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Octet rule

The octet rule is a fundamental principle in chemistry stating that atoms of most elements tend to achieve a stable electron configuration by surrounding themselves with eight electrons in their valence shell, similar to the configuration of noble gases, through the gain, loss, or sharing of electrons in chemical bonds.^[1] This rule provides a simple framework for predicting the formation of ionic and covalent bonds, as well as for drawing Lewis structures that represent molecular geometries and electron distributions.^[2] It applies primarily to main-group elements and underscores the drive toward electronic stability in chemical reactions.^[3] The concept originated in the early 20th century, building on earlier observations such as Richard Abegg's 1904 "rule of eight" regarding maximum and minimum valences, but it was formalized by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis in his seminal 1916 paper, "The Atom and the Molecule," published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society.^[4] In this work, Lewis introduced the electron-pair theory of the covalent bond and used dot notation to illustrate how atoms share electrons to complete their octets, revolutionizing the understanding of molecular structure.^[2] Lewis's ideas stemmed from his earlier 1902 cubical atom model, which envisioned electrons arranged at the corners of a cube to achieve stability, though he later refined this into the more general octet framework.^[2] The octet rule gained widespread acceptance through the efforts of Irving Langmuir, who between 1919 and 1921 elaborated on Lewis's model in a series of papers, coining the term "octet rule" and applying it mathematically to predict bonding arrangements, such as the formula for total valence electrons (e = 8n - 2p, where n is the number of atoms and p is the number of electron pairs).^[2] Langmuir's contributions, including the introduction of terms like "covalent bond," helped integrate the rule into mainstream chemical theory during the 1920s.^[3] While highly effective for elements in periods 2 and 3, the rule has notable exceptions for elements with d orbitals (e.g., expanded octets in sulfur hexafluoride) or those achieving only a duet (e.g., hydrogen), highlighting its status as a guideline rather than an absolute law.^[1]

Definition and Principles

Core Concept

The octet rule is a fundamental guideline in chemical bonding, positing that atoms of main-group elements tend to form bonds by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons to achieve eight electrons in their valence shell, thereby attaining a stable configuration akin to the noble gases neon (1s²2s²2p⁶) or argon (1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁶). This principle, originally articulated as the "rule of eight" by Gilbert N. Lewis in his 1916 paper, emphasizes that such an arrangement provides maximum stability by filling the outermost s and p orbitals.^[4]^[5] The rule's effectiveness stems from the energetic favorability of a complete octet, which lowers the overall energy of the system compared to incomplete shells, as the filled subshells minimize electron repulsion and achieve a closed-shell structure. It applies primarily to s- and p-block elements in periods 2 and 3, where the valence electrons are limited to these orbitals, though it offers less predictive power for transition metals or heavier elements with available d orbitals.^[5]^[4] Electronegativity plays a crucial role in determining the bonding mechanism to reach this octet: when the electronegativity difference between atoms exceeds approximately 2, electrons are transferred to form ions in ionic bonds (e.g., one atom achieves octet by gaining electrons, the other by losing them); smaller differences lead to shared electron pairs in covalent bonds. The term "octet rule" was later coined by Irving Langmuir in 1919 to specifically denote this eight-electron criterion, setting it apart from prior valence theories that focused on combining capacities without reference to outer-shell electron counts.^[6]

Lewis Dot Structures

Lewis dot structures, also known as Lewis electron dot diagrams, provide a visual representation of the valence electrons in atoms and how they are shared or transferred to form chemical bonds, aligning with the octet rule by illustrating arrangements that achieve stable electron configurations. In these diagrams, each atom is represented by its chemical symbol, with dots symbolizing valence electrons; typically, single bonds are depicted as lines or pairs of dots representing shared electron pairs between atoms. The goal is to distribute electrons such that the central atom and surrounding atoms attain an octet of eight electrons in their valence shells, except where exceptions apply.^[7] To construct a Lewis dot structure, first determine the total number of valence electrons available from all atoms in the molecule or ion, adjusting for any charge by adding electrons for anions or subtracting for cations. Next, identify the central atom—usually the least electronegative element excluding hydrogen—and draw a skeletal framework connecting it to surrounding atoms with single bonds, allocating two electrons per bond. Then, distribute the remaining electrons as lone pairs to complete the octets around each atom, starting with the outer atoms; if electrons are insufficient, form multiple bonds by sharing additional pairs. Finally, verify that all atoms satisfy the octet rule where applicable, ensuring the total electrons used match the initial count.^[7]^[8] The octet rule guides this process, aiming for eight valence electrons around each atom to mimic noble gas stability, represented by eight dots or equivalent bonds and lone pairs surrounding the atom's symbol. Hydrogen and helium are notable exceptions, requiring only a duet of two electrons for stability rather than an octet, as their valence shells are filled with just two electrons. These structures thus highlight how electron sharing in covalent bonds or transfer in ionic representations fulfills these electron requirements.^[7]^[8] For validation and selection among possible structures, calculate the formal charge on each atom using the formula:

\text{Formal charge} = \text{valence electrons} - \left( \text{nonbonding electrons} + \frac{1}{2} \text{bonding electrons} \right)

This metric assumes equal sharing of bonding electrons and helps identify the most stable resonance form or preferred arrangement.^[7]^[9] When drawing Lewis structures, prioritize arrangements that minimize formal charges—ideally zero for neutral atoms—while satisfying octets, as lower formal charges indicate more realistic electron distributions. These diagrams serve as simplified models of bonding, focusing on electron counts rather than spatial geometry or dynamics, which are addressed through other theoretical tools.^[7]^[9]

Historical Context

Early Ideas

In the mid-19th century, chemists began observing consistent patterns in the formulas of inorganic compounds, suggesting that elements possess fixed capacities for combining with others. For instance, sodium consistently formed NaCl rather than NaCl₂, indicating a valence of one, while chlorine paired with one sodium atom, implying its own fixed valence. These empirical regularities were formalized by Edward Frankland in 1852, who proposed that each element has a characteristic "combining power" or valence, based on his synthesis of organometallic compounds like zinc ethyl, which revealed symmetrical formulas across organic and inorganic substances.^[10] By the early 20th century, these ideas evolved into more structured theories linking valence to atomic structure. In 1904, Richard Abegg formulated Abegg's rule, stating that the difference between the maximum positive valence and minimum negative valence of an element is often eight units, as seen in elements like chlorine (maximum valence +7 in perchlorates, minimum -1 in chlorides). Abegg drew from electrochemical data to argue that this "counter-valence" of eight reflects an inherent stability limit in bonding capacity. Concurrent with Abegg's work, early atomic models began incorporating electron counts that hinted at octet-like arrangements. In 1902, Gilbert N. Lewis proposed a cubic atom model, visualizing the atom as a cube with electrons positioned at its eight corners to explain periodicity and valence in a geometric framework. Similarly, J.J. Thomson's 1904 plum pudding model depicted atoms as spheres of positive charge embedded with multiple electrons, which Thomson explicitly connected to Abegg's rule by suggesting that chemical stability arises from specific electron configurations balancing positive and negative charges.^[6] These pre-quantum ideas collectively pointed toward a stable outer layer of eight electrons or valence units without invoking electronic shells, setting the stage for Lewis's later precise articulation in 1916.

Lewis's Formulation

In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis published his seminal paper "The Atom and the Molecule" in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, where he introduced the concept of the octet rule as a guiding principle for chemical bonding. Independently in the same year, Walther Kossel proposed a similar principle applied to ionic bonding, emphasizing noble gas electron configurations.^[4] Lewis proposed that atoms achieve stability by attaining eight electrons in their valence shells, mimicking the configuration of noble gases, through either the transfer of electrons in ionic bonds or the sharing of electron pairs in covalent bonds.^[4] A key innovation in Lewis's formulation was the idea of shared electron pairs forming covalent bonds, where each atom contributes one electron to a pair that is jointly owned, allowing both to complete their octets.^[4] He envisioned the octet as eight electrons arranged at the corners of a cube surrounding the atomic kernel (nucleus plus inner electrons), providing a geometric model for this stable configuration.^[4] This cubical octet represented a departure from earlier static electron models, emphasizing dynamic pairing to explain bond formation. Lewis's work unified ionic and covalent bonding under the principle of achieving noble gas electron configurations, resolving inconsistencies in prior valence theories by attributing bond stability to electron redistribution.^[11] For instance, he predicted the structure of water (H₂O) as oxygen sharing two electron pairs with hydrogen atoms to complete its octet, with the remaining four electrons as two lone pairs, accounting for the molecule's stability.^[4] Similarly, for ammonia (NH₃), nitrogen forms three shared pairs with hydrogens and retains one lone pair, achieving an octet and explaining its tetrahedral electron arrangement.^[4] These insights laid the groundwork for modern valence theory, influencing subsequent developments in structural chemistry.^[11]

Examples

Ionic Compounds

In ionic compounds, the octet rule manifests through the complete transfer of electrons from metal atoms to nonmetal atoms, resulting in the formation of cations and anions that achieve stable electron configurations resembling those of noble gases. Metal atoms, typically from the s-block, lose one or more valence electrons to form positively charged cations, emptying their valence shell but achieving an octet in their inner shell, akin to a noble gas core. For instance, a sodium atom (Na) with 11 electrons and a valence configuration of [Ne] 3s¹ loses its 3s electron to become Na⁺, which has the stable neon (Ne) configuration of 1s² 2s² 2p⁶. Conversely, nonmetal atoms from the p-block gain these electrons to complete their valence octet. A chlorine atom (Cl) with 17 electrons and a valence configuration of [Ne] 3s² 3p⁵ accepts one electron to form Cl⁻, achieving the argon (Ar) configuration of [Ne] 3s² 3p⁶. This electron transfer is driven by the tendency to attain lower energy states through octet completion, leading to oppositely charged ions that are bound by strong electrostatic attractions.^[12]^[13] A classic example is sodium chloride (NaCl), where the ionic lattice consists of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions arranged in a repeating three-dimensional structure. Each Na⁺ ion is surrounded by six Cl⁻ ions, and vice versa, maximizing electrostatic interactions that stabilize the crystal. The Na⁺ cation attains a neon-like configuration (an octet in the n=2 shell), while the Cl⁻ anion fulfills the octet rule in its valence shell, mirroring the electron configuration of argon. The lattice energy of NaCl, arising from these Coulombic forces between ions, is sufficiently exothermic to overcome the endothermic costs of ionization and electron attachment, rendering the compound stable under standard conditions. This arrangement exemplifies how the octet rule predicts the 1:1 stoichiometry in such binary ionic compounds.^[12]^[14] The octet rule generalizes to other ionic compounds involving s-block metals and p-block nonmetals, where the charges and ratios ensure octet completion for the anions. For example, magnesium (Mg) from group 2 loses two 3s electrons to form Mg²⁺ with a neon core configuration, while two chloride ions each gain one electron to achieve octets, yielding the formula MgCl₂. This pattern holds for alkali metals (group 1) forming +1 cations with halides (group 17) and alkaline earth metals (group 2) with oxides (group 16) or halides, predicting empirical formulas based on valence electron counts. Such compounds exhibit high melting points and conductivity in molten or aqueous states due to the ionic nature reinforced by octet-driven ion formation.^[13]^[12] The thermodynamic feasibility of this electron transfer is illuminated by the Born-Haber cycle, which decomposes the formation of an ionic compound like NaCl from its elements into sequential steps: sublimation of the metal, dissociation of the nonmetal, ionization of the gaseous metal atom, attachment of electrons to the gaseous nonmetal atom, and finally, the condensation of gaseous ions into the lattice. Although ionization and dissociation are endothermic, the highly exothermic lattice energy—stemming from electrostatic attractions—along with the electron affinity step, results in an overall negative enthalpy change, justifying the prevalence of octet-achieving ionic bonding in these systems. This cycle underscores the energy rationale behind the octet rule in ionic contexts without invoking shared electrons.^[15]

Covalent Compounds

In covalent bonding, atoms achieve stability by sharing valence electrons in pairs, allowing each atom to attain an octet configuration in its valence shell, as per the octet rule. This electron sharing forms covalent bonds, where the shared pair is counted toward the octet of both participating atoms, contrasting with the complete electron transfer seen in ionic bonding. The mechanism involves overlapping atomic orbitals from each atom, creating a region of high electron density between nuclei that holds the atoms together.^[16] A classic example is methane (CH₄), where the carbon atom, possessing four valence electrons, forms four single covalent bonds by sharing one electron pair with each of four hydrogen atoms. In the resulting Lewis structure, carbon is surrounded by eight electrons (four bonding pairs), satisfying its octet, while each hydrogen atom achieves a stable duet configuration with two electrons. Similarly, in ammonia (NH₃), the nitrogen atom shares three electron pairs with three hydrogen atoms, forming three single bonds and retaining one lone pair, which completes nitrogen's octet with eight electrons total. For multiple bonds, carbon dioxide (CO₂) illustrates the octet rule through double bonds: the central carbon atom shares two electron pairs (a double bond) with each of two oxygen atoms, enabling carbon to reach eight electrons, while each oxygen also achieves an octet via the shared pairs and its own lone pairs.^[16] The bond order in these molecules—single (one shared pair), double (two shared pairs), or triple (three shared pairs)—directly relates to the number of electrons contributed to each atom's octet, with higher bond orders generally indicating stronger bonds. In methane, the four equivalent C-H bonds arise from the carbon atom's sp³ hybridization, where its 2s and three 2p orbitals mix to form four sp³ hybrid orbitals arranged in a tetrahedral geometry, facilitating the symmetric sharing of electrons. This adherence to the octet rule in covalent compounds results in lower potential energy for the molecule compared to isolated atoms, as the filled valence shells mimic the stable electron configuration of noble gases, enhancing overall molecular stability.^[16]^[17]/Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms_and_Molecules/Electronic_Configurations/The_Octet_Rule)

Theoretical Foundations

Valence Bond Theory

Valence bond theory describes chemical bonds as the result of overlapping atomic orbitals from adjacent atoms, where a pair of electrons is shared to form a localized bond, enabling atoms to achieve a stable configuration. This sharing aligns with the octet rule, as the central atom in a molecule typically forms four such electron pairs in its valence shell, resulting in eight electrons surrounding it. For instance, in diatomic molecules like F₂, the overlap of p orbitals creates a sigma bond with shared electrons satisfying the octet for each fluorine atom.^[18] To explain molecular geometries that conform to the octet rule, valence bond theory incorporates hybridization, where atomic s and p orbitals mix to form equivalent hybrid orbitals suitable for bonding. In methane (CH₄), the carbon atom hybridizes its 2s and three 2p orbitals into four sp³ hybrid orbitals, each overlapping with a hydrogen 1s orbital to form four equivalent C-H bonds arranged tetrahedrally, thus fulfilling the octet around carbon while matching the observed 109.5° bond angles. This hybridization concept, developed by Linus Pauling, provides a framework for understanding how the octet rule dictates both bonding and shape in simple molecules.^[19]^[20] In cases where a single Lewis structure cannot fully represent the bonding while adhering to the octet rule, valence bond theory employs resonance, superimposing multiple contributing structures to describe the actual electron distribution. For ozone (O₃), two resonance forms, in each of which the central oxygen has one single bond to one terminal oxygen, one double bond to the other, and one lone pair, satisfy the octet around all atoms, but the hybrid structure delocalizes the pi electrons, averaging bond orders to 1.5 while maintaining an effective octet configuration around all atoms. The stability from this resonance arises from the overlap integral between atomic orbitals in the contributing forms, which enhances bond energy without requiring mathematical derivation here.

Molecular Orbital Theory

Molecular orbital (MO) theory provides a quantum mechanical framework for understanding chemical bonding, where atomic orbitals from constituent atoms combine linearly to form molecular orbitals that extend over the entire molecule. These molecular orbitals are classified as bonding (lower energy, stabilizing the molecule), antibonding (higher energy, destabilizing), or non-bonding, and electrons occupy them according to the aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. In this delocalized electron picture, the octet rule emerges as the tendency for main-group elements, particularly those in the second period, to achieve stability by filling their valence molecular orbitals with eight electrons, corresponding to a closed-shell configuration analogous to noble gases.^[21] The stability associated with the octet in MO theory arises from a large energy gap between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO), which minimizes reactivity in closed-shell species. For example, in the nitrogen molecule (N₂), the ten valence electrons (five from each nitrogen atom) fill the bonding molecular orbitals—specifically, the σ_{2s}, π_{2p}, and σ_{2p} orbitals—resulting in a triple bond and a HOMO-LUMO gap that reflects the molecule's high stability, consistent with each nitrogen effectively sharing eight valence electrons in a delocalized manner. This configuration underscores how MO theory rationalizes the octet as a filled valence shell without invoking localized pairs, contrasting with the complementary localized perspective of valence bond theory.^[22] For elements in the second period, the strict adherence to the octet rule stems from the limited availability of valence orbitals: only the 2s and three 2p orbitals are involved, accommodating a maximum of eight electrons due to poor overlap with higher-energy 3d orbitals, which are energetically inaccessible for bonding. This orbital constraint prevents expansion beyond eight electrons, enforcing the octet for compounds like water (H₂O), where the total of eight valence electrons (six from oxygen, one from each hydrogen) occupy four molecular orbitals—two bonding σ orbitals for the O-H bonds and two non-bonding lone-pair orbitals on oxygen—yielding a bent structure with the octet satisfied around the central atom.

Exceptions and Limitations

Sub-Octet Compounds

Sub-octet compounds, also known as electron-deficient compounds, feature a central atom with fewer than eight valence electrons in its Lewis structure, representing a key exception to the octet rule. These structures arise primarily in compounds of second-period elements, where the limited availability of electrons and the inability to utilize d orbitals prevent the central atom from achieving a full octet./Chemical_Bonding/Lewis_Theory_of_Bonding/Violations_of_the_Octet_Rule) A prominent example is boron trifluoride (BF₃), in which the boron atom forms three single bonds with fluorine atoms, resulting in only six valence electrons around boron. Similarly, beryllium chloride (BeCl₂) in the gas phase adopts a linear monomeric structure, with beryllium surrounded by just four valence electrons from two Be–Cl bonds. These configurations highlight the electron deficiency at the central atom, which stems from the small atomic size and high electronegativity of the surrounding atoms, such as fluorine or chlorine, that draw electron density away./Chemical_Bonding/Lewis_Theory_of_Bonding/Violations_of_the_Octet_Rule) The electron deficiency in these compounds confers strong Lewis acidity, as the central atom readily accepts an electron pair from a Lewis base to form stable adducts, such as BF₃·NH₃. This behavior is particularly pronounced in period 2 elements like boron and beryllium, which cannot expand their valence shells beyond the s and p orbitals, and where the high bond dissociation energies of the resulting bonds outweigh the energetic cost of an incomplete octet.^[23]/08:_Ionic_versus_Covalent_Bonding/8.06:_Exceptions_to_the_Octet_Rule) To compensate for the electron shortage, sub-octet compounds often engage in dimerization or coordination with multidentate ligands, effectively sharing electrons across multiple centers. For example, BeCl₂ in the gas phase can dimerize to (BeCl₂)₂, allowing bridging chlorines to donate electron density and increase coordination around beryllium. Despite violating the octet rule, these compounds exhibit remarkable stability, as evidenced by formal charge calculations that yield zero formal charges for all atoms; in BF₃, boron's formal charge is calculated as $3 - 0 - \frac{1}{2}(6) = 0, and each fluorine's as $7 - 6 - \frac{1}{2}(2) = 0./Chemical_Bonding/Lewis_Theory_of_Bonding/Violations_of_the_Octet_Rule)

Hypervalent Compounds

Hypervalent compounds are molecules in which the central atom, typically from the third period or below, appears to possess more than eight valence electrons, challenging the strict application of the octet rule.00102-9) Classic examples include sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆), where the sulfur atom is surrounded by 12 valence electrons from six S–F bonds, and phosphorus pentachloride (PCl₅), with phosphorus exhibiting 10 valence electrons from five P–Cl bonds. These structures adopt geometries predicted by valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory: octahedral for SF₆ (AX₆ notation) and trigonal bipyramidal for PCl₅ (AX₅ notation), reflecting the repulsion among the electron domains around the central atom. Traditionally, hypervalency was attributed to the participation of d-orbitals in bonding, allowing expansion of the octet for elements like sulfur and phosphorus, which have available 3d orbitals. However, this view has been widely debated and largely discredited by quantum chemical studies, as d-orbitals are energetically mismatched and contribute negligibly to the bonding wavefunctions in these molecules. For instance, high-level ab initio calculations on SF₆ show minimal d-orbital involvement, with the bonding better described without invoking octet expansion. Modern explanations reject the notion of true hypervalency as a violation of the octet rule, instead favoring models that maintain octet configurations through multicenter bonding or charge delocalization. In the three-center four-electron (3c–4e) bond model, originally proposed by Pimentel and Rundle, axial ligands in molecules like PCl₅ share electrons in delocalized bonds that avoid exceeding eight electrons on the central atom. Similarly, the recoupled pair bond (RPB) model, developed through generalized valence bond theory, describes SF₆ as involving recoupling of s² lone pairs on sulfur to form additional bonds without d-orbital reliance, aligning with quantum calculations that emphasize ionic character and polarization effects. Post-2010 studies, including breathing orbital valence bond analyses, further support charge-shift bonding in species like SF₄, PF₅, and ClF₃, where resonance between covalent and ionic structures stabilizes the electron-rich environments, confirming that hypervalent appearances stem from resonance and multicenter interactions rather than d-orbital usage. Electron localization function (ELF) analyses reinforce this by revealing valence shell populations that often align with or fall below eight electrons when accounting for ligand electronegativity, as in SF₆.00102-9)

Extensions

Duet Rule

The duet rule is a chemical principle that describes the stable electron configuration achieved by hydrogen and helium atoms through the acquisition of two valence electrons, fully occupying their 1s orbital in a manner analogous to the helium atom's ground state.^[24] This rule applies exclusively to these period 1 elements, which lack the higher-energy orbitals necessary for accommodating eight electrons, making an octet configuration impossible due to the spatial and energetic constraints of the 1s shell.^[25] Unlike heavier elements, hydrogen and helium thus seek a "duet" of electrons to attain nobility-like stability, serving as a foundational heuristic in Lewis electron dot structures.^[26] A classic example of the duet rule is the hydrogen molecule (H₂), where two hydrogen atoms each contribute one valence electron to form a single covalent bond, resulting in each atom possessing two electrons in its valence shell.^[27] In hydrogen fluoride (HF), the hydrogen atom shares its single valence electron with fluorine, achieving a duet while the fluorine atom completes its octet through this bonding pair and its own lone pairs.^[28] These structures illustrate how the duet rule governs bonding in simple diatomic species involving hydrogen, ensuring minimal electron sharing limited by the atom's capacity. As a specialized case of the broader octet rule, the duet rule pertains specifically to period 1 elements and elucidates why hydrogen forms no more than one covalent bond per atom, as additional bonds would exceed the 1s orbital's capacity.^[24] This distinction is evident in polyatomic molecules like methane (CH₄), where each of the four hydrogen atoms adheres to the duet rule via a single bond to the central carbon atom, while the carbon satisfies the octet rule with eight shared electrons.^[29] Such examples highlight the duet rule's role in predicting stable configurations for hydrogen-containing compounds without violating electronic shell limits.

18-Electron Rule

The 18-electron rule describes the tendency of transition metal complexes to achieve stability by attaining 18 valence electrons around the central metal atom, filling the nine available valence orbitals (one s, three p, and five d) to achieve an electronic configuration analogous to that of krypton (ns² (n-1)d¹⁰ np⁶).^[30] This rule extends the octet principle from main-group elements to the d-block by accounting for the additional d-orbitals, where the total electron count is determined by adding the metal's valence electrons (group number) to those donated by ligands, often using neutral or ionic counting methods.^[31] Complexes adhering to this rule are typically coordinatively saturated and kinetically inert, promoting thermodynamic stability. In practice, ligands such as phosphines or carbonyls donate electrons to the metal's empty orbitals via sigma bonds, while back-donation from the metal's filled d-orbitals to the ligands' empty pi* orbitals further stabilizes the complex by relieving electron density on the metal and strengthening metal-ligand interactions.^[30] This synergistic bonding is particularly evident in organometallic compounds. For instance, in nickel tetracarbonyl (\ce{Ni(CO)4}), nickel (group 10, 10 valence electrons) receives 2 electrons from each of the four CO ligands, yielding 18 electrons total and a tetrahedral geometry.^[31] Similarly, ferrocene (\ce{Fe(C5H5)2}) follows the rule using the neutral counting method, where iron contributes 8 valence electrons and each cyclopentadienyl ligand acts as a 5-electron donor, resulting in 18 electrons and exceptional stability for this sandwich compound.^[30] The 18-electron rule primarily applies to organometallic chemistry, guiding the design of stable complexes in low-oxidation states with pi-acceptor ligands.^[32] However, in homogeneous catalysis research during the 2020s, deviations from this rule—such as 16-electron unsaturated species or even 20-electron configurations—have been increasingly emphasized to enable reactive intermediates for processes like cross-coupling and hydrogenation, as demonstrated by stable 20-electron ferrocene derivatives that challenge traditional stability paradigms.^[33]

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[36]
From 18- to 20-electron ferrocene derivatives via ligand coordination
Jul 7, 2025 · One of the most prominent examples of the 18-electron rule is the structure and stability of ferrocene, which marks the beginning of modern ...