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Mesopredator

A mesopredator is defined as a mid-ranking predator within an ecosystem's food web, occupying an intermediate trophic position where it preys on smaller animals while being suppressed by apex predators.^[1] This ecological role distinguishes mesopredators from top predators, which face no natural enemies, and from lower-level herbivores or primary consumers.^[1] The term, rooted in food web theory, applies regardless of body size or taxonomy, though it commonly refers to carnivorous mammals weighing between 1 and 15 kilograms, such as coyotes (Canis latrans), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), and raccoons (Procyon lotor).^[1] The concept of mesopredators gained prominence through the mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH), which posits that declines in apex predator populations—often due to human activities like habitat fragmentation, persecution, and overhunting—remove competitive and predatory pressures on mesopredators, leading to their population outbreaks.^[1] This release can cascade through ecosystems, intensifying predation on prey species such as songbirds, small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians, potentially causing local extinctions and biodiversity loss.^[1] Over the past two centuries in North America, for instance, the geographic ranges of approximately 60% of mesopredator species have expanded substantially, coinciding with universal contractions in apex predator ranges.^[1] Mesopredator dynamics have been documented globally across diverse habitats, including forests, grasslands, and islands, on all continents except Antarctica, with significant ecological, economic, and conservation implications.^[1] Examples include the suppression of mesopredators like feral cats and rats by dingoes in Australia, and the influence of recovering wolf populations in Europe on species such as Eurasian badgers and red foxes.^[2] While the MRH is not universally supported and responses can vary by context—such as body size differences between predator guilds or habitat factors—it underscores the importance of apex predator conservation for maintaining balanced ecosystems.^[2]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A mesopredator is defined as a predator occupying a mid-ranking trophic level in a food web, typically consisting of medium-sized carnivores or omnivores that prey on smaller species while themselves being vulnerable to predation by apex predators.^[1] This functional role emphasizes their position as intermediaries in ecological networks, where they exert top-down control on lower trophic levels but remain subordinate to higher ones.^[1] The term "mesopredator" originated in a 2009 paper by Roemer et al. in BioScience, which formalized it within food web theory as referring to midranking predators irrespective of body size, shifting focus from morphological traits to ecological dynamics.^[1] This definition applies across taxa, including non-mammalian examples such as medium-sized birds of prey or reptiles that occupy intermediate positions in their local food webs.^[1] Prior usages, such as in discussions of "mesopredator release," had informally described intermediate-sized carnivores, but Roemer et al. advocated for a theory-based definition to better align with trophic interactions.^[1] There is no universal standard for classifying mesopredators based solely on size or specific species, as their designation depends on the ecosystem context and relative positioning within local food webs.^[1] This variability underscores that mesopredators are identified by their functional interactions rather than fixed criteria.^[1] Mesopredators are distinct from apex predators, which occupy the highest trophic levels and lack natural predators in their ecosystems, thereby exerting unregulated top-down pressure.^[3]

Key Characteristics

Mesopredators are typically characterized by intermediate body sizes, often ranging from 1 to 15 kilograms in mammalian species, positioning them below apex predators but above smaller prey in food webs.^[1] This size range allows them to exploit a variety of resources while facing predation risks from larger carnivores. Their dietary habits are predominantly carnivorous to omnivorous, encompassing active hunting, scavenging, and opportunistic consumption of available food sources such as carrion or human-provided refuse.^[1] These predators exhibit high adaptability to diverse habitats, including fragmented landscapes and urban edges, due to their tolerance for human-modified environments where they can thrive amid disturbances like habitat loss and resource supplementation.^[4] High reproductive rates, marked by elevated recruitment and dispersal capabilities, enable rapid population growth and resilience to environmental pressures or control measures.^[1] Generalist foraging strategies further facilitate population booms by allowing flexible exploitation of varied prey and resources across seasons and locations.^[1] Behaviorally, mesopredators engage in intraguild predation, where they kill and sometimes consume competitors at similar trophic levels to reduce rivalry for shared resources.^[5] Opportunistic feeding behaviors complement this by prioritizing immediate availability over specialization, enhancing survival in dynamic ecosystems.^[4]

Ecological Role

Position in Food Webs

Mesopredators occupy intermediate trophic levels within food webs, functioning as mid-ranking carnivores that prey on herbivores or smaller consumers while serving as potential prey for apex predators. This positioning places them structurally between basal resources, such as primary producers and herbivores at trophic level 2 or 3, and top predators at higher levels, facilitating energy transfer across the trophic hierarchy in both linear chains and complex networks.^[6]^[1] By regulating populations of lower-trophic-level prey through predation, mesopredators contribute to the stability of trophic cascades, where their control prevents overgrazing or overconsumption that could disrupt primary production, while their own suppression by apex predators maintains balance in upper levels. In this connector role, they bridge disparate trophic strata, influencing community dynamics and energy flow without dominating any single level.^[1] The exact trophic position of mesopredators exhibits variability across ecosystems, influenced by factors such as the composition of predator guilds—groups of co-occurring carnivores that may compete or cooperate—and temporal shifts like seasonal changes in resource availability or migration patterns. For instance, a species like the coyote may act as a mesopredator in wolf-dominated systems but assume a higher-ranking role where larger predators are absent, highlighting context-dependent placement.^[1]^[7] Conceptual models, such as the mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH), provide a framework for interpreting potential shifts in these positions, illustrating how reductions in apex predator influence could elevate mesopredators' effective trophic standing and alter web structure. Originally proposed to explain avifaunal declines linked to predator dynamics, the MRH underscores the relational nature of mesopredator roles without prescribing universal outcomes.^[8]^[1]

Interactions with Apex Predators and Prey

Apex predators exert control over mesopredators through multiple mechanisms, including direct killing and interference competition for shared resources. For instance, in Yellowstone National Park, gray wolves (Canis lupus) frequently kill coyotes (Canis latrans), reducing coyote populations by up to 39% following wolf reintroduction.^[9] Similarly, dingoes (Canis dingo) in Australian arid zones suppress feral cats (Felis catus) via lethal encounters, with dingo activity negatively correlating with cat activity (coefficient -0.50).^[10] These interactions highlight how apex predators maintain mesopredator densities below levels that would otherwise overwhelm lower trophic levels.^[11] Non-lethal effects, such as fear-based avoidance, further modulate mesopredator behavior and distribution without direct mortality. Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in European forests increase vigilance and reduce the proportion of time spent foraging (from 55% to 44%) in response to wolf urine cues, elevating their giving-up densities by 34% as a risk-avoidance strategy.^[12] In African savannas, cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) shift away from areas with lion (Panthera leo) or spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) vocalizations, decreasing their hunting efficiency due to heightened perceived risk.^[13] Such behavioral adjustments prevent mesopredators from fully exploiting resources, contributing to trophic stability. In European systems, intraguild suppression by apex predators like Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) on mesopredators such as Egyptian mongooses (Herpestes ichneumon) occurs through both lethal and non-lethal pathways, with 10 of 38 studied pairings showing consistent negative responses.^[2] Mesopredators, in turn, exert significant predation pressure on smaller prey, including herbivores and subordinate carnivores, thereby influencing community structure at lower trophic levels. Feral cats and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) heavily prey on small mammals like the dusky hopping mouse (Notomys fuscus), with cat activity reducing rodent abundance (coefficient -0.39) and foraging safety.^[10] In North American grasslands, coyotes prey on leporids such as cottontails and jackrabbits, contributing to significant harvest declines in regions without wolf suppression, and they also kill kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis), accounting for a major portion of kit fox mortality.^[9] Intraguild dynamics among mesopredators amplify these effects, as dominant species like coyotes prey on or compete with subordinates such as swift foxes (Vulpes velox), where coyotes caused 78% of verified swift fox deaths in some studies.^[11] In stable ecosystems, these balanced interactions prevent mesopredator overabundance and sustain prey populations. For example, in Australia's western arid zones with high dingo presence, feral cat and fox densities remain low, allowing desert rodents like N. fuscus to maintain viable populations through reduced predation risk.^[10] Similarly, in Tanzania's Selous Game Reserve, elevated densities of lions and hyenas (0.32 hyenas/km²) correlate with suppressed wild dog (Lycaon pictus) numbers (0.04 dogs/km²), fostering coexistence without trophic disruption.^[11] European forests with intact wolf populations exhibit controlled fox abundances via olfactory and spatial avoidance, supporting diverse understory prey communities.^[12] These dynamics underscore the role of apex-mesopredator-prey linkages in maintaining food web equilibrium.^[2]

Mesopredator Release Effect

Description and Hypothesis

The mesopredator release effect describes the ecological process in which the decline or absence of apex predators allows mesopredator populations—mid-level carnivores that prey on smaller animals—to increase rapidly in abundance, distribution, or behavioral activity, thereby intensifying predation pressure on shared prey species and often leading to their overexploitation.^[1] This release disrupts normal trophic interactions, where apex predators typically suppress mesopredators through direct predation, competition, or behavioral deterrence, enabling the latter to proliferate unchecked.^[14] The mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH), originally proposed by Soulé et al. in 1988, theorizes that such releases can trigger cascading effects throughout the food web, destabilizing ecosystems by driving prey population declines, local extinctions, and overall reductions in biodiversity.^[8] Building on earlier observations of predator removal impacts dating back to the 1960s, the hypothesis predicts that these dynamics are particularly pronounced in human-altered environments, where apex predator populations are diminished.^[1] While empirical evidence from meta-analyses and field studies supports the MRH in many systems, responses can vary by context, with mixed results reported in regions like Europe.^[1]^[2] Empirical evidence supporting the MRH derives from meta-analyses and field studies across diverse systems, revealing consistent patterns of mesopredator surges in fragmented landscapes following apex predator reductions, with associated prey overexploitation documented in multiple investigations.^[1] These findings underscore the hypothesis's role in explaining broader community instability, including contracted ranges for apex predators and expanded ones for mesopredators in regions like North America over the past two centuries.^[1]

Mechanisms and Triggers

The primary mechanisms underlying mesopredator release involve the relaxation of top-down controls imposed by apex predators on mesopredator populations. Reduced predation pressure occurs when apex predators no longer directly kill or scavenge mesopredators, allowing the latter's numbers to increase; for instance, gray wolves (Canis lupus) in North America suppress coyotes (Canis latrans) through lethal interactions, and their absence leads to coyote population booms. Decreased competition for shared resources, such as prey or habitat, further enables mesopredator expansion, as apex predators often dominate access to these elements. Additionally, relaxed behavioral inhibition—where mesopredators alter their activity, foraging, or habitat use due to fear of apex predators—dissipates, permitting more efficient resource exploitation; studies in Australian systems show that dingoes (Canis dingo) induce such fear in feral cats (Felis catus) and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), altering their activity levels.^[15] Triggers for mesopredator release primarily stem from the removal of apex predators, often through direct human actions like hunting or indirect effects such as habitat loss that fragments populations and increases vulnerability. For example, historical wolf extirpation across the continental United States via bounties and poisoning released coyote populations from suppression. Environmental factors, including resource subsidies in human-modified landscapes, exacerbate this release by boosting mesopredator carrying capacities; anthropogenic food sources like garbage and pet waste in urban edges support elevated densities of raccoons (Procyon lotor) and opossums (Didelphis virginiana). Quantitative models of mesopredator population dynamics illustrate how release leads to rapid numerical increases, often following logistic growth patterns where density-dependent regulation breaks down in the absence of apex controls. In theoretical frameworks, mesopredator growth is modeled as \frac{dM}{dt} = r_M M \left(1 - \frac{M}{K_M}\right) - \alpha_M A M, where r_M is the intrinsic growth rate, K_M the carrying capacity, and \alpha_M A M the apex predation term; removal of the apex predator A shifts dynamics toward exponential-like expansion until alternative limits intervene.^[16] Empirical observations confirm this, such as surges in mesopredator densities on islands following apex removal, with breakdowns in density dependence allowing populations to exceed typical thresholds by factors of 2–10 times. Feedback loops can perpetuate mesopredator dominance by hindering apex predator recovery, as elevated mesopredator numbers engage in intraguild predation on apex juveniles or intensify competition during recolonization phases. In North American systems, high coyote densities have been documented preying on wolf pups, potentially delaying pack establishment and population rebound after reintroduction efforts. Such loops reinforce the mesopredator release hypothesis by creating self-sustaining imbalances in predator guilds.

Examples Across Ecosystems

Mammalian Examples

Coyotes (Canis latrans) serve as a prominent example of a mammalian mesopredator in North America, where their populations have expanded following the historical extirpation of gray wolves (Canis lupus), leading to increased predation on small mammals and birds.^[17] This mesopredator release dynamic has been documented across various ecosystems, with coyote abundance correlating to declines in species such as pronghorn fawns and ground-nesting birds after wolf removals.^[9] In regions where wolves are recolonizing, such as parts of the western United States, coyote densities decrease due to intraguild predation and competition, thereby reducing pressure on shared prey.^[18] Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) exemplify invasive mammalian mesopredators in Australia, where their introduction in the 19th century has caused significant declines in native prey populations, including small mammals, birds, and reptiles.^[19] Foxes prey on an estimated 300 million native animals annually in Australia, contributing to the extinction or threat status of over 50 endemic mammal species through direct predation and habitat alteration.^[20] As of October 2025, process-based modeling has reconstructed their invasion, showing colonization of much of the continent within 60 years, further highlighting their role in mesopredator dynamics.^[21] In areas with dingo (Canis dingo) suppression of foxes, native prey recovery has been observed, highlighting the role of apex predators in mitigating mesopredator impacts.^[22] Recent control efforts, such as baiting programs, have shown localized benefits for threatened species like the greater bilby, though broad-scale eradication remains challenging.^[23] Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are common mammalian mesopredators in urban and fragmented landscapes across North America, achieving high population densities due to their opportunistic foraging and tolerance of human proximity.^[24] In urban settings, raccoons frequently shift their diets to include anthropogenic resources like garbage and pet food, allowing them to maintain elevated abundances even in highly modified environments.^[25] This adaptability enables raccoons to occupy habitats where apex predators are absent, increasing their predation on eggs, nestlings, and small vertebrates.^[26] In Europe, recent studies from 2020 to 2025 have examined mesopredator responses to recovering apex predator populations, such as Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and wolves. For instance, red fox abundances have declined in areas with increasing lynx densities due to predation and avoidance behaviors, supporting the mesopredator release hypothesis in reverse.^[2] Similarly, wolf recolonization in Scandinavia has led to spatial segregation and reduced activity of mesopredators like foxes during peak wolf presence, altering community interactions.^[27] Human land-use changes significantly influence mammalian mesopredator occupancy, with species like coyotes and raccoons showing higher utilization of agricultural fields and timber-harvested areas compared to intact forests.^[28] In northeastern U.S. landscapes, mesopredator occupancy increases in mosaics of working lands and fragmented habitats, where reduced apex predator presence allows for dietary shifts toward human-associated foods and elevated densities.^[29] These patterns underscore how habitat fragmentation facilitates mesopredator proliferation, often at the expense of prey diversity.^[30]

Non-Mammalian Examples

Avian species represent prominent non-mammalian mesopredators, particularly corvids such as the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and common raven (Corvus corax), which opportunistically prey on eggs, nestlings, and small vertebrates, thereby exerting pressure on lower trophic levels in forest and urban ecosystems. Mid-level raptors, including hawks like the Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and sharp-shinned hawk (Accipiter striatus), also function as mesopredators by targeting smaller birds and mammals while remaining susceptible to intraguild predation from larger avian apex predators such as golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos).^[31] In European systems, these hawks experience top-down control from species like the eagle owl (Bubo bubo), highlighting their intermediate position in raptorial food webs.^[32] Reptilian mesopredators are exemplified by varanid lizards in Australian arid zones, where species like the perentie (Varanus giganteus) and yellow-spotted monitor (Varanus panoptes) prey on small reptiles, birds, and mammals, occupying a mid-trophic role below mammalian carnivores such as dingoes (Canis dingo). Studies in South Australia indicate that suppression of these apex mammals can trigger mesopredator release in varanids, leading to elevated predation rates on native prey and altered community dynamics in semi-arid habitats.^[33] This release underscores the lizards' role as efficient scavengers and hunters, with populations potentially expanding due to reduced competitive interference.^[34] In marine environments, particularly coral reefs, certain fish species act as mesopredators, bridging small piscivores and apex sharks. Jacks from the family Carangidae, such as the crevalle jack (Caranx hippos), exemplify this by foraging on juvenile fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods while being vulnerable to predation by reef sharks like the grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos). Research across Indo-Pacific reefs shows that mesopredatory fishes like jacks contribute to predation on smaller reef community members, though small-bodied piscivores often dominate the majority of observed attacks.^[35] Their behavioral responses to shark presence, including reduced foraging in three-dimensional space, further illustrate their intermediate status. Case studies from island ecosystems demonstrate the dynamics of avian mesopredators following apex predator alterations, such as feral cat (Felis catus) removals. On oceanic islands like those in the Pacific, modeling of mesopredator release predicts that cat eradication—intended to protect native prey—can indirectly elevate abundances of mesopredators like corvids by removing suppression from cats, potentially intensifying predation on seabirds.^[36] For instance, in systems where cats suppress corvids alongside other mesopredators, their removal has been associated with increased corvid activity around nesting colonies. These examples highlight how flight-enabled mobility in avian mesopredators facilitates swift population irruptions and range expansions after apex predator declines, amplifying ecological disruptions in isolated habitats. Similarly, aquatic mesopredators like jacks exhibit rapid dispersal via ocean currents, enabling quick recolonization of reef patches following shark population reductions.

Ecological and Conservation Impacts

Biodiversity and Ecosystem Effects

Mesopredators exert direct predatory pressure on vulnerable prey species, particularly ground-nesting birds and small mammals, often resulting in significant population declines. For instance, in European landscapes rich in mesopredators such as red foxes and American mink, predation limits the populations of ground-nesting waders, gamebirds, and seabirds, with evidence from 81% of studied seabird cases, 43% of gamebird cases, and 25% of wader cases showing predation as a key limiting factor across life stages.^[37] Similarly, increased abundance of small mammals in spring correlates positively with nest survival for ground-nesting precocial birds like the southern dunlin, explaining up to 55% of annual variation in nest survival. Local recruitment is negatively correlated with spring small mammal abundance.^[38] Indirect effects of mesopredator proliferation include trophic downgrading, where heightened predation disrupts lower trophic levels and alters community structure. This destabilization extends to broader food webs, as seen in models integrating top-down and bottom-up forces, where mesopredator suppression by apex predators promotes coexistence among medium and small carnivores, preventing competitive exclusion and maintaining balanced prey dynamics; without such control, community asynchrony decreases, heightening overall instability.^[39] Long-term outcomes of these dynamics often manifest as biodiversity loss and disruptions to ecosystem services. Cascading effects from apex predator establishment, such as coyote colonization in coastal systems, suppress mesopredator populations like red foxes and cats, potentially reducing predation pressure on species of conservation concern, including small mammals and birds, and maintaining functional diversity in predator guilds.^[40] In disturbed landscapes like mining areas, mesopredator activity—exemplified by the northern quoll—coincides with diminished detections of ground-nesting birds and heightened predation risk for small mammals due to habitat fragmentation and resource subsidies, exacerbating prey declines and altering ecological roles across trophic levels.^[41] Such changes indirectly facilitate invasive species proliferation by releasing competitive pressures on non-native mesopredators and disrupt services like seed dispersal, as declining herbivore and bird populations reduce effective pollination and regeneration in plant communities. Recent co-existence models from 2023–2025 further highlight how unbalanced top-down effects in these systems amplify bottom-up influences, perpetuating biodiversity erosion in fragmented habitats.^[39]

Management and Conservation Strategies

Management and conservation strategies for mesopredators focus on restoring ecological balance by addressing the mesopredator release effect through targeted interventions that promote apex predator populations and directly manage mesopredator abundances. One primary approach involves the reintroduction or protection of apex predators to suppress mesopredator populations naturally. For instance, wolf recovery programs in North America, such as the 1995 reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park, have led to reduced coyote abundances, a common mesopredator, by up to 50% in some areas due to direct predation and behavioral avoidance.^[42] Similarly, recolonizing wolf populations in Europe may suppress red fox and other mesopredator densities in some contexts, potentially enhancing prey species survival, though evidence is mixed and context-dependent.^[43] These efforts underscore the role of apex predator restoration in mitigating mesopredator-driven biodiversity declines without relying solely on direct mesopredator removal.^[44] Targeted mesopredator control employs both lethal and non-lethal methods to reduce population pressures on prey species, particularly in fragmented or human-dominated landscapes. Lethal techniques, such as trapping, shooting, and poisoning, have proven effective in lowering mesopredator densities; for example, hunting programs targeting invasive raccoon dogs in Europe reduced their abundance by 30-50% and decreased predation on waterfowl nests.^[45] However, these methods must be spatially structured to account for mesopredator immigration from surrounding areas, as uncontrolled culling can sometimes increase livestock losses by disrupting social structures.^[46] Non-lethal alternatives include habitat restoration to enhance cover for prey, electric fencing, which effectively reduces mesopredator access (effect size 1.192), and guard animals like dogs, which deter mesopredators with effect sizes exceeding 1.9 in conflict mitigation.^[47] Repellents, such as predator mimics, also show promise for short-term exclusion, though long-term efficacy varies by species.^[47] Integrated approaches emphasize landscape-scale conservation to minimize habitat fragmentation and facilitate natural trophic regulation, often incorporating advanced monitoring tools. Efforts to connect protected areas through wildlife corridors can facilitate apex predator movement across broader scales, potentially aiding in mesopredator suppression, as informed by studies of dingo and feral cat ecology in Australian landscapes where fencing is used.^[48] Camera traps enable non-invasive population tracking, capturing mesopredator activity trends with high detection rates (up to 31% more species than traditional surveys) and supporting adaptive management in real-time.^[49] These tools have been pivotal in evaluating control program success, such as feral cat baiting in arid ecosystems, where landscape-level data informed adjustments to reduce non-target impacts.^[50] Recent advancements from 2024-2025 highlight context-specific strategies balancing mesopredator roles in anthropogenically altered environments, particularly mining landscapes. Studies on the endangered northern quoll in Australia's Pilbara region reveal that mining infrastructure fragments habitats, increasing vulnerability to invasive mesopredators like cats, prompting integrated monitoring with GPS collars and camera traps to inform restoration.^[51] Policy responses include a 2025 Australian government allocation of $1.3 million for feral cat control and fire management programs to protect northern quoll populations, emphasizing non-lethal barriers and habitat reconfiguration around mine sites.^[52] These initiatives demonstrate evolving frameworks for conserving mesopredators while mitigating their release effects in industrial contexts.^[53]

Human Influences

Habitat Alteration and Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation, driven by human activities such as deforestation and land development, creates edge habitats that disproportionately favor mesopredators over apex predators, which often require large, contiguous ranges for viable populations. In fragmented landscapes, apex predators like coyotes experience reduced abundance in smaller patches due to increased human persecution and limited space, leading to a relaxation of top-down control on mesopredators. For instance, in coastal southern California urban fragments, coyote presence was positively correlated with patch size, and fragments lacking coyotes exhibited more than twofold higher mesopredator abundance (1.17 vs. 0.52 relative abundance index) compared to those with coyotes. This pattern aligns with broader observations where fragmentation disrupts predator guilds, allowing mesopredators such as foxes, raccoons, and opossums to proliferate by exploiting edge resources while avoiding competition or predation from larger carnivores. Urbanization and agricultural expansion further exacerbate mesopredator proliferation through direct food subsidies and diminished apex predator viability. In urban settings, anthropogenic resources like garbage, pet food, and road-killed prey provide reliable subsidies that boost mesopredator populations, while high human density limits apex predator persistence through habitat loss and conflict. Studies in North American suburbs show that domestic cats and raccoons thrive in these environments, with cat abundance inversely related to fragment size due to greater access to urban edges; around a typical 20-hectare fragment, approximately 35 free-roaming cats can kill over 500 native birds annually, sustained by household subsidies. Similarly, agricultural landscapes convert natural habitats into matrices that support generalist mesopredators via crop residues and livestock carrion, while fencing and persecution exclude apex predators, reducing their regulatory influence. Globally, these dynamics result in elevated mesopredator densities in human-dominated landscapes, with studies documenting 2- to 5-fold increases in fragmented versus intact forests, underscoring the scale of release effects. In North American suburbs, over the past two centuries, 60% of mesopredator species have expanded their ranges amid apex predator contractions, amplifying biodiversity risks. Comparable patterns emerge in Australian farmlands, where dingo suppression of invasive mesopredators like red foxes is weakened by agricultural fragmentation and lethal control, leading to higher fox densities and impacts on native prey in altered habitats. These human-induced alterations not only elevate mesopredator numbers but also intensify predation pressure on vulnerable species, highlighting the need to consider landscape connectivity in conservation efforts.

Species Introductions and Extinctions

Human activities have significantly altered predator guilds through the targeted removal of apex predators, leading to the phenomenon known as mesopredator release, where mid-level predators increase in abundance and impact ecosystems more intensely. In Europe and the United States during the 19th and 20th centuries, widespread persecution and extirpation of gray wolves (Canis lupus) by settlers and governments resulted in the proliferation of mesopredators such as coyotes (Canis latrans), foxes (Vulpes spp.), and raccoons (Procyon lotor). For instance, the near-complete elimination of wolves from the contiguous United States by the 1930s allowed coyote populations to expand dramatically, exerting greater pressure on smaller prey species and contributing to declines in biodiversity. Similarly, in Europe, the persecution of wolves from the 18th to 20th centuries triggered expansions of mesopredators like the golden jackal (Canis aureus), which has spread across the continent since the 1970s, filling vacated niches and disrupting native prey dynamics. These historical removals exemplify how the absence of top-down regulation can destabilize trophic cascades, with mesopredator densities often surging by factors of 2-10 times in affected regions. Deliberate and accidental introductions of mesopredators have further exacerbated these dynamics by introducing novel predators to ecosystems lacking natural controls. In Australia, European red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were intentionally released in the 1850s for recreational hunting, primarily in Victoria, and rapidly established feral populations that spread across the continent by the early 20th century, causing widespread trophic disruptions through predation on native small mammals and birds. Accidental introductions, such as the raccoon to Europe, originated from escapes and releases starting in the 1920s and 1930s in Germany, where they were initially imported for fur farming; by the mid-20th century, populations had expanded, leading to invasive status across much of the continent and novel interactions like competition with native carnivores and predation on amphibians. These introductions often result in mesopredators achieving densities far exceeding those in their native ranges, amplifying their ecological footprint in unfamiliar food webs. The combined effects of apex predator losses and mesopredator introductions frequently culminate in extinctions or severe declines of native prey species, reshaping community structures. In Australia, the arrival of foxes has been linked to the extinction of at least 20 endemic mammal species since the late 19th century, including bandicoots and quails, as these mesopredators targeted vulnerable "critical weight range" prey (35-5,500 grams) without historical defenses. In Europe, introduced raccoons have contributed to local extinctions of native crayfish and declines in amphibian populations, such as frogs and salamanders, through direct predation and habitat alteration in invaded wetlands. Recent research from 2025 highlights a reversal in rewilded areas, where the recovery of apex predators leads to declining mesopredator populations; for example, a study in Sweden's Grimsö Wildlife Research Area documented a significant drop in red fox densities following increased wolf presence, suggesting potential restoration of balanced trophic interactions. Twentieth-century patterns of mesopredator introductions reveal a global trend of rapid establishment and expansion, particularly in island ecosystems where isolation amplifies invasion impacts. During this period, species like foxes and mongooses were introduced to islands such as Hawaii and the Caribbean for pest control or hunting, leading to cascading extinctions of endemic birds and reptiles by the 1950s-1970s; for instance, the small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) in the West Indies caused the loss of several ground-nesting bird species within decades of its 1870s arrival. Ongoing invasions continue this legacy, with mesopredators like feral cats (Felis catus) and rats (Rattus spp.) driving contemporary declines on oceanic islands, where prey naivety results in extinction risks up to 10 times higher than on continents; current efforts monitor these patterns in places like the Galápagos, where introduced mesopredators threaten over 20% of native vertebrates as of 2025. These timelines underscore the persistent human role in facilitating mesopredator-driven disruptions, often synergizing with habitat fragmentation to hinder native recoveries.

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A simple theory for the mesopredator release effect: when does an ...
Mar 8, 2022 · The mesopredator release effect occurs when the removal of an apex predator increases the density of a mesopredator, which in turn reduces the density of their ...Missing: triggers | Show results with:triggers
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Widespread mesopredator effects after wolf extirpation - ScienceDirect
▻ We hypothesize that the release of coyotes from wolf suppression is affecting faunal communities. ▻ We document various cases of coyote predation on or ...
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[PDF] recolonizing wolves and mesopredator suppression of coyotes ...
Based on simulation modeling, the realized population growth rate was 0.92 based on fawn survival in the absence of wolves, and 1.06 at sites utilized by wolves ...
[18]
Long-term and large-scale control of the introduced red fox ...
A recent review concluded that the impact of predation by the red fox on the Australian native fauna was greater than in any other area where foxes had invaded ...
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Meet the Invaders: Foxes - Invasive Species Council
Foxes kill about 300 million native animals every year, including 88 million reptiles, 111 million birds and 107 million mammals. Their prey includes threatened ...Missing: mesopredator | Show results with:mesopredator
[20]
Of mice and dogs | TERN Australia
What was the role of the dingo, Australia's only native canid, in suppressing the feral red fox and cat? These two smaller predators, or mesopredators, have ...Missing: invasion | Show results with:invasion
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Fox control and fire influence the occurrence of invasive predators ...
Nov 28, 2023 · The effects of fox control on prey occurrence also varied between the two native prey species: fox control was strongly beneficial to the long- ...
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Seasonal Variation in Mammalian Mesopredator Spatiotemporal ...
Aug 22, 2024 · Thus, certain species of mammalian mesopredators, such as the coyote (C. latrans), red fox (Vulpes vulpes), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
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(PDF) The Rise of the Mesopredator - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Known as "mesopredator release," this trophic interaction has been recorded across a range of communities and ecosystems. Mesopredator outbreaks ...
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[PDF] the impacts of three common mesopredators on the
... Raccoons (Procyon lotor), bobcats (Lynx rufus) and coyotes (Canis ... mammalian mesopredators. Several authors have commented that mesopredators ...<|separator|>
[25]
(PDF) Understanding mesopredator responses to changes in apex ...
Jul 1, 2024 · We examined European mesopredator responses to changes in apex predator populations and evaluated the extended MRH's explanatory power. 3. We ...
[26]
Human land‐use effects on mammalian mesopredator occupancy of ...
Jul 3, 2022 · Our findings reveal that a mosaic of intact forest and working lands, timber harvest, and agriculture can support mesopredator diversity.
[27]
Human land-use effects on mammalian mesopredator occupancy of ...
Jul 3, 2022 · Land use utilization varied seasonally for coyotes and raccoons, with higher use of fields than reserves and shelterwoods for half the year and ...
[28]
Humans Are More Influential Than Coyotes on Mammalian ...
Coyotes may play a limited role in altering smaller-bodied mesopredator activity, especially when humans are present. While the impacts of human presence and ...<|separator|>
[29]
Top‐down limitation of mesopredators by avian top predators: a call ...
Mar 6, 2018 · The Golden Eagle and the Eagle-Owl, two top predators once eliminated from large parts of their European distribution range, have been ...
[30]
Superpredation patterns in four large European raptors
Aug 7, 2025 · S4. Mesopredators as prey of the Goshawk Accipiter gentilis, Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos,. Bonelli's Eagle ·, and Eagle Owl Bubo bubo.
[31]
Ecological Implications of Reptile Mesopredator Release in Arid ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In earlier ages, Australia provided the arena for a spectacular radiation of marsupial and reptilian predators. ... lizards by contrasting lizard ...
[32]
Could controlling mammalian carnivores lead to mesopredator ...
Dec 1, 2010 · ... mesopredators such as large carnivorous reptiles [14,15]. Varanid lizards are the paramount terrestrial reptilian predator across the Old ...
[33]
A review of predation as a limiting factor for bird populations in ...
May 22, 2018 · Here we present results from a systematic review of predator trends and abundance, and assess whether predation limits the population sizes of 90 bird species ...Missing: overpredation | Show results with:overpredation
[34]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3030859/
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[PDF] Mesopredator release moderates trophic control of plant biomass in ...
In some cases when top predators are removed, mesopredator densities increase and can partially or completely replace top-down pressure on herbivores (Prugh et ...
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Human and apex predators shape lower trophic levels
Another explanation is the trophic generalist nature of mesopredators, which ... foraging strategies. Their broad diet and ability to exploit arboreal ...
[37]
Impacts of coyote colonization on coastal mammalian predators
Aug 1, 2024 · Extreme ecosystem modification by humans has caused drastic reductions in populations and ranges of top mammalian predators, ...<|separator|>
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https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9292
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Restoring apex predators can reduce mesopredator abundances
We show that mesopredator abundances were reduced after the restoration of an apex predator, with evidence of resonating positive impacts on lower trophic ...
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[PDF] The effects of wolves on mesopredators in Western-Europe
The decline and sometimes even disappearance of apex predators can cause mesopredator release, where mesopredators take over, grow in population, and can make a ...
[41]
[PDF] The Rise of the Mesopredator - Wolf Conservation Center
If the term is to be rooted in ecological theory, a mesopredator should be defined as any midranking predator in a food web, regardless of its size or taxonomy.
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hunting reduces invasive raccoon dog abundance and predation on ...
Sep 24, 2025 · Mesopredator control for waterfowl conservation: hunting reduces invasive raccoon dog abundance and predation on artificial nests. Research ...Study Species And Study... · Hunting Of Raccoon Dogs · Raccoon Dog Catch And...<|control11|><|separator|>
[43]
Culling recolonizing mesopredators increases livestock losses
Nov 2, 2019 · Our study provides further evidence that lethal control of mesopredators in this context is probably counter-productive and supports calls ...
[44]
Methods to mitigate human–wildlife conflicts involving common ...
Nov 20, 2023 · Lethal control remains more acceptable against mesopredators compared to more charismatic megafauna (Glas 2016) and is more acceptable ...
[45]
Space use and habitat selection of an invasive mesopredator and ...
May 4, 2020 · Invasive mesopredators pose a major threat to biodiversity worldwide [8, 9]. In ecosystems where native apex predators occur in sympatry with ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Snap happy: camera traps are an effective sampling tool when ...
Mar 6, 2019 · Camera traps were significantly more effective than other methods at detecting a large number of species (31% more) and for generating detections of species ( ...
[47]
Evaluating the efficacy of a landscape scale feral cat control ... - Nature
Mar 28, 2018 · Our study also supports the utilisation of camera traps for monitoring the response of a feral cat population to a baiting program over multiple ...Discussion · Methods · Camera Trapping
[48]
Movement ecology of an endangered mesopredator in a mining ...
Jan 17, 2024 · This study investigates the effect of mining on the movement of an endangered mesopredator, the northern quoll (Dasyurus hallucatus).Missing: diet | Show results with:diet
[49]
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.181748
[50]
Wildlife in mining landscapes: a case study of the endangered ...
Oct 25, 2024 · Mining has negative impacts on northern quoll fine-scale movement and energy expenditure, and is likely to have broader impacts on population-level dispersal ...Missing: 2023-2025 | Show results with:2023-2025