without cellular infiltration or suppuration, as seen in cases of what later became known as lipoid nephrosis— a subtype further delineated by Fritz Munk in 1913 based on lipid-laden tubular epithelium in proteinuric patients.^[16] These initial characterizations highlighted nephrosis as a purely degenerative entity, often linked to toxic or metabolic insults, rather than infectious or immune-mediated damage. Precursors to the formal concept of nephrosis appeared in 19th-century clinical observations, notably those of British physician Richard Bright, who in 1827 published detailed accounts linking albuminuria (detected via heat coagulation tests) with dropsy (generalized edema) and pale, enlarged kidneys in postmortem examinations.^[17] Bright's work, encompassing over 100 cases in his Reports of Medical Cases (1827), established the triad of proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and edema as hallmarks of renal pathology, though he attributed them broadly to "Bright's disease" without distinguishing degenerative from inflammatory subtypes—a refinement that Müller's nephrosis term would later provide.^[18] These early insights shifted focus from mere symptomatic dropsy to underlying renal protein loss, setting the stage for nephrosis as a non-inflammatory category in subsequent classifications.

Evolution of Classification

In the early 20th century, the term nephrosis was introduced to encompass any non-inflammatory nephropathy, serving as a counterpart to the inflammatory conditions grouped under nephritis. Coined by Friedrich Müller in 1905, it replaced the broader "parenchymatous nephritis" to highlight degenerative rather than inflammatory renal changes.^[17] This broad categorization allowed for the inclusion of various tubular and parenchymal disorders without evident inflammation. By the 1920s, pathologists such as Franz Volhard, Theodor Fahr, and Fritz Munk refined this framework, subdividing nephrosis into specific types including lipoid nephrosis—characterized by lipid accumulation in renal tubules—amyloid nephrosis involving amyloid deposition, and toxic nephrosis resulting from exogenous or endogenous toxins.^[17]31195-9/fulltext) Mid-20th-century advancements, particularly the introduction of electron microscopy in the 1940s and 1950s, significantly altered this classification by revealing subtle glomerular structural changes in many cases previously deemed purely tubular nephrosis. Studies demonstrated podocyte foot process effacement and other ultrastructural alterations, which blurred the sharp divide between nephrosis and nephritis, prompting a reevaluation of the non-inflammatory label.^[14]^[17] Concurrently, mid-20th-century classifications emphasized a narrower scope, focusing nephrosis primarily on tubular epithelial diseases while integrating glomerular findings from emerging biopsy techniques.^[17] These shifts facilitated more precise clinicopathological correlations, reducing the term's overuse for heterogeneous conditions. Post-1970s developments further refined nephrosis classification into primary forms—idiopathic tubular degeneration without identifiable cause—and secondary forms induced by systemic factors such as toxins or metabolic disorders like diabetes. This dichotomy aligned with broader nephrotic syndrome frameworks, emphasizing proteinuria and hypoalbuminemia as key diagnostic criteria. The International Society of Nephrology's 1982 guidelines integrated nephrosis-related entities into standardized nephrotic syndrome criteria, promoting unified diagnostic and therapeutic approaches across glomerular and tubular pathologies.^[17] A pivotal event in the 1960s was the recognition of minimal change disease—formerly synonymous with lipoid nephrosis—as a predominant cause of nephrotic syndrome in children, validated through renal biopsy studies by the International Study of Kidney Disease in Children, which identified it in over 75% of pediatric cases.^[19]^[17]

Causes

Primary Causes

Primary nephrosis, also referred to as primary nephrotic syndrome, arises from intrinsic defects within the kidney, primarily involving genetic mutations or autoimmune processes that disrupt glomerular function, leading to heavy proteinuria without association to systemic diseases.^[1] These defects predominantly affect the podocytes, specialized cells in the glomerulus that maintain the filtration barrier, resulting in impaired selective permeability and subsequent tubular reabsorption overload.^[20] Common primary causes include minimal change disease (MCD), an idiopathic condition most frequent in children, characterized by diffuse effacement of podocyte foot processes, which causes selective proteinuria without significant glomerular inflammation on light microscopy.^[1] In adults, membranous nephropathy is prevalent, involving subepithelial immune deposits and podocyte injury leading to proteinuria, often linked to autoantibodies against phospholipase A2 receptor (PLA2R).^[1] Focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) is another major primary cause, particularly in adults and African ancestry populations, featuring sclerosis in segments of some glomeruli due to podocyte injury, with genetic forms involving mutations in genes like APOL1.^[1] A key genetic example is congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type (CNF), an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the NPHS1 gene, which encodes nephrin, a critical protein in the podocyte slit diaphragm. These mutations lead to podocyte dysfunction, massive proteinuria, and progressive renal failure, typically manifesting within the first three months of life.^[21] The pathogenic mechanisms in primary nephrosis involve genetic alterations that compromise the integrity of the glomerular filtration barrier; for instance, NPHS1 defects disrupt nephrin assembly, allowing protein leakage into the tubular lumen and inducing secondary tubular damage through toxic protein overload.^[20] In idiopathic cases like MCD, autoimmune dysregulation, particularly T-cell mediated release of circulating permeability factors, is implicated, leading to reversible podocyte injury and foot process fusion without permanent structural changes.^[22] Primary nephrosis accounts for approximately 90% of nephrotic syndrome cases in children, predominantly as MCD, while it comprises 10-30% of cases in adults, where membranous nephropathy and FSGS are more common.^[23] Genetic forms like CNF are exceptionally rare, with an incidence of about 1 in 10,000 births in Finland and lower globally.^[21]

Secondary Causes

Secondary nephrosis, or secondary nephrotic syndrome, results from glomerular damage due to extrinsic factors or underlying systemic diseases, leading to increased permeability of the glomerular filtration barrier and heavy proteinuria.^[1] These conditions often involve immune complex deposition, direct glomerular injury, or metabolic/toxic effects on podocytes and the basement membrane.^[24] Systemic diseases are major causes, with diabetes mellitus being the most common, where hyperglycemia leads to glomerular hyperfiltration, mesangial expansion, and nodular sclerosis (Kimmelstiel-Wilson lesions) in diabetic nephropathy, resulting in nephrotic-range proteinuria after years of poor control.^[25] Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) causes lupus nephritis, often class V (membranous) or IV (proliferative), with immune deposits damaging glomeruli and producing proteinuria.^[1] Amyloidosis, particularly secondary (AA) type from chronic inflammation like rheumatoid arthritis, involves amyloid deposition in the glomerular mesangium and capillaries, compressing filtration structures and causing nephrotic syndrome.^[26] Infectious causes include HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN), characterized by collapsing focal segmental glomerulosclerosis with glomerular tuft collapse and podocyte hyperplasia, often with tubular microcysts, predominantly in untreated HIV.^[27] Hepatitis B and C viruses can induce membranous nephropathy through subepithelial immune complex deposition, leading to proteinuria.^[28] Malignancies like multiple myeloma contribute via light chain deposition in glomeruli or amyloid formation, resulting in nephrotic features.^[1] Nephrotoxic agents, such as heavy metals (e.g., mercury from environmental exposure), can cause membranous nephropathy with glomerular immune deposits and proteinuria.^[29] Certain drugs, including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), gold salts, and penicillamine, are associated with glomerular diseases like minimal change disease or membranous nephropathy, though the risk is low and typically reversible upon discontinuation.^[1]

Pathophysiology

Mechanisms of Tubular Damage

In nephrosis (nephrotic syndrome), the primary pathology involves glomerular damage, but proximal tubular epithelial cells can undergo secondary degeneration due to overload from massive proteinuria. Excessive filtered proteins overwhelm the endocytic capacity of tubular cells, mediated by megalin and cubilin receptors, leading to lysosomal engorgement with undigested proteins.^[30] This triggers lysosomal membrane permeabilization, release of proteolytic enzymes, oxidative stress, and inflammation, promoting tubular epithelial cell dysfunction and vacuolization.^[31] Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes by impairing oxidative phosphorylation, causing ATP depletion that hinders ion transport and exacerbates cellular swelling. The process often starts with reversible hydropic degeneration due to impaired sodium-potassium ATPase activity. Persistent overload can progress to irreversible changes, including epithelial cell necrosis, fibrosis via myofibroblast transformation, and tubular dropout, contributing to chronic kidney disease.^[32] In specific secondary forms, such as amyloid nephrosis, extracellular amyloid deposition in the interstitium and peritubular areas disrupts tubular function, compounded by light chain toxicity in AL amyloidosis inducing proximal tubular vacuolization.^[33] Osmotic nephrosis, from exposure to hypertonic agents like mannitol, causes intracellular osmotic swelling and vacuolization in proximal tubules without primary glomerular involvement, though it may mimic aspects of proteinuric states.^[34]

Development of Proteinuria

Proteinuria in nephrosis develops primarily from increased permeability of the glomerular filtration barrier, which normally restricts passage of proteins larger than 70 kDa, such as albumin. Damage to podocytes, including foot process effacement and disruption of the slit diaphragm, along with alterations in endothelial fenestrations and glomerular basement membrane charge/size selectivity, allows high-molecular-weight proteins to leak into the filtrate.^[1] This glomerular dysfunction results in nephrotic-range proteinuria exceeding 3.5 g per day in adults, predominantly albumin.^[35] While proximal tubules normally reabsorb over 99% of filtered proteins via receptor-mediated endocytosis, in nephrotic syndrome, the massive glomerular leak can overload this system, leading to secondary tubular damage and additional loss of low-molecular-weight proteins (e.g., beta-2 microglobulin). However, the hallmark is glomerular albuminuria, distinguishing it from pure tubular proteinuria. Normally, urinary protein excretion is under 150 mg per day.^[36] This persistent proteinuria depletes serum albumin, as hepatic synthesis cannot compensate for the daily loss of several grams, causing hypoalbuminemia and reduced plasma oncotic pressure. Fluid then extravasates into the interstitium, leading to edema.^[5]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Patients with nephrosis, also known as nephrotic syndrome, commonly experience generalized edema, which manifests as swelling around the eyes (periorbital edema), particularly noticeable in the morning, and in the lower extremities such as the ankles and feet due to hypoalbuminemia-induced fluid retention.^[37]^[5] This edema often leads to noticeable weight gain from accumulated fluid, which patients may report as a sudden increase in body weight.^[5]^[1] Urinary symptoms include foamy or frothy urine resulting from high levels of protein excretion (proteinuria), a hallmark of the condition.^[5]^[37] In advanced cases, patients may develop oliguria, or reduced urine output, particularly if acute kidney injury complicates the syndrome.^[38]^[39] Systemic symptoms frequently reported include fatigue, which can arise from anemia due to urinary loss of proteins or from fluid overload.^[5]^[1] Shortness of breath may occur if pleural effusions develop from severe hypoalbuminemia and fluid retention.^[40]^[41] In children, who are more commonly affected, additional symptoms include irritability and poor appetite, often linked to the discomfort of swelling and nutritional deficits.^[37]^[1] Adults may report abdominal pain associated with ascites, the accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity.^[42]^[43] These subjective complaints of swelling align with objective physical signs of edema observed during examination, as detailed elsewhere.^[5]

Physical Signs

The most characteristic physical sign of nephrosis is edema, resulting from hypoalbuminemia and sodium retention, which manifests as pitting edema in dependent areas such as the legs, ankles, and sacrum.^[1] In children, edema often begins periorbitally, presenting as prominent puffiness around the eyes that is more noticeable in the morning due to recumbent positioning overnight.^[44] As the condition progresses, generalized edema or anasarca may develop, involving the entire body and leading to significant weight gain from fluid accumulation.^[45] Abdominal examination may reveal ascites, causing distension of the abdomen, with shifting dullness on percussion indicating free intraperitoneal fluid.^[44] Auscultation of the chest can detect pleural effusions in cases of severe fluid overload, potentially contributing to reduced breath sounds or respiratory distress.^[1] Hypertension is observed in approximately 20-30% of patients, often attributable to fluid retention and volume expansion, though it is less common than in nephritic syndromes.^[46] Pallor may be evident due to anemia from urinary losses of transferrin, iron, and erythropoietin, or secondary to chronic disease in prolonged cases.^[47] Unlike nephritis, physical examination typically shows no signs of active urinary sediment, such as hematuria or casts, on gross inspection of urine, aiding in differentiation.^[1]

Diagnosis

Laboratory Investigations

Laboratory investigations play a crucial role in diagnosing nephrosis, primarily through urine and blood analyses that identify the characteristic features of heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and associated metabolic disturbances. The diagnosis hinges on demonstrating nephrotic-range proteinuria, typically quantified via 24-hour urine collection exceeding 3.5 g of protein per day, which reflects significant glomerular permeability defects leading to protein loss.^[9] Alternatively, a spot urine protein-to-creatinine ratio greater than 3.5 mg/mg provides a practical screening equivalent, correlating well with 24-hour totals and facilitating outpatient evaluation.^[48] Urine microscopy further supports the diagnosis by revealing lipid-laden elements indicative of lipiduria, a hallmark of nephrosis. Under polarized light, oval fat bodies—desquamated renal tubular cells engorged with lipid droplets—appear as Maltese cross structures, while fatty casts, composed of lipid-embedded protein matrices, confirm the presence of substantial proteinuria.^[49] These findings are particularly prominent in nephrotic states where filtered lipoproteins bind to Tamm-Horsfall protein in the tubules.^[50] Blood tests reveal systemic consequences of protein loss, including hypoalbuminemia with serum albumin levels below 3 g/dL, resulting from urinary excretion exceeding hepatic synthesis capacity.^[1] Hyperlipidemia is common, with total cholesterol often exceeding 200 mg/dL due to compensatory hepatic overproduction of lipoproteins and reduced lipoprotein lipase activity.^[51] If renal function is compromised, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine levels may elevate, though glomerular filtration rate remains relatively preserved in early nephrosis.^[1] In cases suspected of amyloidosis-related nephrosis, serum protein electrophoresis identifies monoclonal proteins, such as immunoglobulin light chains, which may underlie the glomerular damage.^[52] The nephrotic state in nephrosis is confirmed when hypoalbuminemia coincides with clinical edema, alongside the above laboratory proteinuria, establishing the syndrome without requiring structural imaging or biopsy at this stage.^[3] Laboratory evaluation also includes serologic tests to screen for secondary causes, such as antinuclear antibody (ANA) for systemic lupus erythematosus, hepatitis B and C serologies, and tests for diabetes or infections.^[1]

Imaging and Biopsy

Imaging plays a supportive role in the diagnosis of nephrosis, primarily to assess kidney morphology and rule out complications or secondary causes. Renal ultrasound is commonly employed as the initial imaging modality, revealing kidneys of normal size or mild enlargement in early stages of nephrosis, which helps differentiate it from chronic conditions where atrophy may occur.^[53] Doppler ultrasound is particularly useful for evaluating the risk of renal vein thrombosis, a potential complication in nephrotic states associated with nephrosis due to hypercoagulability; it detects absent or diminished venous flow with high sensitivity when combined with spectral analysis.^[54] Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is reserved for investigating secondary causes, such as amyloidosis, where enlarged kidneys with heterogeneous enhancement or perirenal infiltration may be observed, though these are not routine due to radiation exposure and cost concerns.^[55] Renal biopsy remains the gold standard for confirming nephrosis and distinguishing it from other proteinuric disorders like nephritis, particularly in adults with unexplained heavy proteinuria confirmed by laboratory tests.^[56] Indications for biopsy include persistent nephrosis without identifiable cause or when differentiation from glomerular diseases is necessary, while it is contraindicated in patients with uncorrectable coagulopathy, uncontrolled hypertension, or active infection at the biopsy site to minimize bleeding risks.^[57] Biopsy findings vary depending on the underlying etiology; for example, minimal change disease shows normal glomeruli on light microscopy with negative immunofluorescence, while membranous nephropathy exhibits glomerular basement membrane thickening and subepithelial deposits on electron microscopy. Tubular changes, such as atrophy or protein reabsorption droplets, may occur secondary to heavy proteinuria.^[1]^[9]

Treatment

Supportive Management

Supportive management of nephrosis focuses on alleviating symptoms, preventing complications, and maintaining overall health through non-specific interventions applicable across etiologies. Dietary modifications play a central role, with sodium intake restricted to less than 2 g per day to reduce fluid retention and edema.^[58] Protein intake is moderated at 0.8-1 g/kg body weight per day to meet nutritional needs without worsening proteinuria.^[59] Edema, a hallmark of nephrosis, is managed primarily with loop diuretics such as furosemide at doses of 40-80 mg per day, titrated to achieve gradual fluid loss while avoiding hypovolemia.^[3] In cases of severe hypoalbuminemia (serum albumin <1.5 g/dL), intravenous albumin infusion (1 g/kg) may be administered prior to diuretics to enhance efficacy and prevent renal hypoperfusion.^[1] Compression stockings are recommended for lower extremity edema to promote venous return and reduce swelling.^[60] Patients with nephrosis are at increased risk of infections due to urinary protein loss leading to hypogammaglobulinemia and immunosuppression; thus, pneumococcal vaccination is advised as per high-risk guidelines.^[61] In those with ascites, vigilant monitoring for signs of peritonitis is essential, with prompt evaluation and treatment if suspected.^[1] Ongoing monitoring is crucial, including daily weight checks to assess fluid status and response to therapy.^[3] Blood pressure should be controlled to less than 130/80 mmHg to protect renal function and mitigate cardiovascular risks associated with nephrosis.^[62] These measures complement disease-specific interventions targeting the underlying glomerular pathology.

Disease-Specific Interventions

Disease-specific interventions for nephrosis target the underlying etiology, distinguishing between primary (idiopathic) and secondary forms to achieve remission or halt progression. In primary nephrotic syndrome, particularly minimal change disease in children, first-line therapy involves corticosteroids such as prednisone at a dose of 2 mg/kg/day (maximum 60 mg/day) for 4-6 weeks, followed by an alternate-day taper over an additional 4-6 weeks.^[63] This regimen induces complete remission in 80-90% of pediatric cases within 4-8 weeks.^[63] For steroid-resistant cases, calcineurin inhibitors like cyclosporine are recommended as second-line therapy, typically initiated at 3-5 mg/kg/day with trough levels monitored to 100-200 ng/mL, achieving partial or complete remission in 50-80% of children with idiopathic steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome.^[64]^[65] Secondary nephrosis requires cause-directed treatments to address the precipitating factor. In cases linked to heavy metal toxicity, such as mercury exposure causing minimal change disease, chelation therapy with agents like 2,3-dimercapto-1-propane sulfonate (DMPS) combined with supportive immunosuppression has led to complete remission in reported instances.^[66] For diabetic nephropathy, a common secondary cause, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors such as enalapril at 10-20 mg/day (titrated up to 40 mg/day based on tolerance) are standard, reducing proteinuria by 30-50% and slowing progression to end-stage renal disease.^[67]^[68] Advanced interventions are employed for refractory or autoimmune-associated forms. Rituximab, a monoclonal anti-CD20 antibody administered as 375 mg/m² intravenously weekly for 4 doses, has demonstrated efficacy in inducing remission in autoimmune nephrotic syndromes like membranous nephropathy, with response rates of 60-80% in adults and sustained remission in up to 50% at 2 years.^[69] Recent guidelines, such as the KDIGO 2025 update for children, recommend calcineurin inhibitors as initial therapy for steroid-resistant cases and rituximab for frequent relapses despite other agents.^[70] For patients progressing to end-stage renal disease, which occurs in 5-10% annually in steroid-resistant cases like focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, renal replacement therapy with dialysis or kidney transplantation is indicated, with 5-year graft survival rates exceeding 80% post-transplant.^[1]^[71] Emerging therapies focus on genetic forms, particularly congenital nephrotic syndrome due to NPHS1 mutations (encoding nephrin). Preclinical studies using adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated gene therapy have demonstrated podocyte transduction, providing a proof-of-principle for treating proteinuria in Nphs1 knockout mouse models.^[72]

Prognosis and Complications

Long-Term Outcomes

The long-term prognosis of nephrosis, or nephrotic syndrome, varies significantly by age, etiology, and response to initial therapy. In children with primary idiopathic nephrotic syndrome, approximately 90% achieve remission with corticosteroid treatment, often leading to favorable outcomes with sustained renal function. According to the 2025 KDIGO guideline, 80-90% of children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome relapse, with 15-25% of cases persisting into adulthood and fewer than 5% progressing to kidney failure.^[70] In contrast, adults with primary forms experience remission rates that vary by underlying histology, with 80-90% achieving remission in minimal change disease but only 20-50% in focal segmental glomerulosclerosis.^[73] For secondary nephrosis, outcomes hinge on the underlying condition; for instance, in diabetic nephropathy, 5-year survival rates approximate 70% in contemporary cohorts with optimized management.^[74] Relapse patterns are common in steroid-responsive cases, affecting 50-70% of patients, with frequent relapses or steroid dependence occurring in a substantial subset, necessitating ongoing immunosuppression.^[75] Progression to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) occurs in approximately 10-30% of adults with primary nephrotic syndrome over 10 years, particularly in steroid-resistant forms or focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (up to 50%).^[76] Pediatric patients generally fare better, with ESRD rates below 5% in steroid-sensitive cases and overall mortality under 1%, compared to adults where mortality ranges from 5-10% over similar periods due to comorbidities and treatment resistance.^[77]^[78] Factors enhancing long-term outcomes include early diagnosis and prompt response to immunosuppressive therapy, which correlate with higher remission durability and reduced ESRD risk.^[79] Historically, pre-1950s mortality exceeded 40-50%, largely from infectious complications in the absence of antibiotics and supportive care; modern interventions have reduced this to under 5%.^[17]^[80]

Potential Complications

Nephrotic syndrome predisposes patients to thrombotic complications due to urinary loss of anticoagulant proteins, particularly antithrombin III, which contributes to a hypercoagulable state.^[81] This loss impairs the natural inhibition of thrombin and other clotting factors, increasing the risk of both venous and arterial thromboembolic events.^[82] Venous thromboembolism occurs in approximately 25-40% of cases, with renal vein thrombosis being particularly common in adults.^[83] Prophylactic anticoagulation with warfarin, targeting an international normalized ratio (INR) of 2-3, is often recommended for high-risk patients to mitigate these events.^[84] Infections represent another major complication, exacerbated by the urinary loss of immunoglobulins and complement factors, which impairs humoral immunity.^[85] Edematous limbs are particularly susceptible to cellulitis, often caused by Streptococcus or Staphylococcus species entering through skin breaks.^[9] In patients with significant ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) can develop, typically from gram-negative enteric bacteria translocating across the gut barrier.^[9] Prophylactic antibiotics, such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, may be considered in those with a prior history of SBP to reduce recurrence risk.^[86] Acute kidney injury can arise from hypovolemia, often precipitated by aggressive diuresis or gastrointestinal losses in the context of hypoalbuminemia and edema.^[87] This leads to prerenal azotemia, with reduced renal perfusion causing a reversible decline in glomerular filtration rate if promptly addressed.^[88] Chronic hyperlipidemia, a hallmark of nephrotic syndrome due to hepatic overproduction of lipoproteins, further elevates the risk of cardiovascular disease, including a threefold increased incidence of myocardial infarction compared to the general population.^[89] In rare cases, persistent nephrotic syndrome can progress to chronic kidney disease stage 5, defined by a glomerular filtration rate below 15 mL/min/1.73 m², ultimately leading to end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis or transplantation.^[90] This progression varies by underlying etiology but is more common in membranoproliferative or focal segmental glomerulosclerosis forms.^[91] Such complications contribute to the overall diminished long-term prognosis observed in affected individuals.^[90]

Epidemiology

Global Prevalence

Nephrotic syndrome exhibits varying incidence rates globally, with an estimated annual incidence of 3 cases per 100,000 adults.^[3] In children, the condition is more prevalent, with a worldwide prevalence of approximately 16 cases per 100,000 for idiopathic forms and an incidence ranging from 2 to 16.9 cases per 100,000 children annually.^[19] These figures highlight nephrotic syndrome as a relatively rare but significant glomerular disorder, particularly affecting pediatric populations where it represents one of the most common kidney diseases.^[1] Geographic variations in prevalence are notable, with higher rates observed in Southeast Asia compared to Europe, often attributed to infectious etiologies such as malaria and hepatitis in endemic areas.^[92] For instance, incidence rates in South and Southeast Asian populations can range from approximately 7 to 16.9 cases per 100,000 children annually, influenced by regional infection burdens, while European rates are lower at around 1 to 1.5 cases per 100,000 children per year.^[93] In low-income regions, underdiagnosis is prevalent due to limited access to diagnostic facilities like urinalysis and renal biopsies, potentially inflating true global burdens.^[92] Since 2000, the incidence of nephrotic syndrome has remained largely stable, though some studies report a modest increase, such as from 3.35 to 4.30 cases per 100,000 person-years in adults over 1995–2018.^[94] The Global Burden of Disease study by the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) indicates that glomerulonephritis, encompassing nephrotic syndrome, contributes substantially to disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost, with chronic kidney disease overall accounting for approximately 35.8 million DALYs in 2017, rising to around 44 million by 2021.^[95]^[96] These patterns underscore the need for improved surveillance, especially in resource-limited settings where demographic factors like age and ethnicity further modulate risk.^[92]

Risk Factors and Demographics

Nephrotic syndrome exhibits a bimodal age distribution, with primary forms predominantly affecting children aged 2 to 6 years, where approximately two-thirds of cases occur in males.^[97] In contrast, secondary forms are more common in adults over 50 years, with an equal gender distribution.^[44] This pattern reflects the idiopathic nature of childhood cases, often linked to minimal change disease, versus adult cases driven by underlying systemic conditions.^[35] Genetic factors significantly elevate risk, particularly for congenital nephrotic syndrome, where Finnish heritage confers a markedly increased odds ratio due to mutations in the NPHS1 gene, with incidence rates in Finland reaching 1 in 10,000 births compared to rarer global occurrences.^[98] Environmental exposures, such as chronic use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for 28 days or more, are associated with a relative risk of approximately 1.4 to 2.5 for developing nephrotic syndrome.^[99] Comorbidities like diabetes mellitus account for about 30% of adult nephrotic syndrome cases, primarily through diabetic nephropathy.^[1] Socioeconomic factors contribute to higher rates in developing countries, where exposure to nephrotoxic herbal remedies—such as those containing aristolochic acid—leads to increased instances of toxin-induced glomerular injury and nephrotic syndrome.^[100] Racial disparities are evident in HIV-related nephrotic syndrome, with individuals of African descent facing a 4- to 14-fold higher risk compared to other groups, largely due to APOL1 gene variants predisposing to HIV-associated nephropathy.^[101] Protective measures, including early screening for proteinuria in high-risk groups such as those with diabetes or family history of genetic forms, can reduce the incidence of progression to nephrotic syndrome by up to 20% through timely interventions like blood pressure control and renin-angiotensin system blockade.^[9]

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Jan 30, 2025 · first morning or 24-hour protein to creatinine ratio ≥ 2 g/g or ≥ 200 mg/mmol · ≥ 3+ (corresponding to ≥ 300 mg/dL protein) on urine dipstick.Etiology And Pathogenesis · Causes · Kidney Structure And...
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Aug 28, 2021 · -Nephrotic syndrome is classically characterized by: Heavy proteinuria (urine protein >3-3.5g in 24hrs); Hypoalbuminemia (serum Albumin <2.5g/dL) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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In 1905, the term “nephrosis”, coined by Friedrich Muller, was used to describe the pathological lesion of such patient as degenerative rather than ...
[19]
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Apr 10, 2014 · Nephrotic, the adjectival form of 'nephrosis', was coined in 1905 by Friedrich von Müller, a distinguished German pathologist [1] (see also ...
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Jan 30, 2017 · In 1905 Friedrich Mueller separated inflammatory from “degenerative” diseases by calling the latter “nephrosis.”1 A few years later F. Munk ...
[21]
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Richard Bright—Physician Extraordinaire - Allen Press
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Jan 28, 2022 · Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is a condition characterized by increased permeability of the glomerular filtration barrier (GFB) leading to proteinuria.
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Mar 27, 2017 · This paper provides an update on the current knowledge of podocyte genes involved in the development of hereditary nephrotic syndrome
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MCNS has been considered a T-cell disorder, which causes the impairment of the glomerular filtration barrier with the release of different circulating factors.
[27]
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It accounts for about 90 percent of children with nephrotic syndrome. Idiopathic means that a disease occurs with no known cause. The most common type of ...
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[30]
Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs and the Risk for Chronic ...
Main Results: A twofold risk for chronic renal disease was associated with previous daily use of NSAIDs (adjusted odds ratio, 2.1; 95% Cl, 1.1 to 4.1).
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Analgesic Use and Chronic Renal Disease
May 11, 1989 · The odds ratios ranged from 2.78 (95 percent confidence interval, 1.01 to 8.04) in persons who had consumed. 0.4 to 0.9 kg of phenacetin to 6.77 ...
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Here, we argue that a molecular switch downstream of tubular necrosis determines nephron regeneration versus nephron loss.
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Jun 3, 2024 · The degeneration of cortical tubule epithelial cells is characterized by vacuolation of the cytoplasm and pyknosis of the nuclei.
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Increased lysosomal proteolysis counteracts protein accumulation in ...
Here we determine whether release of inflammatory and fibrotic mediators in response to protein overload in the proximal tubule is caused by lysosomal enzyme ...
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7568953/
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Mitochondrial dysfunction in kidney injury, inflammation, and disease
Kidneys are rich in mitochondria. Mitochondrial dysfunction plays a critical role in the progression of acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease.
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Hydropic change of the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney
RESULTS. The lesion. The lesion consists of a swelling of the cells of the proximal con- voluted tubules (fig. 1). The cytoplasm is pale with what appears.Missing: renal | Show results with:renal
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In response to injury, tubular epithelial cells undergo changes and function as inflammatory and fibrogenic cells, with the consequent production of various ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Mechanisms Underlying Exacerbation of Osmotic Nephrosis ...
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Review Megalin and cubilin in proximal tubule protein reabsorption
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MN is an autoimmune disease that causes immune proteins to build up in the kidney's glomerular basement membrane. As a result, the membrane becomes thick and ...
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Jul 3, 2018 · Acute kidney injury may require dialysis for weeks or months until remission of proteinuria allows resolution of oliguria. In some cases ...
[55]
Lipoid nephrosis appearing as acute oliguric renal failure - PubMed
This case suggests that lipoid nephrosis can appear as acute oliguric renal failure without historical or physical evidence of preexisting nephrotic syndrome.
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Oct 10, 2021 · The common causes of transudative pleural effusion are fluid overload, heart failure and nephrotic syndrome, while the causes for exudative ...
[57]
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Disease-associated complications include infections, thromboembolism, cardiovascular disease, hypovolemic crisis, anemia, and acute renal failure.<|control11|><|separator|>
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First episode of nephrotic syndrome with acute abdominal pain - PMC
More common reasons of pain abdomen include rapid formation of ascites and gastritis due to treatment with steroids. Though, our case of psoas abscess is an ...
[59]
A Child With Nephrotic Syndrome and Abdominal Pain - PMC - NIH
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[60]
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Secondary Causes of Nephrotic Syndrome · Amyloidosis · Cancer (lymphoma, leukemia, or various solid tumors) · Diabetes mellitus* · Some glomerulonephritis ( ...
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Nephrotic Syndrome | Johns Hopkins Medicine
High blood pressure · Swelling in the feet and hands, and around the eyes · Weight gain with fluid retention and swelling · Signs of infection, such as fever, or ...
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Anemia is one of the many complications seen in patients with persistent nephrotic syndrome and may occur as a result of excessive urinary losses of iron.
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Sep 20, 2024 · Urine protein:creatinine ratio (UPCR) is typically >300 mg/mmol. Hypoalbuminemia. In nephrotic syndrome, hypoalbuminemia is caused by loss of ...
[65]
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Disorders of lipid metabolism in nephrotic syndrome - PubMed Central
Nephrotic syndrome results in marked elevation of serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol. This is due to a combination of increased production and impaired ...
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Amyloidosis - ScienceDirect.com
Non-diabetic patients with nephrotic syndrome are found to have renal amyloid 10% of the time. ... Beta-2 microglobulin serum levels and prediction of survival in ...
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The data generally support β 2 M as a promising novel marker of kidney function by predicting cardiovascular (CV) risk, CV events and overall mortality.
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Diagnosis and Management of Nephrotic Syndrome in Adults - AAFP
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Kidney length is defined as the maximum distance from pole to pole, measured in a longitudinal view, with a normal range of 10-12 cm. The left kidney is longer ...Missing: nephrosis | Show results with:nephrosis
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[77]
Tenofovir nephrotoxicity: acute tubular necrosis with distinctive ...
Electron microscopy showed mitochondrial enlargement, depletion, and dysmorphic changes. Clinical follow-up after tenofovir discontinuation was available for 11 ...
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[Lifestyle modification and diet therapy for nephrotic syndrome]
Optimal dietary protein intake is 1.0-1.1 g/kg/day in minimal change nephrotic syndrome and 0.8 g/kg/day in other types of nephrotic syndrome.
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[85]
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Dec 29, 2016 · Calcineurin inhibitors such as cyclosporine have been recommended as first line in the treatment of childhood idiopathic steroid resistant ...
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The outcomes have improved following the use of calcineurin inhibitors (CNI), cyclosporine (CyA), or tacrolimus, which induce remission in 50-80% patients.[3,4] ...
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Nephrotic Syndrome Associated With Heavy Metals Exposure
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Rituximab Immunomonitoring Predicts Remission in Membranous ...
Oct 13, 2021 · Rituximab is becoming a first line therapy for patients with persistent nephrotic syndrome with proven safety and efficacy, achieving remission ...
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Long-term outcomes of persistent disease and relapse in primary ...
Jan 13, 2016 · Progression to renal failure occurs in 20–40% of individuals managed with supportive care alone over a 10–15 year period [2, 3]. Persistent ...
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Adeno-associated virus gene therapy prevents progression of ...
Aug 9, 2023 · We aimed to establish gene therapy for the kidney by targeting a monogenic disease of the kidney podocyte. The most common cause of childhood ...
[93]
Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Rituximab to...
Steroids induce remission in 90% of children with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome (INS). Some become steroid-dependent (SD) and require the addition of drugs ...
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Long-term outcome in children and adults with classic focal ...
At the last observation point, the outcome of patients (adults v children) was complete remission, 22% versus 42%; end-stage renal disease, 42% versus 34 ...
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Improved Survival and Renal Prognosis of Patients With Type 2 ...
May 10, 2014 · Doubling of plasma creatinine or end-stage renal disease (ESRD) developed in 19%, and 37% died during 5.7 (3.3–8.8) years. Mortality from onset ...
[96]
Steroid response and outcomes in childhood nephrotic syndrome
Nov 1, 2025 · Among them, 50%–70% will have frequently relapsing NS (FRNS) if they relapse ≥ 2 times in 6 months or ≥ 4 times within 1 year. Patients are ...
[97]
and Long-Term Outcomes in Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome
All children were followed up until a disease-free discharge from the clinic (n = 358), transitioned to adult care (n = 56), received dialysis or kidney ...
[98]
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Kidney failure is also rare in childhood and importantly there were no deaths observed. Conveying this information to families is important for counseling and ...
[99]
A National Registry Study of Patient and Renal Survival in Adult ...
In patients with primary NS, observed versus population 3-year mortality was 2.1% (95% CI 0.0%–4.6%) versus 0.9% (0.8%–1.0%) in patients aged <60 years and 24.9 ...
[100]
IPNA clinical practice recommendations for the diagnosis and ...
May 7, 2020 · Approximately 85% of cases show complete remission of proteinuria following glucocorticoid treatment. Patients who do not achieve complete ...
[101]
50 Years of Nephrotic Syndrome in Children, and Hereafter
The advent of antibiotics and their extensive use impacted the mortality from infections and the mortality rates declined from 40% in the pre-antibiotic era to ...
[102]
Rivaroxaban for the treatment of venous thromboembolism in patients
Nov 8, 2017 · Decreased antithrombin (AT)-III is one of the factors contributing to hypercoagulability in patients with NS (3). The risk of VTE in patients ...
[103]
Understanding Hypercoagulability with Nephrotic Syndrome
Jan 23, 2023 · Thromboembolism is a life-threatening complication of nephrotic syndrome with variable reported incidence for deep venous thrombosis (approximately 15%).
[104]
A Systematic Review of Prophylactic Anticoagulation in Nephrotic ...
Dec 12, 2019 · Nephrotic syndrome is associated with an increased risk of venous and arterial thromboembolism, which can be as high as 40% depending on the ...
[105]
Prophylactic Anticoagulation in Adult Patients with Nephroti...
Increased thromboembolic risk is a well recognized complication of nephrotic syndrome, with variable reported incidence of deep venous thrombosis ...
[106]
Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in an Adult Patient with Minimal ...
In a study comparing the clinical characteristics of 52 adults and 21 children with nephrotic syndrome, ascites was observed in 23% and 52%, respectively, and ...
[107]
Clinical Practice Guidelines : Nephrotic syndrome
NS is diagnosed based on the triad of: Heavy proteinuria (dipstick >3+ or spot protein/creatinine ratio >200 mg/mmol); Hypoalbuminaemia (serum albumin <25 g/ ...
[108]
Acute kidney injury complicating nephrotic syndrome of minimal ...
An effect of endothelin-1–induced vasoconstriction at the onset of proteinuria has been proposed to explain tubular cell ischemic necrosis. The main factors ...Review · Acute Kidney Injury In... · Pathophysiology Of Aki...Missing: damage | Show results with:damage
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Acute kidney injury in children with nephrotic syndrome
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Primary Nephrotic Syndrome and Risks of End-Stage Kidney ...
Same report demonstrated a 3.2-fold risk increase for acute coronary syndrome ... Among the NS subjects myocardial infarction (MI) developed in 11, and ...
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Primary Nephrotic Syndrome and Risks of ESKD, Cardiovascular ...
Conclusions. Adults with primary nephrotic syndrome experience higher adjusted rates of ESKD, cardiovascular outcomes, and death, with significant variation by ...
[112]
Nephrotic Syndrome Linked With End-Stage Kidney Disease ...
Aug 13, 2021 · People with nephrotic syndrome face significantly higher risk of end-stage kidney disease , cardiovascular problems, and death, according to ...
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Ethnic Differences in Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome - Frontiers
Apr 18, 2016 · The average incidence of nephrotic syndrome is 2–16.9 per 100,000 children worldwide. Understanding the variability by ethnicity may point ...
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Twenty-four-Year Trends in Incidence and Mortality of Nephrotic ...
May 1, 2023 · Over time, 1-year mortality of nephrotic syndrome was stable at 13%-16%, but HR of death was 0.54 (95% CI: 0.42-0.69), adjusted for age, sex, ...Missing: children 5-10%
[116]
Global, regional, and national burden of chronic kidney disease ...
Feb 13, 2020 · CKD resulted in 35.8 million (95% UI 33.7 to 38.0) DALYs in 2017, with diabetic nephropathy accounting for almost a third of DALYs. Most of the ...
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Chapter XIII.2. Nephrotic Syndrome - Case Based Pediatrics Chapter
The prevalence is approximately 16 cases per 100,000 children, making nephrotic syndrome one of the most frequent reasons for referral to a pediatric ...
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Nephrotic Syndrome: Background, Pathophysiology, Etiology
Oct 1, 2025 · Nephrotic syndrome is kidney disease with proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and edema. Nephrotic-range proteinuria is 3 grams per day or more.
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Common risk variants in NPHS1 and TNFSF15 are associated with ...
Jun 13, 2020 · Because rare pathogenic variants in NPHS1 cause congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type (CNSF), the present study provides further ...
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[PDF] Risk of Nephrotic Syndrome for Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory ...
28 days of conventional NSAIDs was associated with a higher relative risk of nephrotic syndrome: adjusted OR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.70, and OR, 1.42; 95% CI, ...
[121]
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Oct 24, 2024 · The commonest and most well-researched herb leading to the development of CKD is AA, a toxic constituent of the Chinese herb nephropathy.
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HIV-associated nephropathy in African Americans 1
As noted earlier in this article, subjects of African descent are at markedly increased risk for FSGS in the setting of HIV-1 infection, with perhaps a 14-fold ...Missing: disparities | Show results with:disparities