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Optic neuritis

Optic neuritis is an inflammatory condition of the optic nerve, the bundle of nerve fibers that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain, often resulting in acute vision loss, eye pain, and color vision disturbances, and it is frequently an initial manifestation of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis.^[1]^[2]^[3] This disorder typically affects young adults, with an annual incidence ranging from 1 to 5 per 100,000 individuals, showing a peak onset between ages 20 and 40, a female-to-male ratio of approximately 3:1, and higher prevalence among Caucasians in temperate climates.^[1] It most commonly involves one eye but can affect both, with symptoms including sudden partial or complete vision loss that worsens over days, pain exacerbated by eye movement, reduced color perception (dyschromatopsia), and a relative afferent pupillary defect known as the Marcus Gunn pupil.^[1]^[2]^[3] The primary causes are autoimmune-mediated, particularly in association with multiple sclerosis (MS), where it is a common presenting symptom in approximately 20% of cases, or neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) or myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD); other etiologies include infectious agents such as viruses (e.g., measles, mumps, herpes) or bacteria (e.g., syphilis), toxic exposures like methanol, and less commonly, sarcoidosis or idiopathic processes.^[1]^[2]^[3] Pathophysiologically, it involves immune-mediated demyelination and inflammation of the optic nerve myelin sheath, leading to axonal damage and disrupted signal transmission.^[1] Diagnosis relies on clinical history and examination, supported by neuroimaging such as gadolinium-enhanced MRI to detect optic nerve swelling or white matter lesions suggestive of MS, visual evoked potentials to assess conduction delays, optical coherence tomography for retinal nerve fiber layer thinning, and visual field testing to identify scotomas.^[1]^[2]^[3] Blood tests may rule out infectious or systemic causes, while lumbar puncture can evaluate for oligoclonal bands in suspected MS cases.^[1]^[3] Treatment focuses on accelerating recovery with high-dose intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone (1 g daily for 3–5 days) followed by an oral taper, which shortens the duration of symptoms but does not alter long-term outcomes; plasma exchange is considered for steroid-refractory cases or NMOSD.^[1]^[2]^[3] Management of underlying conditions, like disease-modifying therapies for MS, is essential to prevent recurrences.^[1] Prognosis is generally favorable, with about 90% of patients regaining near-normal vision within 4–6 weeks to months, though residual deficits in color vision or visual fields may persist, and the risk of developing clinically definite MS is approximately 50% over 15 years, particularly if brain MRI shows lesions at presentation.^[1]^[2]^[3] Recurrences occur in 20–30% of cases, often signaling progressive demyelination.^[1]

Definition and Pathophysiology

Definition

Optic neuritis is defined as an inflammatory condition of the optic nerve, the second cranial nerve (cranial nerve II), which typically affects the retrobulbar portion and results in acute or subacute visual impairment.^[1] This inflammation disrupts the transmission of visual signals from the retina to the brain, often presenting unilaterally and characterized by symptoms such as reduced visual acuity, color vision deficits, and pain with eye movement.^[4] The condition is distinct from broader optic neuropathies, which encompass various forms of optic nerve damage not primarily driven by inflammation, such as ischemic or compressive etiologies.^[5] The optic nerve comprises approximately 1.2 million myelinated axons originating from retinal ganglion cells in the inner retina, which converge at the optic disc and extend posteriorly through the orbit, optic canal, and intracranial space to synapse in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.^[6] These axons are myelinated by oligodendrocytes starting just beyond the lamina cribrosa, facilitating rapid conduction of visual information.^[7] Unlike intraocular involvement seen in papillitis, where inflammation extends to the optic disc causing visible swelling (hyperemia and blurred margins), retrobulbar optic neuritis spares the disc, leading to a normal fundus appearance during acute phases.^[8] The term "optic neuritis" originated in the 19th century, with early clinical descriptions by Albrecht von Graefe in 1860 and the natural history further established by Edward Nettleship in 1884, who differentiated it from other inflammatory optic nerve disorders based on symptomatic patterns and post-mortem findings.^[9]^[10] This historical framing emphasized its inflammatory nature, distinguishing it from earlier humoral theories of optic nerve pathology in ancient Greek and Roman medicine.^[11] Optic neuritis is frequently the initial manifestation of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis.^[1]

Pathophysiology

Optic neuritis is characterized by immune-mediated inflammation targeting the optic nerve, which leads to demyelination of the myelin sheath, perivascular edema, and progressive axonal degeneration. This inflammatory cascade disrupts the structural integrity of the optic nerve, impairing saltatory conduction and ultimately compromising visual signal transmission.^[1] The process begins with the activation and infiltration of autoreactive T-cells and B-cells into the optic nerve, triggered by molecular mimicry or loss of immune tolerance to self-antigens such as myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) or aquaporin-4 (AQP4).^[12]^[1] These immune cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6), which amplify the response by recruiting additional leukocytes and promoting oxidative stress.^[1] Concurrently, breakdown of the blood-optic nerve barrier facilitates this infiltration, allowing plasma proteins and complement components to enter the neural tissue and exacerbate edema and cellular damage.^[13] The inflammatory milieu directly impairs axonal function by disrupting anterograde and retrograde transport along microtubules, causing accumulation of organelles and leading to axonal swelling proximal to the site of injury.^[1] If the inflammation persists untreated, this evolves into Wallerian degeneration, where distal segments of the axon degenerate due to loss of trophic support from the neuronal cell body, resulting in irreversible loss of retinal ganglion cells.^[14] Pathological differences distinguish typical from atypical optic neuritis: typical forms, commonly linked to multiple sclerosis, exhibit perivascular T-cell infiltration and oligoclonal bands reflecting intrathecal B-cell activation and antibody production against myelin components.^[12] In atypical variants, such as neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), pathology involves antibody-mediated astrocytopathy with anti-aquaporin-4 (AQP4) antibodies causing complement deposition on astrocytes, leading to necrosis, inflammation, and more profound tissue damage with limited recovery potential.^[15] Despite the destructive processes, endogenous repair mechanisms offer partial mitigation, including limited remyelination by oligodendrocyte precursor cells that differentiate and restore myelin sheaths around surviving axons.^[1] Neuroprotective factors, notably brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), support this recovery by enhancing oligodendrocyte survival, promoting myelination, and mitigating axonal degeneration through TrkB receptor signaling.^[16] Optic neuritis often represents an early event in autoimmune demyelinating conditions like multiple sclerosis, where these mechanisms influence long-term visual outcomes.^[15]

Causes and Classification

Typical Optic Neuritis

Typical optic neuritis refers to the most prevalent form of this condition, characterized by acute, unilateral inflammation of the optic nerve, often linked to demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). It typically presents as retrobulbar involvement, meaning the inflammation occurs behind the eye without initial visible changes to the optic disc. This form is distinguished by its responsiveness to corticosteroid therapy and a strong association with MS, where optic neuritis serves as an initial manifestation in approximately 15-20% of cases.^[1] The etiology of typical optic neuritis is primarily autoimmune-mediated demyelination, frequently occurring idiopathically without underlying systemic disease, though it is commonly the harbinger of MS in susceptible individuals. It predominantly affects young adults aged 20-40 years, with a female-to-male ratio of about 3:1. Key clinical features include pain exacerbated by eye movement, which precedes or accompanies visual impairment, and an absence of systemic symptoms such as fever or widespread neurological deficits. Partial visual recovery is common, with about 90% of patients achieving near-normal vision within six months, even without treatment.^[1]^[17] According to the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial (ONTT), a landmark study involving patients with acute unilateral optic neuritis, the cumulative risk of developing clinically definite MS reaches 50% within 15 years, particularly in those with baseline brain MRI abnormalities indicative of demyelination. High-dose intravenous corticosteroids, such as methylprednisolone, hasten recovery in this typical presentation but do not alter long-term visual outcomes or MS progression.^[17]^[1] Diagnostic criteria established by the ONTT emphasize acute monocular vision loss, presence of a relative afferent pupillary defect, and an initially normal fundus examination on ophthalmoscopy, supporting a clinical diagnosis in the absence of confounding factors. Other causes, including infections (e.g., viral or bacterial), malignancies, or compressive lesions, must be excluded through neuroimaging like gadolinium-enhanced MRI and serological testing to confirm typical optic neuritis.^[18]^[1]

Atypical Optic Neuritis

Atypical optic neuritis refers to forms of optic nerve inflammation that deviate from the typical presentation associated with multiple sclerosis, often involving bilateral involvement, anterior optic nerve (papillitis) with disc swelling, painless or subacute onset, systemic manifestations, and poorer initial response to corticosteroids.^[19] These variants frequently stem from antibody-mediated autoimmune processes, infections, or systemic diseases rather than isolated demyelination.^[20] Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), previously known as neuromyelitis optica or Devic's disease, is a key cause of atypical optic neuritis characterized by aquaporin-4 (AQP4) immunoglobulin G antibody positivity.^[21] It typically presents with bilateral papillitis, a progressive course over days to weeks, and frequent association with transverse myelitis or brainstem lesions, contrasting with the unilateral, retrobulbar, pain-associated typical form.^[19] Visual recovery is poorer, with severe vision loss (often 20/200 or worse) and high relapse rates leading to permanent damage in up to 70% of cases.^[20] NMOSD shows female predominance (ratio up to 10:1) and onset in early to mid-adulthood, particularly among non-White populations.^[20] Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody disease (MOGAD) represents another antibody-mediated etiology, with anti-MOG antibodies targeting the myelin sheath.^[22] Optic neuritis in MOGAD often manifests as unilateral or bilateral papillitis with marked disc edema (in 86% of cases), frequently triggered by viral infections or vaccinations, and exhibits a relapsing pattern with steroid dependence.^[20] Unlike NMOSD, MOGAD has a better prognosis, with median visual acuity recovering to 20/20 post-acute episode and less cumulative damage, though recurrence occurs in approximately 50% of patients.^[20] It affects males and females equally and has a younger median onset (20-30 years).^[20] Infectious agents contribute to atypical optic neuritis through direct invasion, immune-mediated damage, or post-infectious inflammation, often presenting with systemic signs and variable pain.^[23] Bacterial infections include Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi), which causes bilateral papillitis or neuroretinitis, especially in endemic areas, and syphilis (Treponema pallidum), leading to papillitis, perineuritis, or progressive visual loss mimicking other neuropathies.^[23] Viral causes encompass measles, resulting in bilateral retrobulbar neuritis about one week post-rash with good recovery potential, and varicella-zoster virus, producing unilateral or bilateral papillitis during systemic infection.^[23] Parasitic infections, such as toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii), typically cause unilateral papillitis or neuroretinitis secondary to retinochoroiditis, more common in immunocompromised individuals.^[23] Other non-infectious etiologies include sarcoidosis, a granulomatous disorder presenting with painless, subacute visual loss and optic disc swelling or granulomas, often bilateral and linked to systemic inflammation.^[19] Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) may feature optic neuritis as an initial manifestation, typically bilateral and vasculitic or thrombotic, with poor visual acuity outcomes.^[20] Paraneoplastic syndromes cause painless, progressive bilateral optic neuritis associated with underlying malignancies like small cell lung cancer.^[19] Drug-induced forms, such as ethambutol toxicity, result in painless optic neuropathy from mitochondrial or vascular impairment, often dose-dependent and reversible upon discontinuation.^[20] Distinguishing features of atypical optic neuritis include anterior involvement with disc hyperemia or swelling, frequent bilaterality, lack of severe pain on eye movement, and resistance to standard steroid therapy, necessitating targeted evaluation for underlying causes.^[19]

Signs and Symptoms

Acute Symptoms

Optic neuritis most commonly manifests as acute, unilateral vision loss that develops subacutely over several days, often peaking in severity within 1 to 2 weeks.^[24] This vision impairment is typically central, resulting in a central scotoma that affects reading and fine visual tasks, with reduced visual acuity frequently reaching 20/200 or worse in the affected eye.^[1] Color vision is disproportionately affected, leading to desaturation where colors appear faded or washed out, particularly evident on red desaturation testing.^[25] Accompanying the vision loss in approximately 90% of cases is orbital or periocular pain, which is characteristically worsened by eye movements such as gazing sideways.^[1] This pain often precedes the visual symptoms by a day or two and resolves within days to weeks as the inflammation subsides.^[26] Additionally, Uhthoff's phenomenon may occur, involving temporary worsening of vision in response to elevated body temperature from factors like hot weather, exercise, or fever, attributable to conduction block in demyelinated axons.^[24] Less commonly, initial symptoms include photopsias—brief, perceived flashes of light—or headache, which can signal the onset but are not present in the majority of cases.^[24] In typical optic neuritis, these acute features often represent the inaugural event of multiple sclerosis.^[1]

Variations by Demographics

Optic neuritis in pediatric patients often presents differently from adults, with bilateral involvement occurring in 55% to 65% of cases.^[27] Pain is less prominent or absent in many children, with studies reporting painless visual loss in up to 73.6% of pediatric cases.^[28] Recovery is generally better in children, with 71% to 81% regaining visual acuity of 20/20 or better within a year, compared to about 50% of adults.^[29] These episodes are frequently post-viral, following infections such as measles, mumps, or chickenpox.^[27] In elderly patients over 50 years, atypical optic neuritis such as paraneoplastic syndromes associated with underlying malignancies like small cell lung carcinoma is more common, while ischemic optic neuropathy—a non-inflammatory mimic—also frequently enters the differential.^[30]^[31] These conditions often present with subacute or acute vision loss, sometimes bilateral in atypical inflammatory cases, accompanied by optic disc edema, and typically lack the pain on eye movement seen in younger patients with typical optic neuritis.^[30] Optic neuritis occurs more frequently in females, with a female-to-male ratio of approximately 3:1, reflecting the higher prevalence of multiple sclerosis in women.^[1] Ethnic variations influence the underlying etiology, with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD)-associated optic neuritis showing higher incidence among non-Caucasian populations, such as Asians and individuals of African ancestry.^[32] In these groups, optic neuritis often presents with more severe, bilateral involvement and longitudinally extensive lesions compared to typical multiple sclerosis-related cases in Caucasians.^[33] During pregnancy, optic neuritis flares are rare due to the immunosuppressive state, but there is an increased risk of multiple sclerosis onset or relapse in the postpartum period, particularly within the first three months after delivery.^[34]

Diagnosis

Clinical Evaluation

The clinical evaluation of optic neuritis commences with a thorough history to elicit features that raise suspicion for the condition. Patients commonly describe a subacute onset of unilateral vision impairment progressing over 1 to 2 weeks, often reaching nadir within 7 to 10 days.^[35] Retro-orbital or periorbital pain is reported in over 90% of cases, characteristically exacerbated by eye movements, and may precede visual symptoms by several days.^[36] Inquiry should probe for associated neurological symptoms, including prior transient episodes of vision loss, numbness, weakness, or gait instability suggestive of multiple sclerosis, as well as recent systemic illnesses such as viral infections that could indicate an inflammatory trigger.^[37] Ophthalmologic assessment follows, beginning with measurement of visual acuity using a Snellen chart, which typically reveals decreased central vision in the affected eye, ranging from 20/20 to no light perception, though mild deficits may be present even in early stages.^[38] Color vision evaluation via Ishihara plates demonstrates dyschromatopsia, often more pronounced than acuity loss, reflecting involvement of optic nerve fibers sensitive to chromatic signals.^[35] Visual field testing, performed by confrontation techniques or automated perimetry such as Humphrey visual field analysis, commonly identifies a central or cecocentral scotoma, though diffuse or altitudinal defects may also occur.^[37] Pupillary examination is a key component, employing the swinging flashlight test to detect a relative afferent pupillary defect (RAPD), or Marcus Gunn pupil, present in 96% of acute unilateral cases due to asymmetric optic nerve conduction.^[39] Dilated fundoscopy evaluates the optic disc, which appears normal in approximately two-thirds of acute presentations owing to retrobulbar inflammation, while the remaining one-third exhibit mild disc swelling (papillitis) in anterior involvement.^[37] Finally, a comprehensive neurological examination is conducted to identify any evidence of central nervous system involvement beyond the optic nerve, such as sensory deficits, motor weakness, or coordination issues, which may point to an underlying demyelinating disorder like multiple sclerosis.^[35]

Ancillary Tests

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and orbits with gadolinium contrast is a key ancillary test for confirming optic neuritis and assessing associated risks. In typical optic neuritis, MRI often reveals short-segment lesions, typically less than half the length of the intraorbital optic nerve, which are usually unilateral and enhance with gadolinium.^[40] In contrast, atypical forms such as those associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) show long-segment lesions extending over more than half the optic nerve length, often bilateral and involving the chiasm or intracranial segments.^[41] Additionally, the presence of white matter plaques or T2 hyperintense lesions in the brain on MRI at the time of optic neuritis strongly predicts the risk of developing multiple sclerosis (MS), with abnormalities increasing the 15-year MS risk to up to 72% compared to 25% in those without lesions.^[42] Optical coherence tomography (OCT) provides non-invasive assessment of retinal structure in optic neuritis. Acutely, OCT demonstrates thickening of the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) due to edema and inflammation, reflecting active optic nerve involvement.^[43] Chronically, it shows RNFL thinning, which quantifies axonal loss and correlates with the extent of prior damage.^[44] Visual evoked potentials (VEP) evaluate optic nerve function electrophysiologically. In optic neuritis, VEP typically reveals delayed P100 latency, indicating conduction delay from demyelination, even in cases with preserved visual acuity.^[45] This delay quantifies the degree of dysfunction and persists in many patients post-recovery. Laboratory tests aid in subtyping optic neuritis, particularly atypical cases. Serum testing for aquaporin-4 (AQP4) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibodies is recommended when clinical features suggest non-MS etiologies, as these antibodies are present in subsets of atypical optic neuritis and guide differential diagnosis.^[46] Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis for oligoclonal bands supports MS association, with their presence predicting higher conversion risk in isolated optic neuritis.^[47] Lumbar puncture for CSF examination is indicated when MRI findings are inconclusive or atypical features raise suspicion for alternative demyelinating diseases.^[48]

Treatment

Acute Management

The acute management of optic neuritis primarily focuses on reducing inflammation and expediting visual recovery through high-dose corticosteroids. The Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial (ONTT) established that intravenous methylprednisolone at 1 g per day for 3 days, followed by an oral prednisone taper (typically 1 mg/kg/day for 11 days), accelerates the recovery of visual function in typical cases, resulting in improved vision at 2 weeks and slightly better outcomes at 6 months compared to placebo, though it does not alter long-term visual prognosis.^[49] This regimen is recommended for patients with visual acuity worse than 20/40 or significant symptoms such as severe pain or visual field defects.^[1] High-dose oral prednisone alone (e.g., 1 mg/kg/day for 14 days) should be avoided as initial therapy, as the ONTT demonstrated it increases the risk of recurrent optic neuritis and new episodes of multiple sclerosis within 2 years compared to intravenous therapy or observation.^[49] For steroid-refractory cases, particularly those associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), plasma exchange is indicated as rescue therapy to remove pathogenic antibodies and inflammatory mediators; a typical protocol involves 5 to 7 exchanges over 10 to 14 days, often initiated if no improvement occurs after 3 to 5 days of intravenous steroids.^[50]^[51] Symptomatic relief for periorbital pain, which often worsens with eye movement, includes nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen or acetaminophen as first-line options, with opioids reserved for severe cases due to risks of dependency.^[1] Hospitalization is warranted for patients with severe vision loss (e.g., no light perception), bilateral involvement, or suspected atypical causes requiring urgent evaluation, allowing for monitored intravenous administration and potential escalation to plasma exchange.^[52] In atypical optic neuritis, management may need tailoring based on underlying etiology, such as infectious or granulomatous causes.^[53]

Long-term Therapy

Long-term therapy for optic neuritis primarily targets the underlying demyelinating conditions to prevent recurrences and manage disease progression, particularly in cases associated with multiple sclerosis (MS), neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), or myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD).^[54] In patients with MS, disease-modifying therapies (DMTs) such as interferon-beta, fingolimod, and ocrelizumab are standard for reducing the frequency of relapses, including optic neuritis episodes, by approximately 30-50% compared to placebo, based on clinical trial data demonstrating overall relapse rate reductions of 30% for interferon-beta, 48% for fingolimod, and 46-47% for ocrelizumab. These agents modulate immune responses to limit axonal damage and inflammation in the optic nerve, with high-efficacy options like ocrelizumab preferred for aggressive disease to further minimize subclinical progression.^[55] For NMOSD and MOGAD, which involve antibody-mediated pathology, immunosuppressants such as rituximab, azathioprine, eculizumab, inebilizumab, satralizumab, and ravulizumab are employed to suppress humoral immunity and reduce relapse rates. Rituximab, a monoclonal antibody targeting CD20-positive B cells, decreases the annualized relapse rate by up to 80-90% in aquaporin-4 immunoglobulin G (AQP4-IgG)-positive NMOSD and MOGAD cases, while azathioprine serves as a first-line oral option with similar relapse reduction effects through purine synthesis inhibition.^[56]^[57] Eculizumab, a complement inhibitor, specifically reduces relapse risk by 94% in AQP4-IgG-positive NMOSD by blocking the C5 component of the complement cascade.^[50]^[58] Inebilizumab, an anti-CD19 monoclonal antibody approved in 2020, depletes B cells and reduces relapse risk by approximately 77% in AQP4-IgG-positive NMOSD.^[59] Satralizumab, an interleukin-6 receptor inhibitor approved in 2020, reduces annualized relapse rates by 74% in AQP4-IgG-positive NMOSD.^[60] Ravulizumab, a long-acting C5 complement inhibitor approved in 2024, similarly reduces relapse risk in AQP4-IgG-positive NMOSD.^[61] These therapies are tailored to the serologic profile, with rituximab and azathioprine commonly used across both conditions due to their efficacy in preventing optic nerve-specific attacks. Ongoing monitoring is essential to detect subclinical progression, utilizing serial optical coherence tomography (OCT) to measure retinal nerve fiber layer thinning and visual evoked potentials (VEP) to assess conduction delays, which together provide biomarkers for early intervention before clinical symptoms emerge.^[62]^[63] In immunosuppressed patients on these therapies, live vaccines should be avoided to prevent disseminated infections, while inactivated vaccines are generally safe and recommended under medical guidance.^[64] Multidisciplinary care involving neurologists and ophthalmologists ensures coordinated management, including therapy selection, visual monitoring, and adjustment for comorbidities to optimize long-term outcomes.^[65]^[66]

Prognosis and Complications

Visual Recovery

Visual recovery in typical optic neuritis generally begins within 2 to 4 weeks of symptom onset and continues progressively over several months, with nearly 90% of patients achieving a visual acuity of 20/40 or better by 6 months.^[1]^[67] In the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial (ONTT), median visual acuity reached 20/16 across treatment groups by 6 months, reflecting substantial improvement in most cases.^[68] Despite this favorable trajectory, residual visual deficits persist in a notable proportion of patients, including abnormalities in color vision, optic disc pallor, and relative scotomas affecting 20-30% of individuals even after apparent acuity recovery.^[1] These deficits often stem from axonal loss and retinal nerve fiber layer thinning, leading to subtle but enduring impairments in contrast sensitivity and visual field integrity.^[69] Several prognostic factors influence the extent of visual recovery. An initial visual acuity better than 20/200 is strongly associated with full or near-full restoration of function, whereas more severe initial loss correlates with poorer outcomes.^[70] Younger age at onset also favors better recovery, likely due to greater neuroplasticity and less comorbid axonal damage. Data from the ONTT indicate no significant difference in final visual acuity between patients treated with intravenous methylprednisolone followed by oral prednisone, oral prednisone alone, or placebo, though intravenous therapy accelerates the recovery process.^[49] For patients with incomplete recovery, rehabilitation strategies such as low-vision aids—including magnifiers, specialized lighting, and scanning techniques—can help mitigate functional limitations and improve quality of life.^[1]

Associated Risks

Optic neuritis carries significant risks of progression to multiple sclerosis (MS), particularly in cases with abnormal baseline brain MRI findings. According to the 15-year follow-up of the Optic Neuritis Treatment Trial (ONTT), the cumulative probability of developing MS is 50% overall (95% confidence interval, 44%-56%), with risks strongly influenced by MRI results: 72% for patients with one or more lesions compared to 25% for those with no lesions. For individuals with abnormal MRI at presentation, the risk is approximately 56% at 5 years and rises to 72% at 15 years, highlighting the prognostic importance of early neuroimaging.^[17] Recurrent episodes of optic neuritis occur in about 35% of patients over 10 years, with risks potentially increasing over longer follow-up in those developing multiple sclerosis. This recurrence rate is notably higher in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD), where relapses affect up to 50% of patients within the first 10 years, often involving repeated optic nerve inflammation. Other long-term complications include optic atrophy from severe or repeated attacks, which leads to irreversible optic nerve pallor and thinning, and persistent neuropathic pain in a subset of cases, potentially lasting beyond the acute phase. In anterior optic neuritis (papillitis), intraocular inflammation may rarely precipitate secondary glaucoma through mechanisms such as trabecular meshwork dysfunction or angle closure.^[71]^[72]^[1]^[36] In neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD), initial optic neuritis increases the risk of subsequent involvement of other central nervous system sites, including transverse myelitis (potentially causing paraplegia) and brainstem syndromes (such as intractable hiccups, nausea, or respiratory failure). Antibody testing for aquaporin-4 (AQP4-IgG) or MOG-IgG can aid in identifying NMOSD or MOGAD, thereby stratifying these progression risks. Residual visual deficits from optic neuritis contribute to broader quality-of-life impairments, including higher rates of depression due to uncertainty and visual limitations, as well as employment challenges stemming from persistent contrast sensitivity loss or field defects.^[73]^[46]^[1]

Epidemiology

Incidence and Prevalence

Optic neuritis has an estimated annual incidence of 1 to 5 cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide, with rates reaching up to 6.4 per 100,000 in the United States.^[1]^[24] Incidence is higher in multiple sclerosis-prevalent regions, such as northern Europe and the northern United States, where figures range from 3.7 to 5.1 per 100,000 person-years.^[74]^[1] Prevalence in Western populations is approximately 50 to 115 per 100,000, encompassing both isolated incidents and chronic or recurrent cases linked to underlying demyelinating diseases.^[75]^[74] These estimates reflect cumulative burden, including long-term survivors of acute episodes and those with progressive conditions.^[75] Incidence rates have remained stable over recent decades, typically between 3 and 4 per 100,000 person-years in large-scale studies spanning the late 1990s to 2023.^[74]^[75] Temporal trends show no significant rise in overall occurrence, though enhanced diagnostic criteria and antibody testing since the 2010s have increased identification of MOGAD- and NMOSD-related cases, refining subtype prevalence without altering total incidence.^[1]^[76] The majority of optic neuritis cases—around 60 to 70% in cohort analyses—present as inaugural events, frequently as the initial manifestation of a demyelinating disorder like multiple sclerosis.^[77]^[1] Globally, incidence is lower in Asia and Africa, at 0.83 to 1.61 per 100,000 person-years, attributable in part to underdiagnosis and differing disease spectra, with NMOSD proportionally more common than in Caucasian-majority regions.^[74]^[78]^[1]

Demographic Patterns

Optic neuritis predominantly affects females, with a female-to-male ratio of approximately 2:1 to 3:1, mirroring patterns observed in multiple sclerosis, a common associated condition.^[1]^[74] In population-based studies from the United Kingdom, about 69% of incident cases occur in females, with an adjusted incidence rate ratio of 2.26 compared to males.^[74] This sex disparity is consistent across diverse cohorts, including those in the United States and Europe, where women aged 20-40 years represent the highest-risk group.^[79] The condition most frequently manifests in young adults, with a mean age of onset around 32-36 years and a peak incidence in the 20-40 age range.^[1]^[74] Pediatric cases, defined as those under 15 years, are rarer, with an annual incidence of about 1 per 100,000, often bilateral and less likely to progress to multiple sclerosis.^[80] In adults aged 15-65 years, incidence rises to 3-4 per 100,000, with secondary peaks in the 50-54 age group in some Asian populations.^[80] Elderly presentations are atypical and may signal alternative etiologies beyond demyelination.^[79] Racial and ethnic patterns show variation, with higher prevalence among White individuals in Western populations, where up to 92% of cases in the UK are reported in Whites.^[74] In the United States, recent prevalence data indicate rates of 54.7 per 100,000 among Whites, slightly lower than 57.8 per 100,000 in Blacks and 45.8 per 100,000 in Hispanics, suggesting nuanced differences possibly influenced by socioeconomic or diagnostic factors.^[75] Among non-White groups, particularly Asians and Africans, optic neuritis is more frequently associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder rather than multiple sclerosis, contributing to distinct clinical profiles.^[1] Geographic distribution correlates with multiple sclerosis prevalence, with higher incidence in temperate, higher-latitude regions such as northern Europe, the United Kingdom, and the northern United States (1-5 per 100,000 annually), compared to lower rates in equatorial and tropical areas.^[1] For instance, incidence is elevated in Scotland (adjusted rate ratio 1.19) relative to southern UK regions, underscoring environmental influences like latitude.^[74] In contrast, studies from South Korea report stable adult incidence around 3.3 per 100,000, reflecting regional stability despite global variations.^[80]

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The cumulative probability of developing MS by 15 years after onset of optic neuritis was 50% (95% confidence interval, 44%-56%) and strongly related to ...
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Jul 14, 2008 · The ONTT was conceived to define precisely the clinical profile of patients with optic neuritis, to determine the value of corticosteroid treatment, and to ...
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Dec 18, 2024 · Atypical neuritis includes NMOSD, MOGAD autoimmune optic neuropathy, chronic relapsing inflammatory optic neuropathy (CRION), idiopathic ...
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A Comparative Review of Typical and Atypical Optic Neuritis
Mar 13, 2024 · Two other conditions known to cause ON are neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) and myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)- ...
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Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder and myelin oligodendrocyte ...
Dec 15, 2020 · This review will summarize the current understanding of the clinical spectra of NMOSD and MOGAD, the radiographic and serological findings which support their ...
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Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease ...
May 8, 2023 · While patients with MS, MOGAD and NMOSD may present with similar clinical manifestations, such as optic neuritis and myelitis, those with MOGAD ...Mogad: The Evolving Clinical... · Mog Autoantibodies... · Management Of Mogad Patients
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The purpose of this article is to review optic neuropathies caused by specific viral, bacterial, parasitic, and fungal diseases. Viral optic neuropathies.
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Optic neuritis: Pathophysiology, clinical features, and diagnosis
Feb 29, 2024 · INTRODUCTION. Optic neuritis is an inflammatory, demyelinating condition that causes acute, usually monocular, visual loss.
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Optic Neuritis: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment Options
Optic neuritis is a condition that can cause pain and vision loss. It often happens in connection with chronic autoimmune or inflammatory conditions.Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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Patient's Guide to Optic Neuritis - Brigham and Women's Hospital
An episode of Optic Neuritis typically begins with eye pain, especially with eye movements. Within a few days, patients will notice blurred vision in the ...
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Optic neuritis in pediatric population: A review in current tendencies ...
Feb 18, 2014 · It is normally bilateral and occurs after a viral infection (measles, mumps, chicken pox, pertussis, infectious mononucleosis and immunizations) ...
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Clinical features and visual outcomes of pediatric optic neuritis in the ...
Overall, painless visual loss was there in 28 patients (73.6%) and ... Optic neuritis in children:Clinical features and visual outcome. J Am Assoc ...
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Update on pediatric optic neuritis - PMC - PubMed Central
However, better recovery is seen in children, with 71–81% regaining VA of 20/20, in comparison to 50% of adults, a year after ON [6, 10*, 13]. Figure 1 ...
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Optic Neuritis - PMC - PubMed Central
This article discusses the clinical presentation, evaluation, and management of the patient with optic neuritis. Initial emphasis is placed on clinical ...
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Optic Neuritis in the Older Chinese Population: A 5-Year Follow-Up ...
... elderly patients (≥65 years), even though patients tend to present with more severe visual loss and poor recovery following classic steroid treatment.Missing: poorer | Show results with:poorer
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Epidemiology of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder and Its ...
Jun 26, 2020 · East Asians (Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans) appear to have a higher prevalence of NMOSD (around 3.5/100,000) as compared to Whites and other ...Prevalence Of Nmosd · Other Asians · Incidence Of Nmosd
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Racial differences in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder - PMC
During the disease course, Caucasian patients (23%) had a lower incidence of brain/brainstem involvement than Asian (42%) and Afro-American/Afro-European ...
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Pearls & Oy-sters: Optic Neuritis as First Demyelinating Event During ...
Jul 25, 2024 · In MS, a decreased risk of relapses during pregnancy, followed by an elevated risk of inflammatory activity postpartum, has been well described.
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[PDF] Approach to Optic Neuropathies - Brigham and Women's Hospital
This review presents a rational approach to the evaluation of an optic neuropathy, with a focus on conducting a history and examination, establishing a.
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Pain Symptoms in Optic Neuritis - PMC - PubMed Central
Apr 14, 2022 · The recovery of vision is also reported to be very poor ... Clinical characteristics of optic neuritis in Koreans greater than 50 years of age.Missing: elderly poorer
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Optic Neuritis and Neuropathy Clinical Presentation
Oct 1, 2025 · In a patient with a typical initial acute case of optic neuritis (ON), findings on a general physical examination are normal. Pupillary light ...
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Optic neuritis - Diagnosis & treatment - Mayo Clinic
Diagnosis · A routine eye exam. Your eye doctor will check your vision and your ability to perceive colors and measure your side (peripheral) vision.
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We detected pupillary defects in 96% of acute unilateral cases, 92% of recovered unilateral cases 91.7% of acute cases with evidence of optic neuropathy in the ...
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A window into the future? MRI for evaluation of neuromyelitis optica ...
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Magnetic resonance imaging in neuromyelitis optica spectrum ...
Key MR imaging clues to the diagnosis of NMOSD are longitudinally extensive lesions of the optic nerve (more than half the length) and spinal cord.
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Multiple Sclerosis Risk after Optic Neuritis - PubMed Central - NIH
The presence of brain MRI abnormalities at the time of an optic neuritis attack is a strong predictor of the 15-year risk of MS.
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Optic neuritis demonstrates distinct changes in both the acute and chronic phases detectable on OCT (10). Acutely, optic neuritis results in increased RNFL ...
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Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a non-invasive technique that allows imaging of the retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL).
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Nov 8, 2004 · Although a delayed P100 component often occurs in association with optic nerve disease, delays are also commonplace in macular dysfunction, and ...
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Dec 15, 2010 · This literature-based meta-analysis provides evidence that OCBs may have a high predictive value for the development of MS in patients with MON.
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Feb 27, 1992 · Intravenous methylprednisolone followed by oral prednisone speeds the recovery of visual loss due to optic neuritis and results in slightly better vision at ...
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Sep 7, 2023 · This manuscript presents practical recommendations for managing acute attacks and implementing preventive immunotherapies for neuromyelitis optica spectrum ...
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Optic Neuritis and Neuropathy Treatment & Management
Oct 1, 2025 · Plasma exchange has been used successfully in the treatment of steroid-refractory ON and NMOSD-ON. Depending on the study, improvement in visual ...
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How far should I manage acute optic neuritis as an ophthalmologist ...
Jun 12, 2024 · Optic neuritis (ON) is an inflammation of or around the optic nerve, frequently caused by infectious or immune-mediated inflammatory ...
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The current management of acute optic neuritis (ON) is focused on expediting visual recovery through the use of high-dose intravenous corticosteroids.
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Jun 18, 2025 · This review provides a focused overview of current therapies for demyelinating optic neuritis associated with MS, NMOSD, and MOGAD.Optic Neuritis: A... · 3.2. 2 Nmosd · 3.2. 3 Mogad
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The Effects of Disease‐Modifying Therapies on Optic Nerve ...
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Long-term Effectiveness and Safety of Rituximab in Neuromyelitis ...
This study provides Class IV evidence that rituximab decreases the annualized relapse rate in AQP4-IgG–seropositive NMOSD and MOGAD. Neuromyelitis optica ...
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Real-world multicentre cohort study on choices and effectiveness of ...
Results Rituximab and azathioprine are the most widely used immunotherapies in NMOSD as well as in MOGAD, with changes in distribution over the last decade.
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The Relationship Between OCT and VEP Parameters with Disability ...
Aug 28, 2025 · Together, these modalities offer valuable biomarkers for detecting subclinical damage, monitoring disease progression, and evaluating ...
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OCT and VEP correlate to disability in secondary progressive ...
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Immunization Guidance and Multiple Sclerosis - National MS Society
Live-attenuated vaccines are not recommended for individuals who have recently taken steroids or who take immunosuppressive disease-modifying therapies (DMTs).
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The Diagnosis and Treatment of Optic Neuritis - PMC
It is stated in the neurological and ophthalmological guidelines that optic neuritis should be treated with methylprednisolone at a dose of 500–1000 mg/day for ...
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Mar 28, 2025 · In this panel discussion, clinicians dive into the crucial role of neuro-ophthalmologists in diagnosing and managing visual symptoms in patients with multiple ...
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Management of optic neuritis - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Intravenous dexamethasone can be given to patients of acute optic neuritis as a substitute for methylprednisolone due to its easy availability and low cost.Diagnosis / Ancillary... · Role Of Steroids · Role Of Immunomodulators
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Visual Field Profile of Optic Neuritis: A Final Follow-up Report From ...
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Among the 278 patients with baseline visual acuity of 20/50 or worse, all patients improved at least one line of visual acuity, and all except six improved at ...
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Optic Neuritis Clinical Guide | Cleveland Clinic
Optic neuritis (ON) is a common manifestation of multiple sclerosis (MS), and refers to inflammation of the optic nerve.
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Nov 25, 2021 · Approximately 50% of the patients with MOGAD experienced relapses in the first 10 years. Among those not undergoing relapse-prevention ...
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Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (NMOSD) - StatPearls - NCBI
Jan 8, 2024 · NMOSD primarily targets the optic nerves, brainstem, and spinal cord, presenting a unique set of challenges for diagnosis and management.
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Trends in Optic Neuritis Incidence and Prevalence in the UK and ...
Oct 5, 2020 · This cohort study of more than 11 million patients found an ON incidence of 3.7 per 100 000 person-years, affecting 115 per 100 000 population in 2018.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Prevalence of pediatric and adult optic neuritis in the United States ...
Feb 26, 2025 · Data on the prevalence of optic neuritis (ON) is limited with reported rates between 5.5 and 115.3 per 100,000. The US data is even more ...
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Epidemiology of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody ...
Sep 15, 2023 · While prevalence and incidence data have been available for AQP4+ NMOSD globally, such data are only beginning to accumulate for MOGAD. We ...
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Population-Based Incidence of Optic Neuritis in the Era of Aquaporin ...
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Incidence of optic neuritis among Afro-descendant, a cohort study
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Optic Neuritis and Neuropathy: Background, Etiology, Pathophysiology
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https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2771173