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Netizen

A netizen is an active participant in online communities who engages with the internet not merely as a consumer but as a contributor to its social, informational, and developmental fabric, embodying principles of responsible digital citizenship.^[1]^[2] The term, a portmanteau of "net" (short for internet or network) and "citizen," first appeared in 1984 on the Usenet newsgroup net.something, predating the broader commercialization of the internet.^[3]^[1] It was later formalized and popularized in the early 1990s by computer historian Michael Hauben, who in his writings portrayed netizens as individuals collaborating selflessly to enhance the network's utility and openness, drawing parallels to civic duties in physical societies.^[2] This conceptualization emphasized communal contributions over passive usage or commercial exploitation, influencing early internet culture amid the expansion of forums, bulletin boards, and collaborative projects like Usenet and ARPANET derivatives.^[4] Over time, the term's application broadened to encompass general internet users in various global contexts, including political discourse and social activism, though purists maintain its core denotes proactive, ethically minded engagement rather than mere connectivity.^[5]^[6]

Etymology and Core Definition

Origin and Evolution of the Term

The term netizen originated as a portmanteau blending "net," shorthand for internet or computer network, with "citizen," evoking the idea of an engaged participant in digital society akin to a civic actor. It was coined by Michael Hauben, an early internet researcher, in his 1992 article "The Net and Netizens: The Impact the Net Has on People's Lives," where he used it to describe individuals who actively contributed to online discussions and the network's evolution, particularly within Usenet newsgroups.^[7] Hauben emphasized the netizen's role as a "network citizen" bearing responsibilities for fostering collaborative growth, drawing from observations of pre-web internet communities that prioritized mutual aid and information sharing over commercial interests.^[4] Hauben's concept gained broader traction through collaborative work with his sister Ronda Hauben, culminating in their 1997 book Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet, which traced the term's roots to the collaborative ethos of ARPANET and Usenet pioneers. In this framework, netizens were distinguished from mere users by their proactive involvement in shaping online norms, such as through etiquette guidelines (netiquette) and resistance to centralized control, reflecting a vision of the internet as a public good requiring stewardship.^[2] The book's preface explicitly positioned netizens as inheritors of a tradition where participants accepted obligations to advance the network's technical and social infrastructure, influencing early cyberlibertarian discourse.^[4] Over the 1990s and into the 2000s, the term evolved with the internet's commercialization and mass adoption, shifting from its niche origins in academic and hacker circles to wider journalistic and popular usage. Initially connoting ethical agency and communal duty, as Hauben intended, it increasingly denoted any habitual internet user, diluting the emphasis on contribution amid the rise of passive consumption via web browsers and portals.^[2] This broadening paralleled the transition from text-based forums to graphical interfaces, where active civic participation gave way to varied behaviors, though core definitions in scholarly contexts retained Hauben's activist undertones. By the early 2000s, "netizen" appeared in global media to describe online commentators, particularly in regions like East Asia, where translations amplified its reach without fully preserving the original participatory ideal.^[4]

Defining Characteristics of Netizens

Netizens are defined as active participants in the internet who go beyond passive consumption to contribute meaningfully to online spaces, embodying a form of digital citizenship that prioritizes collective improvement and civic engagement. This concept, originating from Michael Hauben's observations of early network users, portrays netizens as individuals who invest time and effort in enhancing the internet as a shared resource, often by assisting others, collaborating on problem-solving, and advocating for its open, equitable development.^[4]^[8] Unlike mere users who primarily consume content, netizens demonstrate proactive behaviors such as sharing knowledge, moderating discussions, and participating in governance-like activities within virtual communities.^[9] Key traits include a willingness to engage helpfully and cooperatively, provided the interaction aligns with perceived value, reflecting an internalized ethic of reciprocity observed in early Usenet and bulletin board systems. For instance, netizens often respond to queries with detailed explanations or resources, fostering an environment of mutual support that extends intellectual and social benefits across global boundaries.^[8] This contributory mindset stems from a recognition of the internet's interconnected nature, where individual actions influence the network's overall utility, as evidenced by Hauben's documentation of users self-identifying as "net citizens" responsible for the medium's evolution.^[10] Empirical analyses of online forums further corroborate this, showing active posters prioritizing issue resolution over self-interest, though such behaviors can vary by platform and context.^[11] Netizens also exhibit heightened awareness of online rights and responsibilities, treating the internet as a public sphere for expression and political participation rather than a mere entertainment tool. This includes voicing opinions on policy matters, such as net neutrality or content moderation, and engaging in decentralized decision-making that mirrors democratic processes.^[2] Studies on user interactions reveal that these individuals often prioritize transparency and accountability, countering anonymity-driven anonymity with accountable contributions that build trust within communities.^[12] However, this active role demands discernment, as netizens must navigate misinformation and adversarial elements, relying on critical evaluation to sustain constructive discourse.^[13]

Historical Context

Emergence in the Early Internet (1980s–1990s)

The concept of the netizen emerged alongside the expansion of decentralized online networks in the 1980s, where users on bulletin board systems (BBS) and Usenet began exhibiting behaviors akin to civic participation in virtual spaces. BBS, pioneered by Community Memory in 1973 and popularized through systems like CBBS launched in 1978, enabled dial-up access for hobbyists and early adopters to share files, post messages, and moderate discussions locally or via fidonet-style networks by the mid-1980s.^[14] Usenet, initiated in 1979 by Duke University students Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis using UUCP protocol over Unix systems, grew rapidly in the 1980s, connecting academic and research institutions for threaded discussions across hundreds of newsgroups by decade's end, fostering norms of cooperative information exchange without central authority.^[15] These platforms emphasized user-driven moderation and "netiquette," informal rules codified in documents like the 1983 Usenet guidelines, which promoted thoughtful posting and avoidance of flame wars to sustain community health.^[16] The term "netizen," blending "internet" and "citizen," was coined in the early 1990s by researcher Michael Hauben during interactive online studies of Usenet and mailing lists, capturing users who actively contributed to the network's development rather than merely consuming content.^[17] Hauben, participating in online communities since the early 1980s, described netizens as individuals prioritizing the collective good of cyberspace through collaborative problem-solving and international dialogue, as detailed in his 1997 book co-authored with Ronda Hauben, which traced these traits back to pre-web internet culture.^[18] By the mid-1990s, as internet access broadened beyond academia via NSFNET privatization in 1995, the netizen archetype manifested in Usenet's peak era, with over 10,000 newsgroups and millions of daily posts supporting open-source software development, scientific discourse, and global activism precursors like anti-censorship campaigns.^[19] This early netizen ethos contrasted with commercialized visions of the internet, emphasizing non-geographic social membership and voluntary governance; Hauben argued it stemmed from ARPANET's packet-switching origins in 1969, evolving into a "collaborative environment" evident in 1980s-1990s Usenet interactions where users self-identified as stewards of shared digital resources.^[20] Empirical evidence from archived newsgroups shows netizens enforcing etiquette through peer critique, such as in alt.flame or comp.sys.* hierarchies, which sustained usability amid exponential growth from thousands of users in 1980 to tens of millions by 1995.^[21] However, challenges like spam proliferation in the early 1990s tested this model, prompting proto-regulatory efforts like the 1993 "spam" backlash against mass postings, highlighting netizens' causal role in shaping network resilience.^[22]

Expansion in the Web 2.0 Era (2000s Onward)

The transition to Web 2.0 in the mid-2000s transformed netizens from passive consumers into active producers of content, enabling widespread participation through blogs, wikis, and social networks that emphasized collaboration and interactivity. ^[23] This shift, coined by Tim O'Reilly in 2004, prioritized user-generated media over static webpages, fostering environments where netizens could share opinions, form communities, and influence public discourse at scale.^[24] Global internet users, numbering 361 million in 2000, exceeded 1 billion by 2005 and reached 2 billion by 2010, providing the infrastructure for this participatory explosion.^[25] ^[26] ^[27] Pioneering platforms drove netizen engagement: MySpace, launched in 2003, achieved the first million monthly active users among social networks by emphasizing customizable profiles and music sharing.^[28] Facebook, debuting in 2004 for college networks before opening publicly, amassed hundreds of millions of users by 2008, overtaking MySpace as the dominant site for personal connections and news dissemination.^[29] ^[30] YouTube (2005) revolutionized video content creation, with netizens uploading billions of hours annually by the decade's end, while Twitter (2006) enabled real-time microblogging that amplified individual voices in global conversations.^[31] ^[32] These sites collectivized netizens into "prosumers," blurring lines between consumers and creators, though mainstream adoption often favored viral trends over substantive deliberation.^[33] Netizen activities expanded into activism and civic mobilization, with platforms facilitating rapid coordination for causes like anti-globalization protests and environmental campaigns in the late 2000s.^[34] For instance, netizens used Facebook and Twitter to organize events such as the 2009 Iranian Green Movement protests, where online coordination evaded state censorship and drew international attention.^[35] By 2010, social media users had grown to over 1 billion, enabling netizens to challenge traditional media gatekeepers through citizen journalism and hashtag-driven awareness, though empirical studies note that such efforts often amplified echo chambers rather than bridging divides.^[28] ^[36] This era's scale introduced vulnerabilities, including misinformation spread—evident in early viral hoaxes—but undeniably democratized information flow for billions.^[37]

Global and Regional Usage

Prominence in China

In China, the concept of the netizen is encapsulated by the term wangmin (网友), which denotes internet users who actively participate in online discourse with a perceived sense of digital citizenship and entitlement to express opinions on public matters.^[38]^[39] This framing emerged prominently in the late 1990s as internet access expanded, evolving into a massive collective force by the 2000s when wangmin numbers surpassed 20 million, enabling widespread influence on social and political narratives despite state oversight.^[40] As of June 2024, China had nearly 1.1 billion internet users, with a penetration rate of 78%, positioning wangmin as integral to daily information flow and opinion formation on platforms like Sina Weibo, which boasts hundreds of millions of active accounts.^[41]^[42] These users drive real-time public opinion through viral trends, citizen journalism, and collective scrutiny of official actions, such as exposing local corruption or amplifying disaster responses, often compelling media and authorities to react swiftly.^[43]^[44] The prominence of wangmin is evident in their role within state-guided "thought work," where netizens collaborate—intentionally or otherwise—in shaping narratives, though empirical analyses indicate limited success in fully aligning online sentiment with regime priorities due to self-selection into diverse viewpoints.^[45]^[46] For instance, Weibo discussions on policy issues like carbon neutrality reveal polarized attitudes, with netizens expressing skepticism or demands that reflect broader societal tensions rather than uniform endorsement.^[47] This dynamic underscores wangmin as a counterweight to top-down control, fostering hybrid spaces for contention even amid censorship mechanisms like keyword filtering.^[43]

Adoption in Western and Other Contexts

The term "netizen" originated in the United States in the early 1990s, coined by researchers Michael Hauben and Ronda Hauben to denote internet users who actively uphold the network's collaborative and public ethos, as detailed in their 1997 book Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet.^[2] In Western contexts, particularly North America and Europe, adoption remained largely academic and niche during the 1990s, emphasizing ethical online participation amid the internet's expansion from Usenet to the World Wide Web.^[48] By the 2000s, however, the term saw sporadic journalistic use in English-language media to describe commenters on news sites or forums, often without the original connotation of civic duty.^[49] Western usage has since waned, with critics in 2013 arguing it anthropomorphizes routine online activity and fails to capture diverse user motivations, preferring terms like "internet user" for precision.^[50] Data from English media corpora indicate declining frequency post-2010, supplanted by phrases like "social media users" amid platforms such as Twitter (now X) and Facebook dominating discourse.^[5] In Europe, adoption mirrored the U.S. pattern but was even less pronounced, appearing mainly in tech policy discussions rather than popular self-identification, reflecting lower cultural emphasis on collective online citizenship compared to early U.S. visions.^[19] Outside China and the West, South Korea exemplifies robust adoption, where "netizen" (넷이�zen, a direct borrowing) emerged in the late 1990s amid rapid broadband penetration—reaching 70% household access by 2004—and became synonymous with vigilant online collectives shaping politics and culture.^[51] Korean netizens mobilized significantly in events like the 2000 inter-Korean summit support campaigns and 2004 impeachment protests against President Roh Moo-hyun, leveraging portals like Daum and Naver for petitions that influenced outcomes.^[52] In entertainment, they drive K-pop fandom dynamics, with sites aggregating "netizen reactions" to idols' actions, amplifying scandals or endorsements via real-time commentary.^[53] In Southeast Asia, such as Malaysia and Indonesia, the term appears in regional English media for online outrage or viral trends but lacks the institutionalized role seen in Korea, often critiqued as a tabloid flourish rather than a substantive identity.^[54] Overall, non-Western adoption beyond Korea remains journalistic and context-specific, tied to high internet engagement in mobile-first markets rather than evoking the Haubens' original framework of global digital commons stewardship.^[55]

Behavioral Patterns

Constructive Engagement and Community Building

Netizens contribute to online communities through knowledge-sharing platforms, where they answer queries and curate information resources. On Stack Overflow, a Q&A site for programmers, community members—termed netizens in relevant studies—have generated over 28 million answers to 18 million questions as of 2019, enabling developers worldwide to resolve technical issues collaboratively.^[56] Active participation remains limited, with only 6.07% of users contributing in 2020, yet consistent contributors are motivated by factors such as reciprocity, altruism, and reputation gains, sustaining the site's utility as a collective knowledge base.^[57] In open-source software development, netizens drive innovation by submitting code patches, documentation, and bug fixes to public repositories. Projects like the Linux kernel exemplify this, having evolved through thousands of voluntary contributions from dispersed internet users since its inception in 1991, demonstrating how decentralized collaboration yields robust, freely modifiable systems.^[58] Such efforts rely on platforms like GitHub, where netizens form ad-hoc teams around shared goals, fostering iterative improvements without centralized authority. During public crises, netizens bolster community cohesion via supportive discourse. In China, analysis of 1,706,941 Sina Weibo posts from December 2019 to April 2020 revealed that 40.97% of emotional expressions conveyed positive energy—such as hope and encouragement—with an average intensity of 3.39 on a 1-5 scale, particularly surging after events like the January 24, 2020, deployment of national medical teams to Wuhan.^[59] This pattern reflects causal links between collective actions and heightened prosocial messaging, which counters fear and reinforces mutual resilience among users. Virtual support networks further illustrate constructive engagement, as online interactions in niche communities correlate with enhanced mental well-being. A study of fan communities found that frequent engagements yield a 0.321 beta coefficient in improved subjective well-being (p < 0.01), attributable to reciprocal emotional support and shared identity formation.^[60] These dynamics underscore netizens' role in creating self-sustaining ecosystems that extend beyond mere information exchange to tangible psychological benefits.

Destructive Tendencies and Criticisms

Netizens have been criticized for engaging in cyberbullying and online harassment, which often escalates due to the anonymity and reach of digital platforms. According to a 2022 Pew Research Center survey, 46% of U.S. teens reported experiencing at least one form of online harassment, including offensive name-calling, spreading rumors, or receiving unwanted explicit images, with the prevalence rising among frequent social media users.^[61] Similarly, 2025 data indicate that 26.5% of U.S. teens faced online harassment, with cyberbullying occurring continuously across devices, amplifying psychological harm such as anxiety and depression.^[62] These behaviors stem from the low barriers to entry in online spaces, where netizens can pile on targets without accountability, leading to documented cases of victims attempting suicide.^[63] Mob dynamics represent another destructive tendency, where coordinated groups of netizens engage in doxxing—publicly releasing private information—and pile-on attacks to enforce social norms or punish perceived offenses. For instance, in 2024, doxxing campaigns targeted individuals expressing views on the Israel-Hamas conflict, resulting in job losses and threats as a tool within broader cancel culture efforts.^[64] Cancel culture, often driven by netizen outrage, has been described as fostering mob vigilantism rather than reasoned discourse, with examples including the 2018 resignation of Papa John's founder John Schnatter after social media backlash over a conference call remark, despite lacking full context or due process.^[65]^[66] Such actions prioritize immediate shaming over evidence, contributing to self-censorship and polarization, as critics argue they reward emotional reactivity over substantive debate.^[67] In regions like Indonesia, netizen mobs have weaponized doxxing against journalists and activists, exposing personal details to incite offline retaliation and stifle dissent, as seen in cases from 2022 onward.^[68] Globally, these tendencies exacerbate misinformation spread, where unverified claims gain traction through viral amplification, though empirical studies link this more to algorithmic incentives than inherent netizen malice. Critics, including those analyzing fan communities like "Stan Twitter," note that artist-endorsed harassment waves against detractors in 2021 demonstrated how group loyalty can devolve into sustained abuse campaigns.^[69] Overall, while netizen participation enables democratic expression, its destructive forms undermine trust in online discourse, with calls for platform accountability to mitigate harms without curtailing speech.^[70]

Societal and Political Impact

Role in Activism and Mobilization

Netizens have utilized digital platforms to coordinate collective action, disseminate grievances, and amplify calls for change, often bypassing traditional media and institutional gatekeepers. In the Arab Spring uprisings of 2010–2011, social media facilitated rapid mobilization in Tunisia and Egypt, where platforms like Facebook and Twitter enabled protesters to organize demonstrations and share real-time updates, contributing to the ousting of leaders in those countries.^[71] For instance, the "We Are All Khaled Said" Facebook page in Egypt garnered over 400,000 followers by mid-2011, serving as a hub for protest logistics amid state repression.^[71] However, empirical analyses indicate that while these tools accelerated awareness and coordination, they did not independently trigger the revolts, which stemmed from deeper socioeconomic and political pressures, and regimes adapted by enhancing surveillance and counter-narratives.^[72] In the 2019 Hong Kong protests against an extradition bill, netizens employed decentralized apps like Telegram and the forum LIHKG to orchestrate marches without hierarchical leadership, drawing over 1 million participants on June 9, 2019, and sustaining actions through encrypted channels that evaded initial crackdowns.^[73] This "be water" strategy, popularized online, allowed fluid, leaderless responses to police actions, with netizens crowdsourcing legal aid, medical support, and evasion tactics.^[73] Yet, the same platforms amplified disinformation campaigns, including state-backed bots posting thousands of anti-protest messages daily by August 2019, which fragmented public discourse and highlighted vulnerabilities to manipulation.^[74] Chinese netizens, operating under stringent censorship, have demonstrated resilience by employing coded language and memes to mobilize dissent, as seen in the 2022 anti-zero-COVID protests where phrases like "going for a walk" signaled gatherings in over 30 cities, prompting policy reversals by December 7, 2022.^[75] Earlier instances include online campaigns against local injustices, such as the 2008 milk scandal, where netizen outrage on platforms like Sina Weibo pressured authorities into accountability measures, though sustained impact remains limited by algorithmic suppression and arrests.^[76] Studies on online activism's efficacy reveal it excels at raising awareness— with 80% of Americans in 2020 viewing social media as effective for this purpose—but falters in achieving structural change, often devolving into performative actions or echo chambers that fail to convert digital signals into offline endurance.^[77] Under repressive conditions, however, netizen mobilization correlates with higher offline participation rates, as digital tools lower coordination costs for high-risk actions.^[78] This duality underscores netizens' capacity for rapid scaling of movements while exposing them to co-optation, infiltration, and dilution by non-committed participants.^[79]

Influence on Culture, Media, and Governance

Netizens have shaped contemporary culture through the rapid dissemination of viral content and digital subcultures that influence trends and public perceptions. A 2021 Stanford University study of tweets from Japanese and U.S. users revealed that cultural differences in emotional expression—such as higher individualism in U.S. content versus collectivism in Japanese posts—significantly determine what achieves virality on platforms like Twitter, thereby amplifying specific cultural narratives globally.^[80] In China, netizens have mobilized around social issues, such as defending public figures from criticism, fostering a participatory culture that extends offline behaviors into online defense of perceived injustices.^[81] This engagement often manifests as an obligation among netizens to contribute opinions and assist in discussions, altering interpersonal dynamics and community norms as observed in early internet analyses.^[82] In media landscapes, netizens have pioneered citizen journalism, enabling faster news propagation than traditional outlets and challenging established gatekeeping. For instance, Chinese netizens leverage microblogging platforms to disseminate information, opinions, and breaking news more swiftly than state media, as evidenced by frame analyses of events where online discourse outpaces official narratives.^[83] This has democratized reporting, with social media facilitating real-time audience engagement and reduced costs for content distribution since the early 2010s.^[84] However, professional journalists widely critique this influence; a 2022 Pew Research Center survey of U.S. journalists found 67% viewing social media's overall impact on journalism as negative, citing issues like algorithmic amplification of unverified claims and platform control over narratives.^[85] Emerging netizen-driven news forms, documented as early as 2014, have nonetheless pressured policymakers by highlighting underreported issues, enhancing public oversight.^[86] Netizens exert influence on governance by amplifying public sentiment that prompts policy responses and exposes governance failures, particularly in contexts with high internet penetration like China. Research on Chinese internet users indicates netizens form a politically salient subgroup, exhibiting distinct beliefs and practices—such as greater skepticism toward authority—compared to non-users or traditional media consumers, with data from national surveys showing elevated political engagement post-2000s internet expansion.^[87] Empirical studies link frequent internet use among Chinese netizens to reduced trust in government institutions, based on 2010s panel data controlling for demographics and regional factors.^[88] Governments have adapted, with China's responding to social media-expressed opinions through targeted policy adjustments, as analyzed in cases where online backlash led to regulatory shifts between 2015 and 2020.^[89] Globally, netizen activity on platforms has swayed electoral dynamics; for example, social media mobilization in the 2020 U.S. election influenced voter turnout and perceptions via algorithmic feeds, though effects varied by platform and user demographics per platform data analyses.^[90] In authoritarian settings, state initiatives promote "good netizens" who generate regime-aligned content, effectively crowding out dissent and shaping governance narratives since guidelines issued around 2015.^[91]

Key Controversies

State Censorship and Surveillance

In China, the government employs the Great Firewall, a comprehensive system of internet censorship implemented since 2000 by the Ministry of Public Security, to block access to foreign websites and filter domestic content deemed politically sensitive, affecting over 1 billion netizens by restricting information on topics like the Tiananmen Square events or criticisms of the Chinese Communist Party.^[92] This infrastructure includes domain name system poisoning, IP blocking, and keyword filtering, enabling real-time censorship of user-generated content on platforms like Weibo and WeChat, where netizens' posts are scanned and removed if they violate state directives on "rumors" or "harmful" speech.^[93] Surveillance complements censorship through mandatory real-name registration for internet users since 2012 and extensive monitoring of online activity, with state agencies employing millions of censors and AI tools to track netizen behavior across social media and messaging apps.^[94] The social credit system, piloted in various forms since 2014 across provinces, incorporates online data—such as posts promoting dissent or spreading unverified information—into assessments of citizens' trustworthiness, leading to penalties like travel bans or employment restrictions for low scores, though it lacks a unified national scoring mechanism and focuses more on blacklisting than universal ratings.^[95]^[96] Enforcement against netizens includes criminal penalties for online expression; for instance, a 2013 judicial interpretation stipulated up to three years' imprisonment for defamatory content reposted 500 times or viewed 5,000 times, resulting in thousands of detentions annually.^[97] In 2024, Chinese police arrested over 1,500 individuals, including influencers and bloggers, in a campaign targeting "online rumors," shutting down 63,000 accounts and demonstrating intensified scrutiny of netizen discourse during economic or political stress.^[98] Specific cases, such as the 2017 jailing of netizens for chatroom jokes mocking leaders, illustrate how even private online humor can trigger investigations and sentences of up to several years.^[99] Globally, authoritarian regimes emulate elements of China's model, with governments in countries like Russia and Iran imposing similar blocks on dissenting netizen content and requiring data localization for surveillance, as documented in annual assessments showing a rise in state-mandated content removal requests to tech firms exceeding 80% compliance in some cases.^[100] In democratic contexts, such as the United States, federal agencies have expanded social media monitoring for national security since 2017, analyzing public posts of millions of users without warrants, though lacking China's scale of preemptive censorship.^[101] These practices underscore a trend where states view netizens' digital footprints as extensions of civic behavior subject to oversight, often justified by countering misinformation but enabling suppression of opposition.^[102]

Mob Dynamics, Harassment, and Misinformation

Online mob dynamics among netizens involve the rapid formation of large, decentralized groups on social media platforms that coalesce around shared grievances or ideological triggers, often escalating into coordinated attacks on individuals or entities perceived as transgressors. These dynamics are facilitated by algorithmic amplification, which prioritizes emotionally charged content, enabling thousands of users to pile on within hours, as observed in empirical analyses of platform data showing how outrage spreads through retweets and shares at rates far exceeding factual content. Such mobs can enforce social norms extrajudicially, bypassing institutional due process, and have been characterized in studies as resembling "digital vigilantism" where anonymity reduces accountability.^[103]^[104] Harassment emerges as a core outcome of these mobs, manifesting in forms such as sustained verbal abuse, threats of violence, and doxxing—the public release of personal information like addresses or employer details. A 2021 Pew Research Center survey found that 41% of U.S. adults had experienced at least one form of online harassment, including offensive name-calling (32%) and purposeful embarrassment (15%), with women and younger users disproportionately targeted. Doxxing prevalence stands at approximately 4% among U.S. adults as of 2025 surveys, often triggered by mob outrage and leading to real-world consequences like job loss or relocation. Among teens, 32% of girls reported multiple harassment types in a 2022 Pew study, compared to 24% of boys, highlighting gendered vulnerabilities in these dynamics. The Anti-Defamation League's 2023 report indicated 52% of adults had faced lifetime online harassment, with spikes during high-profile controversies where netizen mobs amplify attacks.^[105]^[106]^[61]^[107] Misinformation propagation intersects with mob dynamics as netizens, driven by confirmation bias and group polarization, share unverified claims that fuel outrage cycles. A 2015 PNAS study demonstrated how social media aggregates users into echo chambers, accelerating misinformation spread by a factor of six times faster than corrections, as false narratives align with preexisting worldviews. During crises, such as public health emergencies, netizen-driven rumors have exacerbated harms; a 2022 review of 162 studies found misinformation on platforms like Twitter distorts public behavior, with emotional appeals (e.g., fear or anger) boosting shares by up to 20% over neutral facts. Empirical models attribute this to affordances like easy sharing and low barriers to entry, where bots and high-engagement users amplify distortions, though human netizens initiate most viral falsehoods. Interventions like early fact-checking show limited efficacy against entrenched mob momentum, as users prioritize affective resonance over veracity.^[103]^[108]^[109] These phenomena are not uniformly destructive but reveal causal risks in unmoderated digital spaces: deindividuation reduces empathy, while platform incentives reward virality over accuracy, per analyses of user behavior data. Credible reporting notes systemic underreporting of harassment due to victim fatigue, with academic sources emphasizing the need for causal links between online mobs and offline harms like increased suicide ideation among targets.^[110]^[111]

Recognition and Formal Acknowledgments

The Netizen Prize and Similar Honors

The Netizen Prize was an annual award presented by Reporters Without Borders (RSF) from 2010 to 2014, recognizing bloggers, online journalists, or cyber-dissidents who advanced freedom of expression on the internet despite risks such as censorship or persecution.^[112] Sponsored by Google in partnership with RSF, the prize carried a monetary award of €2,500 and was typically announced on or near the World Day Against Cyber Censorship, observed annually on March 12.^[112] Nominees were selected by RSF's research department based on their contributions to online information dissemination and resistance against digital repression, with public voting introduced in later years to determine the laureate.^[113]^[114] Notable recipients included the Tunisian collective Nawaat in 2011, honored for exposing corruption and supporting the Jasmine Revolution through leaked documents and citizen journalism that challenged state control over media.^[115] In 2012, the award went to Syrian citizen journalists affiliated with the Local Coordination Committees, who documented regime atrocities amid the civil war using smuggled videos and reports, often at great personal peril.^[116] The 2013 laureate was Vietnamese blogger Huynh Ngoc Chenh, selected via online votes for his critiques of government policies and advocacy for press freedom in a context of heavy internet surveillance and blogger arrests.^[117] The prize concluded in 2014, with subsequent RSF recognitions of online activists integrated into broader categories like the annual Press Freedom Awards.^[112] Similar honors include RSF's ongoing Press Freedom Prizes, which since 2015 have encompassed digital dissidents in categories such as "Courage" or "Impact," exemplified by the 2021 award to the Pegasus Project for exposing spyware targeting journalists and netizens globally.^[118] The Electronic Frontier Foundation's (EFF) Pioneer Awards annually honor individuals advancing digital rights, including netizen-like figures such as those pioneering encrypted communication tools or anti-censorship technologies.^[119] Other comparable recognitions encompass the Webby Awards' special honors for internet activism and civic engagement, though these emphasize broader digital innovation over dissident efforts.^[120] These awards collectively underscore the role of netizens in confronting state-sponsored online controls, though RSF's focus remains on regions with severe press restrictions like the Middle East, Asia, and Africa.^[121]

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[PDF] The Emergence of the Netizen, Is the Early Vision Still Viable?
May 8, 1997 · This was the experience people had on Internet mailing lists and Usenet newsgroups in the early. 1990s, before the web culture had developed and.
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The International Origins of the Internet and the Emergence of the ...
In my talk today, I will look at the phenomenon of the emergence of the netizen and netizenship and at the early vision and international collaboration. This ...
[21]
[PDF] An Interview with Ronda Hauben, co-author of Netizens - arXiv
Oct 6, 2022 · Netizens makes a point of featuring Usenet as a burgeoning locus of Internet culture, to the point where it became a metonym for “the Net” of ...
[22]
View of The Evolution of Usenet: The Poor Man's ARPANET ...
Usenet is transported among Unix systems by UUCP connections and via NNTP (Netnews Transfer Protocol) along the Internet, which is the child of the old ARPANET.
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Understanding Web 2.0's: The Evolution of the Net
Web 2.0 represents the current state of the internet, characterized by a significant increase in user-generated content and enhanced usability.
[24]
11.3 Social Media and Web 2.0 | Media and Culture - Lumen Learning
There are many different types of social media available today, from social networking sites like Facebook to blogging services like Blogger and WordPress.com.<|separator|>
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The incredible growth of the Internet since 2000 - Pingdom
Oct 22, 2010 · There were only 361 million Internet users in 2000, in the entire world. For perspective, that's barely two-thirds of the size of Facebook today.
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Visualized: The Growth of Global Internet Users (1990–2025)
May 4, 2025 · By the beginning of the 21st century, internet usage had crossed 361 million people (6% of the population in 2000), and the momentum only ...
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Individuals using the Internet (% of population) | Data
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The rise of social media - Our World in Data
Sep 18, 2019 · Social media started in the early 2000s MySpace was the first social media site to reach a million monthly active users – it achieved this ...
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Social Networking App Revenue and Usage Statistics (2025)
Sep 2, 2025 · The 2000s saw these social networks compete for more users, with Facebook surpassing MySpace in 2008 to become the most popular social network ...
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History of Social Media (It's Younger Than You Think)
Sep 19, 2025 · 2002 – MySpace: A multimedia giant in its prime. Peaked at 80 million users and a $12B valuation in 2008 before Facebook took over. 2004 – ...
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web 2.0, the 2000s and lovely jubbly, social networking
Feb 15, 2017 · Blog platforms like WordPress and Typepad emerged in 2003; Facebook launched in 2004; and YouTube a year later. The era of the social web began.
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Dissecting the Impact of Social Media Over Time | 898 Marketing
Apr 21, 2025 · The number of social media users has grown from 25 million in 2000 to 5.24 billion in just 25 years. · The average social media user engages on ...
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Web 2.0: Netizen empowerment vs. Unpaid labor - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · The expansion of new media and the advent of Web 2.0 has resulted in dramatic changes in consumers' roles, turning them into 'prosumers': co ...
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Digital activism | Online Campaigns, Social Media & Protests
Initially, online activists used the Internet as a medium for information distribution, given its capacity to reach massive audiences across borders ...
[35]
Internet activism | Research Starters - EBSCO
Activists in these movements use the Internet to facilitate fund-raising, organize causes, communicate with each other, and disseminate messages quickly and ...
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How has social media changed the world? | World Economic Forum
Oct 8, 2019 · Social media started in the early 2000s The first social media site to reach a million monthly active users was MySpace – it achieved this ...
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Internet, Broadband Fact Sheet - Pew Research Center
Nov 13, 2024 · When the Center began systematically tracking Americans' internet usage in early 2000, about half of all adults were already online. Today, 96% ...Internet use over time · Who uses the internet? · Home broadband use over time
[38]
The Evolution of the Chinese Internet: Excerpt from Chapter 1
Indeed, “netizen” (wangmin, “net citizen”), the term by which Internet users in China refer to themselves, already denotes the strong sense of entitlement to ...
[39]
Netizens or Not? About Chinese Online Communities & Use of the ...
Jun 15, 2018 · The Chinese term wangmin seems to lack the more political implications of the term 'netizen' in English in Western countries, which has come to ...
[40]
A Brief History of the Chinese Netizen
Jul 8, 2022 · When was the term “wangmin” coined, and how did China's cyberspace evolve from the first-generation of netizens to today?
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Number of internet users in China rises to 1.1 billion - Global Times
Aug 29, 2024 · The total number of internet users in China has reached nearly 1.1 billion as of June 2024, an increase of 7.42 million from December 2023, with internet ...
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[PDF] The 54th Statistical Report on China's Internet Development - cnnic
◇ By June 2024, the number of Internet users in China had reached nearly 1.1 billion (1.09967 billion), an increase of 7.42 million compared to December 2023.
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[PDF] The Power of the Chinese Netizen - Reuters Institute
Sep 19, 2011 · Sina Weibo monitors keep a close watch for sensitive words, filtering and deleting any tweets they believe to have vulgar content or anything ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
China's Weibo: Political and Social Implications?
It encourages Chinese netizens to be more involved in social issues and more interested in exercising their civil rights. Meanwhile, it has also required the ...
[45]
Netizens as Thought Work Collaborators in China - ResearchGate
Apr 26, 2018 · Our results call into question the effectiveness of China's state propaganda in channeling online public opinions while highlighting the ...
[46]
Attraction or Distraction? Impacts of Pro-regime Social Media ...
Sep 4, 2021 · Chinese netizens self-select to view diverse comments, and exposure to diverse comments undermines policy support, questioning the ...
[47]
Chinese Netizens' Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Carbon ...
Jun 23, 2025 · This paper analyses 8,033 Weibo posts to examine Chinese netizens' perceptions and attitudes towards carbon neutrality. Automated and manual ...
[48]
[PDF] Netizens and Communication: A new Paradigm by Ronda Hauben
May 1, 2025 · Rather netizen was the word to describe those on the Net who took up to support the public and collaborative nature of the Net and to help it to ...
[49]
Netizen - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
netizen(n.) "user of the internet," considered as part of the whole community of users, 1995, from net, short for internet + citizen. also from 1995.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[50]
Enough With the Word 'Netizen' - The Atlantic
Sep 25, 2013 · There's no such thing as a “netizen.” There are citizens with hobbies, interests, opinions, and viewpoints, and these citizens use the Internet ...
[51]
Rise of the Netizen - Korea IT Times
Feb 27, 2009 · And the center point of this unique Korean internet culture is the netizen. Netizens is the term used to refer to Korean citizens using the ...
[52]
[PDF] The Rise of Netizen Democracy A Case Study of Netizens' Impact on ...
'3 This article will explore this new socio-political-cultural identity, the identity of the netizen in the context of recent developments in. South Korea.
[53]
The South Korean Netizen - Seoulbeats
Apr 9, 2015 · In the South Korean context, the netizen is one who uses the internet as a location of discourse and community. There is no single kind of South ...<|separator|>
[54]
Does anyone outside of Malaysia even use the term 'netizen'? - Reddit
Sep 14, 2023 · Outside of asia its more of a tabloid-y term (like says, woldofbuzz, weirdkaya type of places). Proper journalism rarely use this term i think. ...Why do Asian publications love using the term 'netizen'? : r/JournalismWhy is the word "netizen" so popular in China? - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[55]
The SAGE Encyclopedia of the Internet
Origin of the Term The term netizen is an American English neologism that combines the words network and citizen in a short form conjoining the preposition “ ...
[56]
How to build a reputable StackOverflow profile - Rafiullah Hamedy
Oct 2, 2019 · Stack Overflow is the world's leading Q&A site for developers with over 18+ million questions, 28+ million answers, and 11+ million users.<|separator|>
[57]
What motivates online community contributors to contribute ...
Jun 25, 2022 · Stackoverflow data for 2020 revealed that only 6.07% of users actively participate1 at StackOverflow, even though most community members are ...
[58]
The Internet Was Built on the Free Labor of Open Source ... - VICE
Feb 14, 2019 · The fact that it was open source meant that anyone could see its code online and volunteer to help write code for the project. But just because ...
[59]
The positive energy of netizens: development and application of fine ...
Nov 3, 2022 · This study aims to analyze the characteristics of netizens' positive energy expressions and the impact of node events on public emotional expression during the ...
[60]
Effects of Online Fan Community Interactions on Well-Being and ...
The research results indicated that the intensity of online interaction with other fans has a positive and robust effect on mental well-being (β = 0.321, p < ...
[61]
Teens and Cyberbullying 2022 | Pew Research Center
Dec 15, 2022 · The vast majority of teens say online harassment and online bullying ... cyberbullying and online harassment. As a result, there may be a ...
[62]
Teenage Cyberbullying Statistics 2025 - BrightPath
Oct 28, 2024 · ... online harassment, with 26.5% of U.S. teens reporting such ... Unlike traditional bullying, cyberbullying can occur 24/7, follow teens ...Prevalence Of Cyberbullying... · Ethnicity And Cyberbullying... · Cyberbullying Among Lgbtq+...
[63]
Current perspectives: the impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health
The term cyberbullying in this review will represent an umbrella term that includes related constructs such as Internet bullying, online bullying, and ...Cyberbullying And Suicidal... · Cyberbullying (both Victims... · Prevention And InterventionMissing: netizens | Show results with:netizens<|separator|>
[64]
Doxxing campaigns are a cancel culture tool. What happens ... - NPR
Apr 11, 2024 · Doxxing campaigns have been used to "name and shame" people who have expressed opinions about the Israel-Hamas war.
[65]
Cancel culture: speaking truth to power or a form of mob vigilantism?
Jun 14, 2023 · Understanding cancel culture, its roots and how it has become a form of mob vigilantism.<|separator|>
[66]
Cancel culture promotes mob mentality - The Tide
Jan 22, 2020 · Cancel culture seems to indiscriminately attack perceived offenders. For example, Papa John's founder John Schnatter resigned from his ...
[67]
The Long and Tortured History of Cancel Culture
Dec 3, 2020 · The public shaming of those deemed moral transgressors has been around for ages. As practiced today, though, is the custom a radical form of citizen justice?
[68]
How Indonesia Netizens Use Doxing as a Weapon to Attack Others
Jun 21, 2022 · Primarily, doxing is also used against journalists and activists trying to spread awareness through social media. Including Indonesia. According ...
[69]
Stan Twitter Community Has a Harassment Problem, Stars Are Part ...
Sep 12, 2021 · Internet mobs of pop-music fans have sent waves of harassment at critics. Sometimes they're fueled by the artists themselves. By Palmer Haasch.
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Cyberbullying: Twenty Crucial Statistics for 2025 | Security.org
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The Role of Social Media in the Arab Uprisings | Pew Research Center
Nov 28, 2012 · Research is emerging that reexamines in a more detailed way the role that social media played in the Arab uprisings.
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The social media myth about the Arab Spring - Al Jazeera
Jan 27, 2021 · Social media networks did not trigger the Arab revolutions, but they did contribute to the counter-revolutions.
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Digital Revolution: How Social Media Shaped the 2019 Hong Kong ...
Jun 8, 2021 · On June 9th, 2019, one million Hong Kong citizens marched on the street to protest a proposed extradition bill that would allow the city ...
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Hong Kong Protests: China Uses Twitter And Facebook To Share ...
Aug 20, 2019 · On Tuesday, thousands of anti-Hong Kong posts were still being generated by what appeared to be Twitter bots – accounts created in July or ...
[75]
How Chinese Netizens Swamped China's Internet Controls - WIRED
Dec 2, 2022 · Protests were referred to using coded language, such as “going for a walk.” For Chinese netizens, using puns, memes, and other tricks to evade ...
[76]
Making Chinese Officials Accountable, Blog by Blog - Boston Review
Sep 27, 2016 · Today, there are nearly 700 million netizens in China, and they are a force for social change as well as the target of government surveillance.
[77]
Americans think social media can help build movements, but can ...
Sep 9, 2020 · Eight-in-ten Americans say social media platforms are very (31%) or somewhat (49%) effective for raising public awareness about political or social issues.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies<|control11|><|separator|>
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The psychology of online activism and social movements: relations ...
Mar 21, 2020 · Micro-level evidence supports a positive relation between online activism and offline protest among citizens under repressive regimes. Together, ...
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[PDF] The Effectiveness of Online Activism - Scholars Archive
Results and Analysis. Page 14. 9. Who Is Online Activism Effective For? Online activism, under the right circumstance, can be effective for almost everyone as.
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Cultural values influence what goes viral on social media
Sep 8, 2021 · A Stanford study of Tweets by Japanese and US Twitter users reveals how cultural differences in emotions influence what goes viral on Twitter.
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Technology: Who Are Influential Netizens?
Mar 2, 2024 · (Examples below.) Netizens wanted to defend a woman because she was invited to speak at Harvard, but she was criticized for not having a degree.
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THE NET AND NETIZENS: The Impact the Net has on People's Lives
A `K-12 Net' exists which invites younger people to be a part of the online community. Special bulletin board software exists to connect personal computer ...
[83]
[PDF] A Comparison of Frames Between Media, Government, and Netizens
More importantly, China's netizens have utilized the network capability of microblogging sites to spread information, news, and opinions more quickly than the ...
[84]
The Impact of Social Media on Journalism | Pfeiffer Law
Sep 22, 2023 · The integration of social media in digital journalism has allowed content to be shared and delivered faster, made easily accessible, reduced printing cost.
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Many journalists say social media helps at work, but most decry its ...
Jun 14, 2022 · Two-thirds of journalists surveyed (67%) say social media has a very (26%) or somewhat negative (41%) impact on the state of journalism in this ...
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[PDF] Netizen Journalism The Emergence of New Forms of News that Can ...
I want to share a brief overview of the origin, use and impact of the netizen concept and its relation to what I call netizen journalism before presenting a ...
[87]
Political consequences of the Internet's rise: Beliefs and practices of ...
Overall, the evidence suggests that Chinese netizens tended to be a “politically salient” group compared to users of traditional media and non-media users. The ...
[88]
Does Internet Use Affect Netizens' Trust in Government? Empirical ...
Dec 12, 2019 · This paper investigates the potential relationship between Internet use and trust in government of Chinese netizens.
[89]
Social Media and Policy Change: The Chinese Government's ...
Jun 20, 2025 · We know surprisingly little about when and how governments respond with policy change to the public's opinions expressed on social media.
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The effects of Facebook and Instagram on the 2020 election - NIH
May 13, 2024 · Some have highlighted ways that social media may have advantaged Joe Biden (34, 35); others have emphasized ways it benefited Donald Trump (36).<|control11|><|separator|>
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China's good netizens | Merics
Beijing has issued rules to encourage regime-friendly online content. David Lenz sees a wave of volunteer cheerleaders crowding out critical voices.
[92]
In China, the 'Great Firewall' Is Changing a Generation
Sep 1, 2020 · China's internet censorship system, colloquially known as the Great Firewall, has existed since 2000, when the Ministry of Public Security ...
[93]
China's Great Firewall - Stanford Computer Science
As the nickname implies, the focus of this project is to monitor and censor what can and cannot be seen through an online network in China. This project started ...
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The Chinese Firewall - Internet Society
Dec 1, 2023 · The 'Great Firewall of China' is a nickname given to the system used by the People's Republic of China to restrict access to the global Internet within the ...
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China's social credit score – untangling myth from reality | Merics
The idea that China gives every citizen a “social credit score” continues to capture the horrified imagination of many. But it is more bogeyman than reality.
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The complicated truth about China's social credit system - WIRED
Jun 7, 2019 · China's social credit system expands that idea to all aspects of life, judging citizens' behaviour and trustworthiness.
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China: 3 years in jail for spreading "online rumors" - CBS News
Sep 10, 2013 · People who post comments deemed libelous and that are reposted 500 or more times will face defamation charges and up to three years in prison.
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Chinese police arrest over 1500 in campaign targeting online rumours
Apr 16, 2024 · Chinese police arrest over 1,500 for online rumours in campaign targeting influencers, bloggers and live-streamers. China shuts down 63,000 ...
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Don't Call “Xi the Bun” — Chinese Netizens Are Being Jailed for ...
Dec 27, 2017 · In 2017, at least three Chinese netizens were arrested and jailed for making politically sensitive jokes in a chat room. 'Xi the Bun'. Wang ...
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Freedom on the Net 2021: The Global Drive to Control Big Tech
A growing number of governments are asserting their authority over tech firms, often forcing the businesses to comply with online censorship and surveillance.
[101]
Social Media Surveillance by the U.S. Government
Jan 7, 2022 · A growing and unregulated trend of online surveillance raises concerns for civil rights and liberties.
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[PDF] ) Digital Repression Growing Globally, Threatening Freedoms
Apr 24, 2023 · ) Censorship, misinformation and disinformation, mass surveillance, and invasive spyware are the primary tools of digital repression. During ...
[103]
The spreading of misinformation online - PNAS
The wide availability of user-provided content in online social media facilitates the aggregation of people around common interests, worldviews, ...
[104]
The portrayal of online shaming in contemporary online news media
Jan 5, 2021 · [online shaming] has turned into a mob-like machine metaphorically stoning the accused without due process”61. Some articles also claimed that ...Missing: statistics | Show results with:statistics
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The State of Online Harassment | Pew Research Center
Jan 13, 2021 · A Pew Research Center survey of US adults in September finds that 41% of Americans have personally experienced some form of online harassment.
[106]
Doxxing Statistics in 2024 - SafeHome.org
Prevalence of Doxxing in 2025. Our 2025 survey found that roughly four percent of U.S. adults have ever been doxxed, which aligned closely with the results from ...
[107]
Online Hate and Harassment: The American Experience 2023 - ADL
Jun 27, 2023 · Online hate and harassment rose sharply for adults and teens ages 13-17. Among adults, 52% reported being harassed online in their lifetime.
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The disaster of misinformation: a review of research in social media
Feb 15, 2022 · The spread of misinformation in social media has become a severe threat to public interests. For example, several incidents of public health ...
[109]
Why people share misinformation on social media? An integration of ...
Jul 19, 2025 · By integrating affordance theory and flow theory, this study examines the underlying psychological mechanisms between social media affordances ...
[110]
Anyone Can Become a Troll: Causes of Trolling Behavior in Online ...
Not only does antisocial behavior result in significant emotional distress [1, 58, 70], but it can also lead to offline harassment and threats of violence [90].Missing: mob netizens
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[PDF] Online Harassment, Digital Abuse, and Cyberstalking in America
Nov 21, 2016 · Overall, almost three-quarters (72%) of American internet users have witnessed online harassment or abuse, and almost half (47%) of Americans ...<|separator|>
[112]
Our Prizes - RSF
Mar 18, 2013 · « The Netizen Prize proves that our voices were heard and that we succeeded in delivering the stories of millions of Syrians who are struggling ...
[113]
Netizen Prize 2012: nominees - RSF
Feb 27, 2012 · The Netizen Prize will be awarded annually to a blogger, online journalist or cyber-dissident who has helped to promote freedom of expression on ...
[114]
Support free expression: Vote for the Netizen of the Year
Feb 27, 2013 · This year for the first time, Reporters Without Borders is asking you to help decide who will win the award. Nine “netizens”—from Bulgaria, ...<|separator|>
[115]
World Day Against Cyber-Censorship: new “Enemies of the Internet ...
Mar 11, 2011 · Tunisian blog Nawaat awarded 2011 Netizen Prize On the eve of the World Day Against Cyber-Censorship, Reporters Without Borders Friday awarded ...
[116]
Syrian citizen journalists and activists capture 2012 Netizen Prize ...
Syrian citizen journalists and activists Monday were awarded the 2012 Reporters Without Borders Netizen Prize sponsored by Google. The media center of the Local ...
[117]
Reporters Without Borders Awards Vietnamese blogger Huynh ...
Mar 7, 2013 · Reporters Without Borders, with support from Google, Thursday awarded its Netizen of the Year 2013 award to Vietnamese blogger Huynh Ngoc Chenh ...
[118]
Chinese journalist, Palestinian journalist and Pegasus Project ... - RSF
Nov 17, 2021 · The 2021 Reporters Without Borders (RSF) Press Freedom Awards, announced today, have been given to the Chinese journalist Zhang Zhan in the courage category.
[119]
EFF Pioneer Awards 2011 | Electronic Frontier Foundation
Nawaat has won the Reporters Without Borders Netizen Prize and the Index on Censorship Award for its work before and during the Tunisian revolution. For ...<|separator|>
[120]
About The Webby Awards
The Webby Awards is the leading international award honoring excellence on the Internet. Established in 1996 during the Web's infancy.Quick Facts · Categories · Team · JudgesMissing: citizens | Show results with:citizens
[121]
RSF Press Freedom Awards: the 2024 laureates
Dec 4, 2024 · The laureates were: Palestinian journalist Waël al-Dahdouh (Courage Prize); Ukrainian journalist and co-founder of the NGO The Reckoning Project, Nataliya ...