Off
Off is a multifaceted English word originating around 1200 as an emphatic variant of the preposition "of" in Old English, denoting separation, distance, or removal, and functioning primarily as an adverb, preposition, and adjective across various contexts such as spatial relations, cessation of activity, or states of inferiority.[1][2] Its adverbial use conveys movement away from a position or attachment, as in "fall off," while as a preposition it indicates derivation or distance from an origin, exemplified by "off the coast." As an adjective, it describes something not functioning properly, reduced in quality, or canceled, such as "off color" or "the meeting is off."[5] Less commonly, "off" serves as a noun referring to the beginning of a process, like "the off" in racing starts, or as a verb meaning to kill, a slang usage emerging later in English.[1] This evolution reflects its roots in Proto-Germanic "*uf" (away), emphasizing directional or relational divergence without reliance on external derivations.[1] The word's versatility has led to idiomatic compounds like "off-and-on" for intermittent actions since the 1530s, underscoring its integral role in idiomatic English expression despite no notable controversies beyond occasional prescriptive debates over phrases like "off of."[6]Etymology
Historical origins
The English word "off" originated as a stressed or emphatic variant of the preposition "of" in Old English, with the earliest known uses dating to the period before 1150 CE.[2] Both "off" and "of" stem from the Old English preposition of (also appearing as af or æf in some dialects), which conveyed notions of separation, origin, or removal, such as "away from" or "out of."[1] [7] This Old English form traces further to Proto-Germanic *af(i) or *ub(i), a root shared across Germanic languages like Old High German aba ("away") and Old Norse af ("from"), reflecting a common Indo-European heritage.[8] [9] The Proto-Germanic *af itself derives from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *apo-, an ablaut variant of *ap-, meaning "off, away," which appears in ancient languages including Latin ab ("from") and Sanskrit ápa ("away").[9] This PIE root underscores a fundamental semantic core of detachment or divergence, evidenced in early Indo-European reconstructions based on comparative linguistics across attested daughter languages.[8] By the late Old English period (c. 900–1100 CE), "off" began to differentiate phonetically and semantically as a fuller adverbial form, emphasizing distance or completion, as seen in compounds like ofercuman ("to overcome," literally "come off/over").[2] Its emergence within English, rather than direct borrowing, aligns with internal phonological shifts, such as the strengthening of unstressed of in prosodic contexts.[2] Historical records, including Anglo-Saxon glosses and charters, preserve "of" in contexts of spatial and causal removal, with "off" solidifying post-Norman Conquest (after 1066 CE) amid Middle English vowel shifts and syntactic expansions.[1] These origins highlight "off"'s deep embedding in Germanic ablative prepositions, distinct from Romance influences, and its role in evolving expressions of negation or absence without reliance on later analogical borrowings.[8]Evolution of meanings
The adverbial and prepositional senses of "off," denoting separation or distance from a point of origin, trace back to Old English of, an unstressed variant of æf (meaning "away" or "away from"), which stemmed from Proto-Germanic af and Proto-Indo-European apo- ("off, away").[1] This core notion of removal or divergence formed the foundational semantic layer, appearing in contexts like motion away from a location, as evidenced in early Germanic texts where it expressed directional departure.[1] Around 1200, during the transition to Middle English, "off" developed as an emphatic variant of "of," initially adverbial and reinforcing ideas of farther removal or independence, such as in phrases indicating complete detachment.[1] It increasingly translated Latin de ("down from, away") and ex ("out of"), alongside Old French de, facilitating its integration into loanword adaptations and expanding its utility in denoting abstraction from a source or state.[1] This period marked a shift toward polysemy, with "off" acquiring nuanced connotations of cessation or privation, influenced by phonological strengthening for emphasis in spoken forms.[1] By the 17th century, prepositional uses like "away from" and adjectival senses implying "farther" or "distant" had stabilized in Early Modern English, reflecting standardization in printed literature and legal texts.[1] Subsequent extensions in the 19th and 20th centuries abstracted the "removal" prototype further: the sense of "not functioning" (e.g., machinery or lights "off") emerged by 1861, analogizing disconnection to physical separation; idiomatic verbal uses like "to kill" (intensifying elimination as total removal) appeared around 1930; and colloquialisms such as "off the cuff" (impromptu, as if unscripted removal from preparation) were attested by 1938.[1] These developments, driven by metaphorical extension from concrete spatial origins to abstract dysfunction or spontaneity, illustrate causal progression from literal divergence to figurative states of absence or irregularity, without evidence of abrupt semantic rupture.[1] Later 20th-century innovations, including "off the rack" (not custom-made, 1963) and "off the wall" (eccentric, 1968), continued this pattern by leveraging "off" for deviation from norms or expectations.[1]Linguistic usage
Adverb
As an adverb, "off" denotes movement or position away from a point of attachment, contact, or origin, often implying separation or distance.[8] This usage traces to Middle English "of," evolving to convey directional removal by the 12th century.[8] Common examples include "The book fell off the shelf," where it modifies the verb to indicate departure from support.[10] Key senses include spatial distance, as in "The village lies five miles off," specifying remoteness in space or time.[8] It also signals cessation or discontinuance, such as "Switch the engine off," halting operation or function.[10] In intensifying roles, "off" amplifies actions like "Drink it off quickly," emphasizing completeness of consumption.[8] "Off" frequently serves as an adverbial particle in phrasal verbs, altering verb meanings to include removal or initiation away from a base state, e.g., "take off" for aircraft departure or clothing removal, or "set off" for beginning a journey.[10] These constructions allow flexibility in word order, as in "Turn off the lights" versus "Turn the lights off," where the adverb can precede or follow the object, a trait distinguishing it from pure prepositions.[11] Usage notes highlight its non-gradable nature in American English, resisting modification like "more off."[10]Preposition
As a preposition, off denotes separation, detachment, or removal from a surface, position, or point of attachment, often implying motion away or distance from the object referenced.[8][12] This usage appears in constructions like "The keys fell off the hook," where it indicates dislodgement from contact.[12] Off also conveys spatial or temporal distance, as in "a town ten miles off the highway" or "two days off the scheduled arrival," emphasizing removal in measurement from a reference point.[8][12] In relational contexts, it signifies derivation from a source or possession, such as "living off one's savings" for sustenance drawn from reserves, or "borrowed money off a friend" indicating transfer from another's holdings.[8][12] Further senses include suspension from activity or duty—"off school for illness"—and reduction from a standard, like "20% off the list price," where it subtracts from an original value.[12] It can describe adjacency or derivation, as in "a path off the main road" for a branch leading away.[12] The variant "off of" functions similarly but is deemed informal or nonstandard in formal English, often avoided in writing as redundant, though common in speech for emphasis, e.g., "jumped off of the ledge."[12] These prepositional roles distinguish off from related terms like of, which typically denotes possession without implying active separation.[13]Adjective
As an adjective, "off" denotes a state of disconnection, cessation, or deviation from a standard or expected condition. In technical and mechanical contexts, it describes devices or systems not in operation or powered, such as "the switch is off," indicating disconnection from a power source.[8] This usage extends to general inactivity, as in scheduled absences: "She is off duty today."[5] "Off" also signifies cancellation or non-occurrence of planned events or agreements, exemplified by "the wedding is off," meaning it has been terminated.[8] Similarly, it conveys inaccuracy or error, as in "his estimate was off by 10%," or a slight deviation from correctness.[14] In evaluative terms, it indicates subpar performance or quality below normal levels, such as "an off day at work" or "the team's off season," reflecting reduced efficacy or output.[5][15] For perishable items, particularly in British English, "off" describes spoilage or unsuitability for consumption, as in "the milk has gone off," signaling decomposition beyond edibility.[16] This sense contrasts with American preferences for terms like "sour." Additionally, "off" can imply mild insanity or eccentricity, as in "he's a bit off," or financial inadequacy when compounded, such as "well-off" for affluent but "worse off" for deteriorated circumstances.[14][17] These meanings underscore "off's" versatility in signaling disruption or inferiority across literal and figurative domains.Verb
As an intransitive verb, "off" means to depart or go away, typically in imperative form to urge or command removal from a place or situation, with the first recorded use dating to 1717.[8] This sense derives from the adverbial origins of the word in Old English, evolving to denote separation or movement away.[2] In slang, particularly American English, "off" functions transitively to mean to kill or murder, a usage prominent in crime fiction, films, and informal speech since the early 20th century.[18] For instance, it appears in narratives like those of pulp detective stories, where characters might say "He offed the informant," implying deliberate elimination akin to "doing away with" or shortening from phrasal verbs such as "kill off." This connotation carries a connotation of abrupt or euphemistic finality, though its precise etymological path remains tied to broader verbal conversions from "off" as a particle of completion or removal.[18] The slang is informal and not recommended in formal writing, reflecting its roots in colloquial or criminal argot rather than standard lexicon.[8]Idioms and expressions
Common idiomatic phrases
Several idiomatic phrases in English incorporate "off" to express figurative concepts, often drawing from metaphors of removal, departure, or excess. These expressions are prevalent in everyday speech and writing, with meanings that diverge from the literal adverbial or prepositional uses of "off." Their origins frequently trace to physical actions extended metaphorically, such as detaching or launching away.[19]- Bite off more than one can chew: To attempt a task or commitment that exceeds one's ability or resources, leading to difficulty in completion. This idiom, first recorded in the early 20th century in American English, evokes the image of overstuffing one's mouth.[20][19]
- Get something off one's chest: To confess or verbalize a long-held burden, secret, or grievance for relief. Documented in print since the 1930s, it metaphorically suggests unloading emotional weight.[21][22]
- Off the cuff: Impromptu or without preparation, as if speaking from notes jotted on a shirt cuff. Originating in the mid-20th century from the habit of quick notations on detachable cuffs, it implies spontaneity.[23][19]
- Off the hook: Freed from obligation, blame, or trouble, akin to releasing a fish from a fishing hook. This usage emerged in the late 19th century and gained traction in legal and casual contexts.[24][19]
- Off one's rocker: Eccentric, irrational, or mentally unstable, deriving from the notion of tipping off a rocking chair, symbolizing loss of balance. Attested since the early 20th century, it conveys temporary or perceived derangement without clinical implication.[25][23]
- Pull off: To execute or accomplish something challenging successfully, often against odds, as in pulling a garment off despite resistance. This phrasal verb's idiomatic sense solidified in the 19th century.[19]
- Show off: To exhibit skills, possessions, or behavior boastfully to impress others, with roots in 18th-century displays of finery "shown off." It carries a connotation of ostentation rather than mere demonstration.[21][19]
- Take off: To depart suddenly or accelerate in popularity/success, as an aircraft lifting off; the slang sense for rapid success dates to the 1930s in business contexts. Alternatively, to imitate mockingly.[26][19]
- Tell off: To reprimand or scold harshly and directly, originating in military jargon around World War I for assigning blame or duty. It implies candid confrontation.[27][19]