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Oilfish

The oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) is a large, predatory marine fish in the family Gempylidae, characterized by an elongated, compressed body covered in rough, spinous scales, and uniformly brown to dark brown coloration with black-tipped fins.^[1] It is the largest species in its family, reaching a maximum total length of 300 cm and weight of 63.5 kg, though commonly around 150 cm.^[2] Native to temperate and tropical waters worldwide, it occupies benthopelagic habitats on continental shelves at depths of 100–975 m, most frequently 200–400 m, where it lives solitarily or in pairs near the bottom and feeds primarily on fish, crustaceans, and squid.^[1]^[3] As an oceanodromous species with a circumtropical and circumtemperate distribution spanning 55°N to 43°S, the oilfish migrates offshore and is often caught as bycatch in tuna fisheries.^[1]^[4] Its flesh is notably oily due to high levels of indigestible wax esters, which humans cannot metabolize, leading to potential health effects such as keriorrhea—a form of oily diarrhea—along with abdominal cramps, nausea, headache, and vomiting if consumed in large quantities.^[5]^[4] Despite these risks, it is marketed fresh, in fish cakes, or as fishmeal in some regions, though regulatory bodies like the FDA advise caution and proper labeling to prevent misidentification with other species.^[1] The species is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, indicating stable populations with no major threats identified.^[6]

Taxonomy and Description

Taxonomy

The oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order Scombriformes, family Gempylidae, genus Ruvettus, and species pretiosus.^[7]^[8] This classification places it among the ray-finned fishes, specifically within the snake mackerels, a group characterized by elongate bodies adapted to deep-water environments.^[9] The species was first described by Italian naturalist Gaetano Cocco in 1833, who established the genus Ruvettus specifically for it in the publication L'Osservatore Peloritano.^[10]^[2] Prior to this, no earlier valid descriptions exist, marking Cocco's work as the foundational taxonomic reference for the oilfish.^[11] The genus name Ruvettus is a Latinization of the Italian common names "Roveto" or "Ruvetto."^[12] The specific epithet pretiosus is Latin for "precious," alluding to the fish as a "delight of the table."^[12] Ruvettus is a monotypic genus, containing only R. pretiosus as its sole species.^[7] It is frequently confused with the escolar (Lepidocybium flavobrunneum), a related species in the family Gempylidae that exhibits similar elongate body shape, deep-sea habits, and oily tissues causing comparable digestive effects in consumers, though the two differ in fin structure, coloration, and genetic lineage.^[4]

Physical Characteristics

The oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) exhibits a large fusiform body, spindle-shaped and slightly compressed, which facilitates rapid movement through the water column.^[3] Adults can attain lengths of up to 3 meters total length, though most commonly reach about 1.5 meters standard length, with a maximum recorded weight of 63.5 kg.^[7] The skin is covered in very rough scales interspersed with spinous bony tubercles, contributing to a textured integument, while a prominent mid-ventral keel of bony plates runs along the abdominal contour.^[7]^[3] The head is pointed, bearing a large terminal mouth equipped with a single row of prominent teeth in each jaw, including canine-like fangs at the front, and the body features two dorsal finlets and two anal finlets positioned posteriorly.^[3] Coloration is uniformly brownish to dark brown, occasionally with a purplish hue, providing camouflage in oceanic depths; the tips of the pectoral and pelvic fins are black.^[7]^[3] Juveniles display a paler overall tone, with distinctive white margins on the second dorsal and anal fins that fade with age.^[7] A key physiological adaptation is the high concentration of wax esters in the flesh and liver, accounting for approximately 20% of the fish's wet body weight, where these liquid wax esters constitute over 90% of total lipids.^[13] These compounds enable neutral buoyancy and serve as an efficient energy reserve suited to the deep-sea environment.^[13] The species possesses large, circular eyes with a silvery reflective layer at the rear of the socket, an adaptation that amplifies light sensitivity for navigating low-light conditions in mesopelagic waters.^[14]^[3]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution across tropical and temperate waters worldwide, inhabiting the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans as well as the Mediterranean Sea.^[7]^[15] In the Atlantic Ocean, populations occur in both the eastern and western basins; the eastern range extends from off the British Isles and Portugal southward along the West African coast to South Africa, while the western range spans from the Gulf of Mexico and the coast of Brazil northward to Nova Scotia and the Gulf of Maine.^[16]^[3] The species is also present throughout the Indo-Pacific region, with records from East Africa across the Indian Ocean to the central Pacific, including areas around Hawaii and Japan.^[15]^[7] Oilfish are primarily benthopelagic, occurring at depths typically between 100 and 975 meters, though they are most common between 200 and 400 meters and have been recorded as shallow as 18 meters near the surface during feeding excursions.^[7]^[3] There is no strong evidence for large-scale horizontal migrations across oceanic basins, but individuals exhibit local movements, including vertical migrations to shallower depths at night, often aligned with the availability of prey in the water column.^[17]^[7] The species was first scientifically described from specimens collected in the Mediterranean Sea near Messina, Sicily, in 1833 by Gaetano Cocco.^[7] Knowledge of its global range expanded significantly in the 20th century through records of bycatch in commercial fisheries, particularly longline operations targeting tunas and swordfish, which documented occurrences across previously understudied regions.^[15]^[4]

Preferred Habitats

Oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) primarily inhabit mesopelagic depths of 200–400 m, though they are recorded from 100 to 975 m, often along continental slopes and seamounts in marine benthopelagic environments.^[7]^[17] These fish are typically found near the bottom, either solitary or in pairs, over continental shelves and occasionally in oceanic waters, avoiding shallow coastal areas.^[7] They prefer temperate to subtropical seas with water temperatures ranging from 8.6°C to 19°C, averaging 12.9°C, and are associated with oxygen minimum zones where they demonstrate tolerance to low oxygen levels.^[7]^[18] Oilfish occur over soft sedimentary bottoms or rocky features on seamounts and slopes, adapting to these demersal habitats through neutral buoyancy provided by high concentrations of wax esters in their tissues, which counteract sinking in the low-density waters of deeper zones.^[7]^[19]

Biology and Ecology

Diet and Predation

The oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) is primarily carnivorous, with its diet consisting mainly of small fish, cephalopods, and crustaceans. Stomach content analyses from specimens in the Saint Peter and Saint Paul Archipelago, Brazil, revealed 34 prey taxa, including 16 fish species (66.4% of identified items, such as flying fish Cheilopogon cyanopterus), 17 cephalopod species (32.9%, dominated by Opisthoteuthidae), and one crustacean (0.7%). Similarly, in the eastern Mediterranean, benthopelagic fish were the most frequent and numerous prey, followed by cephalopods, confirming a consistent reliance on these groups across regions.^[20]^[17]^[21] As an opportunistic predator, the oilfish employs a feeding strategy that exploits a wide vertical range in the water column, from epipelagic surface layers to mesopelagic depths, often hunting solitarily or in pairs. It targets available prey without strong correlation to predator size, sometimes selectively consuming cephalopod body parts during active pursuits. Diet composition shifts with depth and time, incorporating more epipelagic fish like lanternfish and flying fish at night when these prey undertake vertical migrations toward the surface. This behavior allows the oilfish to access concentrated prey layers, enhancing foraging efficiency in pelagic environments.^[20]^[21]^[20] The species occupies a mid-level trophic position as a mesopredator, with an estimated trophic level of approximately 4.2, facilitating energy transfer from lower trophic levels (zooplankton and small nekton) to higher predators in open-ocean food webs. Prey capture is facilitated by a large mouth equipped with strong, fang-like teeth in the anterior upper jaw and a pair of fangs in the lower jaw, enabling rapid grasping and securing of elusive, fast-moving targets like squid and small fish during nocturnal forays.^[21]^[22]^[23]

Reproduction and Behavior

Oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) are oviparous, with females producing small, oil-rich, pelagic eggs that develop through six histological stages, from perinucleolar (23–69 μm diameter) to late vitellogenesis (224–366 μm diameter).^[17] Spawning occurs in mid- to late summer in temperate regions such as the eastern Mediterranean, though patterns in tropical waters remain less documented.^[17] There is no evidence of parental care following egg release, consistent with the species' pelagic spawning strategy.^[24] The life cycle begins with planktonic larvae that remain in the water column before transitioning to mesopelagic and benthopelagic habitats as juveniles.^[24] Growth is relatively slow. Fecundity is estimated at 300,000 to 1,000,000 eggs per female, though data remain limited due to sampling challenges in deep-sea environments.^[23] Lifespan data are scarce, but the species can attain lengths up to 300 cm, suggesting a potentially extended life history.^[1] Oilfish exhibit predominantly solitary or paired social structure, with minimal schooling observed.^[1] They perform diel vertical migrations, maintaining deeper positions (typically 200–400 m) during the day and ascending toward the epipelagic zone at night to facilitate feeding.^[25] These movements are closely linked to foraging opportunities, though comprehensive behavioral studies remain limited by the species' deep-sea inaccessibility.^[26]

Human Interactions

Commercial Capture

Oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) is primarily captured as bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries targeting tunas, swordfish, and billfishes across tropical and temperate oceans, where it is often hooked at depths of 100–400 meters due to its benthopelagic habits.^[7] In regions like the Atlantic and eastern Mediterranean, it constitutes a minor component of swordfish longline catches, with incidental captures reported at rates of 0.04–0.39% of total fleet landings in Spanish operations from 2010–2014, averaging approximately 13 tonnes annually.^[27] Targeted fisheries are rare but occur in the southern Indian Ocean, where Taiwanese fleets use deep-set pelagic longlines seasonally to harvest oilfish near the African continental shelf.^[28] Global landings of oilfish exceed 7,000 tonnes annually, with major contributions from the Pacific and Indian Oceans; for instance, southern Indian Ocean landings averaged around 6,700 tonnes per year from 2016–2020 (primarily from targeted efforts by Chinese Taipei), while Atlantic catches remain lower at approximately 65 tonnes annually in the same period.^[29]^[27] Overall trends show increasing harvests since the 2010s in regions like the southern Indian Ocean, driven by demand for oil extracts, though reporting remains inconsistent due to bycatch status and occasional lumping with similar species like escolar (Lepidocybium flavobrunneum). Discards can reach up to 50% in some fleets due to limited market access and health concerns.^[28] Economically, oilfish holds low direct value, typically priced at $1–2 per kg in wholesale markets, reflecting its secondary status and challenges with flesh quality from high wax ester content.^[30] It is often processed into fishmeal, extracted for oils used in cosmetics or pharmaceuticals, or tanned for leather products, providing supplementary income to fleets rather than primary revenue.^[7] High discard rates in non-target fisheries further diminish its economic contribution, with no major dedicated markets in regions like Europe or North America due to regulatory warnings on consumption.^[27] Commercial interest in oilfish expanded after the 1950s alongside deep-sea longline development, with harvests mostly opportunistic bycatch or small targeted operations in Asia and the Indian Ocean.^[27] However, no large-scale dedicated fishery has emerged, as market risks from potential health effects and variable abundance limit investment.^[28]

Culinary Consumption and Health Effects

Oilfish (R. pretiosus), sometimes confused with or mislabeled as escolar (L. flavobrunneum), is used in culinary applications for its rich, buttery texture derived from its high oil content, which allows it to absorb flavors effectively when prepared through methods such as grilling, marinating, or incorporating into soups.^[31] It is commonly marketed under names like "oilfish" or misleadingly as "white tuna," "Hawaiian butterfish," or "cod," particularly in regions where it appears in sushi or grilled dishes.^[5] In Hawaiian cuisine, it is known as walu and traditionally prepared by steaming in lau lau, a method that highlights its tender, oily flesh.^[32] Oilfish muscle tissue contains 18–21% oil by weight, dominated by indigestible wax esters comprising >90% of the lipids.^[5] Nutritionally, oilfish provides omega-3 fatty acids along with vitamins A and D, typical of fatty fish.^[33] These wax esters, often referred to as gempylotoxins, are not broken down by human digestive enzymes and pass through the gastrointestinal tract largely unabsorbed.^[34] Consumption exceeding 100 grams can trigger keriorrhea—an oily, orange diarrhea—in 50–100% of individuals, with symptoms appearing within hours and persisting for several days.^[35] The laxative effects stem from the excretion of these intact wax esters, leading to symptoms ranging from mild oily stools to severe cases involving abdominal cramps, nausea, and rare dehydration, though the fish poses no inherent toxicity.^[36] Health authorities recommend limiting portions to no more than 6 ounces (approximately 170 grams) per serving to minimize risks.^[37] In cultural contexts, oilfish is consumed in Hawaii despite awareness of its effects—earning the local name Maku'u, meaning "exploding intestines"—while some Asian markets have reduced its use following publicized incidents of keriorrhea.^[31]

Regulatory Measures and Incidents

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises against the importation and interstate marketing of oilfish (R. pretiosus) and escolar (L. flavobrunneum), citing the presence of indigestible wax esters that can cause gastrointestinal issues such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, headache, and vomiting.^[38] If marketed, these species must be accurately labeled as "escolar" or "oilfish" using acceptable market names from the FDA's Seafood List to prevent mislabeling and inform consumers of potential health risks.^[39] This guidance has been in place since the early 2000s, with emphasis on hazard controls in the FDA's Fish and Fishery Products Hazards and Controls Guidance, updated periodically to address natural toxins like wax esters. Regulations often apply to both species due to frequent misidentification.^[38] In the European Union, Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 lays down specific hygiene rules for food of animal origin, requiring accurate identification and labeling of fishery products to ensure traceability and consumer safety; sale of oilfish or escolar as other species without disclosure is prohibited, as it violates food information requirements under Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011. Japan has implemented a ban on the sale of these species due to health concerns, supplemented by voluntary industry guidelines from the Japan Fisheries Agency to limit distribution and promote proper species identification in supply chains.^[40] Global advisories from the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) highlight the risks of consuming high-wax-ester fish like oilfish, recommending moderation to avoid keriorrhea and emphasizing the need for international standards on seafood safety in their joint consultations on fish consumption benefits and risks.^[41] Australia and New Zealand impose import restrictions on oilfish and escolar, requiring health certificates and labeling warnings under the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code, with agencies like Food Standards Australia New Zealand advising against large portions due to wax ester content.^[42] Since the 2010s, traceability efforts have increased globally, including DNA barcoding for species verification in supply chains to combat mislabeling, as promoted by organizations like the FAO.^[40] Notable incidents include the 2007 ParknShop case in Hong Kong, where the supermarket chain sold mislabeled oilfish as cod fillets, affecting over 600 consumers who reported severe diarrhea; the company was fined HK$45,000 for violating food labeling laws under the Food and Environmental Hygiene Department.^[43] In the same year, Canada investigated multiple cases of illness from mislabeled oilfish imports sold as other white fish, leading to enhanced labeling enforcement by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency without an outright ban.^[44] During the 2010s, U.S. reports revealed widespread fraud, with a 2013 Oceana study finding that 84% of "white tuna" samples were actually escolar, prompting FDA warnings on sushi menus and grocery products.^[45] Enforcement gaps persist, with ongoing mislabeling reported in Asia and Europe; for instance, a 2022 Oceana analysis indicated seafood substitution rates up to 30% in EU markets, including gempylid species like oilfish.^[46] As of 2022, traceability efforts include FAO-supported DNA barcoding and blockchain pilots in Southeast Asia to improve transparency and reduce fraud for high-risk species.

Conservation

Population Status

The oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) is classified as Least Concern by the IUCN Red List, based on a 2019 assessment with no subsequent updates as of 2025.^[6] This status reflects the species' extensive cosmopolitan distribution in tropical and temperate waters of all major oceans, which buffers against localized population declines from fishing pressure or environmental changes.^[7] Global population estimates for oilfish are unavailable, and data on overall abundance and dynamics remain limited.^[47] Relative abundance data are limited, but available trends from bycatch records in pelagic longline fisheries targeting tunas and swordfish suggest overall stability. However, potential localized declines may occur in areas of high deep-sea fishing intensity.^[48] Population monitoring primarily relies on fisheries observer programs that document bycatch encounters in commercial operations.^[26] Historical abundance prior to 1900 is unknown due to the absence of quantitative records, though 21st-century data indicate overall stability amid persistent bycatch levels.^[7]

Threats and Management

The primary threats to oilfish (Ruvettus pretiosus) stem from incidental capture as bycatch in pelagic longline fisheries targeting tunas and swordfish, where it is frequently discarded due to its low commercial value and potential health risks from consumption.^[49] Although exact discard rates vary by region, oilfish constitutes a notable portion of non-target catches in these operations, contributing to overall mortality without targeted population assessments.^[6] Habitat disruption from deep-sea bottom trawling and emerging deep-sea mining activities poses additional risks, as these practices damage benthic ecosystems and midwater habitats where oilfish resides at depths of 18–1,100 m.^[50] Climate change further exacerbates vulnerabilities by altering ocean temperatures and currents, potentially shifting prey distributions such as small mesopelagic fishes and squids that form the core of the oilfish diet.^[51] Secondary risks include oil pollution in temperate and subtropical ranges, where exposure to hydrocarbons can impair fish physiology, including cardiac function and growth, though oilfish's deep-water preferences may offer some mitigation.^[52] Targeted fishing pressure on oilfish remains limited, but cumulative effects across the Gempylidae family, including overexploitation in associated fisheries, could indirectly impact populations through ecosystem-wide disruptions.^[6] Management efforts primarily occur through Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) such as the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC) and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), which oversee longline fisheries and promote bycatch reduction measures like circle hooks to minimize incidental captures of non-target species, including oilfish.^[53]^[54] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) monitors the species, classifying it as Least Concern based on its wide distribution and stable trends, though this rating underscores the need for ongoing surveillance.^[6] In the 2020s, international proposals have advanced for establishing deep-sea protected areas to safeguard vulnerable marine ecosystems from mining and trawling, potentially benefiting oilfish habitats in high-seas regions.^[55] Key gaps in conservation include incomplete data on juvenile stages and early life history, which hinders accurate population modeling, as well as the absence of species-specific quotas despite rising incidental landings in some fisheries.^[6] Enhanced international cooperation through RFMOs could address these by implementing quotas if targeted exploitation increases.^[49]

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ICCAT·CICTA·CICAA
This Web site serves as an informal framework for sharing information from tuna Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMOs).Meeting webpage. · Past Meetings · Contracting Parties · ICCAT Record of VesselsMissing: oilfish IATTC
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Major breakthrough in marine conservation unveiled at UN Ocean ...
Jun 9, 2025 · President Moetai Brotherson of French Polynesia, announced the creation of the world's largest Marine Protected Area (MPA).