Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Overarm bowling

Overarm bowling is the primary delivery action in cricket, in which the bowler releases the ball with the arm fully extended above shoulder height, allowing for greater speed, bounce, and variation compared to earlier underarm or roundarm methods.^[1] This technique became the standard form of bowling in the sport following its formal legalization by the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1864, marking a pivotal evolution in cricket's gameplay.^[2] The origins of overarm bowling trace back to the 19th century, when bowlers sought to gain an advantage by gradually raising their delivery arm beyond the restrictions of underarm bowling, which involved releasing the ball below waist height and dominated the game until around the 1800s.^[1] Roundarm bowling, legalized by the MCC in 1835 and characterized by the arm at shoulder level, served as an intermediate step, but bowlers like Edgar Willsher pushed boundaries by employing overarm actions, leading to controversies such as Willsher being no-balled six times during a match at The Oval in 1862.^[3] These incidents, including a temporary halt in play to replace umpires, highlighted the need for change and directly influenced the 1864 rule update that permitted overarm delivery without penalty.^[1] The adoption of overarm bowling profoundly transformed cricket, enabling faster deliveries and more dynamic tactics that elevated the bowler's role in dismissing batsmen, while also prompting subsequent regulations like the 15-degree elbow extension limit introduced in 2004 by the International Cricket Council (ICC).^[4] By the first Test match in 1877 between England and Australia, overarm had become the default action, contributing to the sport's increased competitiveness and global appeal throughout the modern era.^[2] Today, it remains integral to all formats of the game, from Test cricket to limited-overs variants, underscoring its enduring legacy in shaping cricket's strategic and physical demands.^[1]

Historical Development

Origins and Evolution

Underarm bowling, the original style in cricket, involved delivering the ball by rolling or skimming it along the ground, often in a lobbing motion to induce bounce.^[1] This technique dominated the sport from its early formalized rules in the 18th century until the late 1700s, when batsmen began exploiting its predictability to score freely with powerful drives.^[5] The limitations of underarm delivery, which restricted pace and variation, prompted bowlers to seek innovations that could challenge batting dominance and restore balance to the game.^[6] The transition to roundarm bowling emerged around 1800, with early experiments credited to Tom Walker of the Hambledon Club, who in 1788 attempted a higher delivery but was warned against it by his team for deviating from underarm norms.^[7] John Willes of Kent further popularized the style in the early 19th century, motivated by the need for increased pace and bounce to counter advancing batsmanship; he openly used roundarm in practice and matches despite initial resistance.^[7] An unverified anecdote attributes the innovation's inspiration to Willes's sister, Christina Willes, who in the early 1800s reportedly bowled roundarm to her brother in their garden because her voluminous skirts hindered the underarm action.^[8] These developments marked a deliberate push for greater athleticism in bowling, allowing the arm to swing from shoulder height rather than below the waist.^[5] Debates over roundarm's fairness intensified from 1827 to 1835, fueled by accusations that it unfairly altered the ball's trajectory and gave bowlers an undue advantage, leading to trial matches between All-England and Sussex sides to test its impact.^[7] The controversy culminated in partial acceptance by 1835, when the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) revised the laws to permit the hand to reach shoulder level, effectively legalizing roundarm and phasing out underarm as the primary style.^[5] This shift set the stage for further evolution in the 1850s and 1860s, as bowlers like Edgar Willsher experimented with raising the arm fully above the shoulder to achieve even greater speed and deceptive variations, driven by the ongoing quest to outpace increasingly sophisticated batting techniques.^[1] Willsher's deliberate overarm trials, though initially contentious, accelerated the move toward the modern overarm action that would soon become standard.^[7]

Legalization and Key Events

In 1835, the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) amended the Laws of Cricket to legalize roundarm bowling, permitting bowlers to raise their arm to shoulder height during delivery, though full overarm actions were still deemed "throwing" and prohibited.^[7]^[9] This change followed years of controversy and widespread use of roundarm despite initial resistance from umpires and traditionalists.^[7] A pivotal controversy arose on 26 August 1862 during a match between Surrey and an All-England XI at The Oval, where England bowler Edgar Willsher was no-balled six times in succession by umpire John Lillywhite for deliberately using an overarm action.^[1]^[3] In protest, Willsher and eight other England fielders walked off the field, halting play and sparking significant public outcry that highlighted the growing demand for overarm acceptance.^[1] The umpires were subsequently replaced to allow the match to resume without further interruptions. The incident underscored the impracticality of enforcing outdated restrictions and contributed to the push for reform.^[1] Responding to mounting pressure, the MCC revised Law 10 in 1864 to permit overarm bowling, stipulating that the bowler's arm must remain straight and not bent at the elbow during release to avoid classification as a throw.^[7]^[3] This landmark adjustment effectively ended prohibitions on arm height, allowing bowlers greater freedom while maintaining fairness standards.^[1] Following the 1864 change, overarm bowling rapidly gained prominence and became the standard delivery method in professional cricket, including the inaugural Test match in 1877 between England and Australia.^[3] Although underarm persisted in some informal and lower-level play into the early 20th century, overarm's adoption transformed the sport's dynamics by enabling faster and more varied bowling.^[7]

Technique and Mechanics

Delivery Action

The delivery action in overarm bowling, as practiced in cricket, consists of a coordinated sequence of phases that generate momentum, transfer energy, and propel the ball toward the batsman while maintaining balance and control. The process begins with the run-up, where the bowler starts approximately 15 to 30 meters behind the bowling crease to build horizontal velocity through a series of controlled strides.^[10] This phase contributes 15 to 19 percent of the final ball release speed by gradually accelerating the bowler's body mass, with arms pumping rhythmically and the head kept steady to ensure alignment toward the target.^[10] Excessive speed in the run-up, exceeding about 85 percent of maximum sprint capacity, can lead to loss of control, but optimal approach velocities around 5 meters per second facilitate efficient momentum transfer.^[11] In the load phase, immediately following the run-up, the bowler plants the back foot (the non-bowling-side foot) upon landing from a leaping pre-delivery stride, pivoting on that leg to initiate rotation. This back-foot contact generates vertical ground reaction forces up to 2.9 times body weight and braking forces around 1 body weight, redirecting momentum forward while aligning the body in either a side-on or front-on position relative to the target.^[10] The bowling arm is drawn back above shoulder height during this pivot, with shoulders rotating to become perpendicular to the crease, setting up the torso for counter-rotation and loading elastic energy in the hips and core.^[12] The non-bowling arm acts as a counterbalance, often extended forward to stabilize the upper body against the backward lean, which can reach about 10 degrees in side-on actions.^[10] The release point occurs during the delivery stride, as the front foot plants firmly to transfer the bowler's weight forward, producing peak vertical ground reaction forces of 4 to 6 times body weight and braking forces up to 4.47 times body weight.^[10] The elbow leads the bowling arm in a near-straight path downward from its loaded position, with the front knee extending to an angle greater than 150 degrees for optimal energy transfer and a braced leg to minimize collapse, which affects 86 percent of sub-elite bowlers and reduces efficiency.^[11]^[12] The ball is released at a height typically around head level or slightly above—approximately 107 to 112 percent of the bowler's standing height—allowing for trajectory control through wrist flexion and arm circumduction, which together contribute 41 to 50 percent of the release speed.^[10]^[12] Following release, the follow-through phase ensures safe deceleration and recovery, with the bowling arm continuing its path downward across the body toward the opposite thigh, while the non-bowling arm folds inward for balance.^[12] This controlled slowing occurs over 2 to 3 recovery steps aligned toward the batsman, dissipating remaining momentum to prevent injury from abrupt stops, particularly to the lower back and shoulders.^[10] Poor follow-through alignment, observed in 83 percent of analyzed amateur actions, can compromise overall technique and increase strain.^[11] The overarm action leverages basic physics to achieve high velocities, up to 161.3 km/h in elite fast bowling, through sequential kinetic chain activation: hip drive initiates pelvic rotation, followed by shoulder counter-rotation that amplifies arm speed via torque generation across the torso.^[13] This separation between hips and shoulders at back-foot contact—often exceeding 30 degrees—transfers linear run-up momentum into angular velocity, with the upper arm reaching near-vertical positions (around 200 degrees relative to the trunk) to maximize projection efficiency.^[12] Grip adjustments at release can subtly influence trajectory for different deliveries, but the core mechanics remain centered on this rotational leverage.^[10]

Grip and Release

In overarm bowling, the standard seam grip involves placing the index and middle fingers on either side of the seam, with the thumb positioned underneath the ball for support and control, allowing the bowler to maintain a firm yet relaxed hold that facilitates accurate release. This grip, often with the fingers slightly spread apart, ensures the seam remains vertical for straight deliveries, while the third finger can be bent to tuck against the ball for added stability. Variations include a two-finger grip, using only the index and middle fingers without the thumb for certain swing deliveries, or a three-finger grip incorporating the ring finger along the seam to alter trajectory and enhance seam movement.^[14]^[15]^[16] The release mechanics emphasize a fully extended arm passing over the shoulder, with the hand positioned behind the ball to impart forward momentum, culminating in a sharp wrist snap at the point of release to generate backspin for increased bounce or sidespin for lateral deviation. For seam movement, finger positioning orients the seam upright for conventional straight bounce, while tilting it—such as pointing toward slips for outswing or fine leg for inswing—exploits atmospheric conditions to create swing, with the polished side of the ball facing the direction of desired deviation. The wrist cock, initiated during the arm's downward path, must be precise to avoid over-rotation, ensuring the ball follows the intended flight path.^[15]^[14]^[16] Common errors in grip and release include an overly tight hold with the thumb pressing too hard, which restricts wrist flexibility and reduces pace, or an early release before full arm extension, leading to loss of velocity and erratic direction often resulting in wides. Improper wrist cock, such as failing to keep it straight and behind the ball, can cause inconsistent seam presentation and poor control, while misalignment of fingers away from the seam may prevent effective spin or swing. These issues are mitigated through drills focusing on relaxed grips and timed releases. The standard cricket ball, weighing 155.9 to 163 grams, is essential for achieving predictable flight paths, as its leather cover and raised seam interact with air to enable these techniques.^[14]^[15]^[17]

Variations in Overarm Bowling

Pace Variations

Fast bowling, a primary pace variation in overarm bowling, involves delivering the ball at high velocities typically ranging from 140 to 160 km/h to overwhelm batsmen with speed and bounce.^[18] This raw pace is generated through a combination of a lengthy run-up, explosive hip and shoulder rotation, and a sling-like arm action that maximizes kinetic energy transfer from the bowler's body to the ball.^[19] Elite express bowlers, such as Shoaib Akhtar who reached 161 km/h, rely on this technique to surprise batsmen, often exploiting seam movement or sheer velocity to induce edges or hurried defensive shots.^[18] The bouncer represents a tactical subtype of fast bowling, where a short-pitched delivery is directed to rear up to chest or head height, intimidating the batsman and disrupting their rhythm.^[20] Bowled with the same high-arm overarm action as standard fast deliveries, the bouncer climbs steeply off the pitch due to its length and pace, forcing batsmen into evasive actions or risky pulls and hooks.^[21] While integral to overarm bowling since its legalization in 1864, which enabled greater speed and trajectory control, the bouncer faced scrutiny during the 1930s Bodyline series, leading to modern restrictions such as limiting short-pitched balls to two per over in One Day Internationals and one per over in Twenty20 Internationals to prevent intimidation.^[22] To counter aggressive batting, fast bowlers employ slower ball variations that reduce velocity while preserving the overarm action, deceiving batsmen through pace contrast rather than spin.^[23] In recent T20 cricket as of 2025, variations like slower bouncers have gained prominence for their surprise element. Common examples include cutters, where the ball is gripped and released with finger pressure to impart subtle seam deviation at speeds 10-20 km/h below the bowler's stock pace, and knuckleballs, which use the knuckles to grip and flick the ball for an erratic dip and slower trajectory.^[24] These variations, popularized in T20 cricket by bowlers like Andrew Tye, maintain the illusion of full pace until the ball hangs in the air, often resulting in mistimed lofted shots.^[25] Optimal body alignment is crucial for generating express pace, with the side-on stance—where the bowler's hips and shoulders align perpendicular to the target at back-foot contact—being favored by modern quicks for its efficiency in harnessing torso twist and shoulder counter-rotation.^[26] This technique allows for a delayed arm circumduction and straighter knee extension during delivery; studies have identified key technique variables, including delayed arm circumduction and straighter knee extension, along with run-up speed and trunk flexion, that together explain up to 74% of the variance in ball release speed among elite bowlers.^[27] In contrast to the front-on stance, which aligns the body more directly toward the batsman, the side-on action is associated with lower ground reaction force loading rates.^[26] Repetitive high-speed overarm actions in fast bowling impose significant stress on the shoulder and lower back, elevating injury risks such as lumbar stress fractures and rotator cuff strains.^[28] Biomechanical studies highlight that mixed actions, combining side-on and front-on elements, increase lumbar shear forces, while overuse in adolescent bowlers correlates with a high incidence of spondylolysis, reported in studies as 15-30% prevalence.^[29] These findings have spurred modern interventions, including workload monitoring and technique modifications, to mitigate chronic issues prevalent among pace bowlers.^[30]

Spin Variations

Spin variations in overarm bowling rely on the bowler's fingers or wrist to impart rotational force on the ball, creating turn and deception upon pitching, which distinguishes them from pace-oriented deliveries that emphasize linear speed.^[31] This technique evolved from roundarm styles in the mid-19th century, with full overarm legalization in 1864 by the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), allowing greater height and control for spin generation compared to the restricted arm raise in roundarm bowling.^[7] Overarm action enables bowlers to loop the ball higher, enhancing flight and dip while maintaining deception through subtle wrist or finger flicks during release. Off-spin, typically delivered by a right-arm bowler, involves the fingers imparting clockwise rotation (viewed from above), causing the ball to turn from off to leg for a right-handed batsman after pitching.^[31] The grip features the first finger placed over the seam, with the ball held tightly and released via a finger flick rather than mere wrist rolling, allowing the ball to drift in the air before turning sharply on contact with the pitch.^[31] This variation targets the batsman's outside edge by pitching on or around off stump, exploiting footwork errors. Leg-spin employs a wrist-dominant action for counterclockwise rotation, turning the ball from leg to off toward a right-handed batsman, often with pronounced bounce due to the wrist snap.^[31] The grip positions the first and second fingers around the seam, the third finger supporting underneath, and the thumb lightly steadying, with the seam initially pointing toward slip; release occurs with the wrist cocked and flicked sharply to drive the spin.^[31] For leg-spin, the back of the hand faces the batsman at release, optimizing wrist flexibility and control over trajectory.^[31] A key deception within leg-spin is the googly, bowled with the same grip but released over the little finger from the back of the hand, rotating the wrist oppositely so the seam points toward fine leg and the ball turns away from the right-hander like an off-break.^[31] The arm ball serves as a straight delivery mimicking spin pace but without significant turn, released with a straight arm to skid onto the batsman after pitching.^[32] In left-arm orthodox spin (equivalent to right-arm off-spin), it is gripped with the index and middle fingers spread across the seam, the ball resting against the third finger, and released with minimal wrist turn to go straight on, often drifting in before continuing without deviation.^[32] Flight and dip are achieved through overarm height and spin rate, creating a looping trajectory that slows in the air due to air resistance and Magnus effect, luring the batsman into mistimed shots. High revolutions per minute (RPMs), combined with bowling into the wind, cause the ball to "dip" sharply upon nearing the batsman, as reduced spin allows gravity to pull it downward faster than anticipated. This overarm evolution from roundarm improved dip control by permitting higher release points, enhancing deception over earlier flatter trajectories.^[7]

Rules and Legality

Definition of Legal Bowling

In cricket, a legal overarm delivery is governed by Law 21 of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) Laws of Cricket, which requires that the ball be bowled rather than thrown. Under Law 21.2 (Fair delivery – the arm), the elbow joint is not straightened partially or completely from the instant the bowler's arm reaches the level of the shoulder in the delivery swing until the ball has left the hand. This definition shall not debar a bowler from flexing or rotating the wrist in the delivery swing. Overarm bowling—where the hand is above the shoulder height at release—is permitted as the standard action. A throw is deemed unfair if the elbow straightens from a flexed position after the arm passes the horizontal until the ball is released, though natural wrist flexion and rotation are allowed.^[33] To accommodate natural hyperextension in bowling actions, the International Cricket Council (ICC) introduced the 15-degree rule in 2004, permitting a maximum elbow flexion of 15 degrees during the delivery swing for all bowlers, regardless of pace or spin. This threshold was refined in 2005 through updated testing protocols to enhance precision in measurement, using biomechanical analysis at accredited centers to assess elbow extension between the arm's horizontal position and release. If the elbow extends beyond 15 degrees or involves a jerking motion, the delivery is classified as a throw, resulting in a no-ball penalty, a free hit in limited-overs formats, and potential warnings or suspension for repeat offenses under Law 21.3.^[34]^[4] Historically, the 1864 revision of the laws legalized overarm bowling but mandated a fully straight arm to distinguish it from throwing, focusing on visual judgment without quantitative tolerances. In contrast, modern enforcement relies on advanced biomechanical tools for objective verification, ensuring fairness while recognizing physiological variations in arm actions. An exception exists for underarm deliveries, which are prohibited in all matches unless both captains agree prior to the start of play, typically limited to non-international games.^[35]^[33]

Enforcement and Controversies

The enforcement of overarm bowling legality in cricket primarily falls to on-field umpires, who are responsible for identifying and reporting suspect actions during matches using visual observation or standard video footage, including slow-motion replays for confirmation.^[36] If an umpire or match referee suspects a contravention of the elbow extension limit, they submit a formal report to the International Cricket Council (ICC), triggering a structured review process.^[36] Post-match, ICC-accredited panels conduct independent assessments, utilizing high-speed video analysis and 3D motion capture modeling at specialized biomechanical laboratories to measure elbow flexion-extension precisely from the upper arm horizontal position to the point of ball release.^[36] A notable period of controversy arose during the 2014 "chucking crisis," when the ICC intensified scrutiny on suspect actions, leading to suspensions for several prominent bowlers whose elbow extensions exceeded the 15-degree threshold. Enforcement controversies have continued into the 2020s, with cases such as Bangladesh all-rounder Shakib Al Hasan's suspension in December 2024 for an illegal action during county cricket, which affected his international eligibility, and Zimbabwe's Kelis Ndhlovu's ban in August 2025, highlighting persistent challenges in consistent application as of November 2025.^[37]^[38] Pakistan's Saeed Ajmal was indefinitely suspended from international bowling in September 2014 after biomechanical testing confirmed illegal extension in his off-spin deliveries, effectively sidelining him until clearance in February 2015.^[39] Similarly, West Indies spinner Shane Shillingford faced suspension in December 2013 for excessive elbow bend and was cleared after modifying his action in early 2014.^[40] This wave of bans, affecting multiple players including Mohammad Hafeez and Angelo Mathews, sparked debates on the fairness of retroactive testing and the impact on careers, with critics arguing the ICC's crackdown disrupted team strategies mid-series.^[41] Technological advancements play a central role in these assessments, with biomechanical laboratories employing calibrated high-speed cameras and proprietary software to quantify elbow angles, accounting for variations in bowling styles such as front-on, side-on, or mixed actions through standardized protocols that isolate extension from natural hyperextension.^[36] While systems like Hawk-Eye provide supplementary video tracking for match officials, the core measurement relies on 3D modeling to ensure objectivity, though tolerances remain uniform at 15 degrees across styles to maintain equity.^[42] Bowlers reported for illegal actions enter an appeals process, where they may undergo remedial training to correct their technique and request re-testing at an ICC-accredited center, potentially lifting suspensions upon clearance; this mirrors historical disputes, such as the 1862 incident at The Oval where English bowler Edgar Willsher was no-balled six times for overarm delivery, prompting his teammates to walk off in protest and accelerating rule clarifications.^[1]^[36] Enforcement exhibits global variations, with stricter oversight in international cricket governed directly by ICC regulations and panels, often resulting in immediate suspensions, compared to domestic leagues where national boards may apply more lenient monitoring or delayed reviews due to resource constraints.^[36] This disparity has led to instances where bowlers cleared domestically face international bans, underscoring the need for harmonized standards across formats.

Impact on the Game

Changes to Gameplay

The legalization of overarm bowling by the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1864 marked a pivotal shift in cricket, introducing greater pace and bounce that diminished the previous dominance of batsmen accustomed to slower underarm deliveries. This change compelled batsmen to adopt more aggressive techniques to counter the increased speed and trajectory, often resulting in shorter innings compared to the protracted matches of the underarm era, where batsmen could occupy the crease for extended periods due to the ball's low velocity and minimal deviation.^[1]^[43] Tactically, overarm bowling facilitated aggressive strategies, most notably exemplified in the 1932-33 Ashes series when England employed bodyline tactics—short-pitched deliveries aimed at the batsman's body with a clustered leg-side field—to neutralize Australia's dominant batsman Don Bradman, leading to injuries and diplomatic tensions. These tactics prompted immediate MCC interventions, including a 1933 ban on deliberate body targeting and subsequent 1934 restrictions limiting the number of fielders on the leg side behind square to no more than two, which curtailed such intimidatory approaches and enhanced player safety while preserving competitive balance.^[44]^[45] The heightened speed and seam movement from overarm deliveries also revolutionized fielding, enabling positions like slips and gully to exploit edges off the bat; slips, placed behind the batsman on the off-side, became essential for catching deflections from fast bowlers, often with up to four in place during aggressive phases, while the gully fielder covered the gap between slips and point for additional close catches. This adjustment transformed defensive strategies, shifting emphasis from broad ground coverage to precise slip cordons that pressured batsmen into riskier shots.^[46] Overarm bowling accelerated the game's overall evolution, transitioning from multi-day underarm contests characterized by slow scoring to modern formats like Test matches, One-Day Internationals (ODIs), and Twenty20 (T20) cricket, where bowlers leverage variations such as yorkers—full-length deliveries targeting the base of the stumps—and slower balls to disrupt timing and induce errors. These innovations shortened match durations and promoted dynamic play, with T20 innings often concluding in under three hours compared to the days-long underarm games of the 18th century.^[23]^[47] Statistically, the introduction of overarm bowling initially resulted in first-innings scores averaging around 300 in the late 19th and early 20th centuries amid bowler-friendly conditions, reflecting reduced run accumulation compared to later eras. In contemporary Tests, however, overall batting strike rates have risen from the low 40s in the 1990s to the low 50s as of 2023, attributable to advanced bowling variations that force adaptive, higher-tempo batting while maintaining wicket-taking opportunities.^[48]^[49]

Notable Overarm Bowlers

One of the earliest pioneers of overarm bowling was Edgar Willsher, an English cricketer who in the 1860s pushed the boundaries of the delivery style despite initial resistance from umpires. During a match between England and Surrey at The Oval in 1862, Willsher was no-balled six times in succession for bowling overarm, leading him and eight teammates to walk off the field in protest; this incident highlighted the growing tension over bowling actions and contributed to the Marylebone Cricket Club's legalization of overarm bowling in 1864.^[1]^[50] In the early 1900s, Sydney Barnes emerged as a master of swing bowling using the overarm action, revolutionizing the technique with his ability to generate sharp movement both in the air and off the pitch. Playing for England in 27 Test matches between 1901 and 1914, Barnes claimed 189 wickets at an average of 16.43, often employing a medium-fast pace that combined seam movement with late swing to devastating effect.^[51] Among fast bowlers, Malcolm Marshall of the West Indies exemplified overarm pace and accuracy in the 1980s, forming part of a formidable quartet that dominated international cricket. In 81 Tests, Marshall took 376 wickets at an average of 20.94— the lowest among bowlers with over 200 Test dismissals—using his high-arm action to produce bouncers, inswingers, and precise yorkers that troubled batsmen worldwide.^[52]^[53] This tally, achieved primarily through overarm seam bowling, stood as the West Indies' record until 1998 and underscored his role in transforming fast bowling's tactical depth.^[52] South Africa's Dale Steyn carried the overarm fast bowling legacy into the 2000s with express pace and subtle variations, including reverse swing and aggressive bouncers that made him one of the era's most feared exponents. Over 93 Tests from 2004 to 2019, Steyn secured 439 wickets at an average of 22.95 and a strike rate of 42.3, ranking him among the top fast bowlers since 2000 for his ability to maintain high speeds above 140 km/h while varying lengths and lines effectively.^[54]^[55] In spin bowling, Shane Warne revived leg-spin through overarm delivery in the 1990s and 2000s, blending flight, drift, and sharp turn to captivate global audiences. Debuting for Australia in 1992, Warne took 708 Test wickets at 25.41, but his defining moment came in the 1993 Ashes at Old Trafford, where his first ball in England—known as the "Ball of the Century"—drifted past Mike Gatting before spinning back to clip the off stump, igniting a leg-spin renaissance.^[56] Sri Lanka's Muttiah Muralitharan further innovated overarm spin with his wrist-spin technique, imparting exceptional flight and turn on off-breaks and variations like the doosra during the 1990s and 2000s. As the highest wicket-taker in Test history with 800 dismissals at 22.72, Muralitharan's hyperextended arm and wrist flick allowed him to generate prodigious spin from overarm release, deceiving batsmen with balls that either turned away or straightened unexpectedly.^[57]^[58] Highlighting diversity in overarm bowling, Australia's Cathryn Fitzpatrick dominated women's cricket as a fast bowler from the 1990s to mid-2000s, recognized for her express pace that reached up to 125 km/h. In 13 Tests and 109 ODIs, she claimed 60 Test wickets at 19.11 and became the first woman to reach 100 ODI wickets (180 total at 16.56), using her high overarm action to deliver searing yorkers and bouncers that established her as the fastest female bowler of her generation.^[59]^[60]

References

[1]
Cricket's turning points: Overarm bowling | ESPNcricinfo
Dec 5, 2009 · By the 1860s, roundarm bowling was the norm, but the bowlers were trying to sneak the hand above the shoulder, as what we would recognise today ...
[2]
History of Cricket in the 19th Century | About ICC Cricket
In 1864 overarm bowling was legalised, 1864 also marked a notable first with the publication of the first Wisden Cricketers' Almanack which continues to this ...
[3]
Of chuckers & 15-degree law that governs cricketers' fairness
Oct 27, 2025 · The law, as drafted by MCC at that time, stated that while bowling overarm or underarm, the arm should be straight at the elbow and the ball ...
[4]
Cricket - Rules, Strategy, Tactics - Britannica
Oct 24, 2025 · The argument centred on whether the bowler should be allowed to raise his arm above the shoulder. As a result of this controversy, the bowler ...
[5]
The age of the lobsters: when underarm bowling was king | Cricket
Sep 25, 2018 · It has not been seen regularly in a first-class game for almost 100 years but there was a time when 'lob' bowling was highly successful and used to humiliate ...
[6]
The evolution of bowling | ESPNcricinfo
May 27, 2006 · On July 15, 1822, Willes bowled round-arm for Kent against MCC at Lord's and was no-balled. Willis threw the ball down, mounted his horse, and ...
[7]
The mothers of invention - ESPNcricinfo
Mar 26, 2009 · Englishwoman Christina Willes was apparently so fed up with tangling her arm in her skirt when bowling underarm to her brother John, a Kent ...Missing: anecdote | Show results with:anecdote
[8]
William Lillywhite: The 'Nonpareil' who revolutionised round-arm ...
Jun 13, 2016 · The induction into cricket of the “round-arm” style of bowling was neither without its fair share of controversies nor without its share of ...
[9]
[PDF] A Biomechanical Analysis of Fast Bowling Variations | Paul Felton
Although run up technique is different from bowler to bowler, they all gather momentum by gradually increasing their speed before leaping into the air for the ...
[10]
Q4E Case Study 18 – Cricket Bowling - Quintic Sports
Phase 4: Front Foot Contact (FFC) Phase 5: Ball Release (BR) Phase 6: Follow Through (FT). Throughout the bowling action the following key biomechanical ...
[11]
[PDF] biomechanics of the bowling delivery in cricket:a critical analysis
1) Run-up to back foot contact, 2) pre-delivery, 3) delivery stride and 4) follow through (McGrath et al., 1996). 4.1.1) Run-up to back foot contact: The first ...
[12]
Fastest delivery of a cricket ball (male) - Guinness World Records
The highest electronically measured speed for a ball bowled by any bowler is 161.3 km/h (100.23 mph) by Shoaib Akhtar (Pakistan) against England on 22 February ...
[13]
[PDF] CRICKET COACHING GUIDE - Special Olympics
Technique) T round, retrieve t target. Step for no Batting T pla tee (on top ... grip the ball w seam, under the air's catcher ch. Coaching d ed batter ...
[14]
[PDF] Cricket Book for PDF
The first essential of effective bowling is that the student adopts the correct grip (see. Figure 8). THE BASIC GRIP. Method: Seam vertical. Thumb on edge of.
[15]
[PDF] Kwata-Cricket-Coaching-Manual.pdf
Batting : grip, stance, back lift, running between wickets b. Bowling : grip, run-up, bowling action, follow through c. Fielding : close catching, outfield ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
https://cricketnamibia.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Kwata-Cricket-Coaching-Manual.pdf
[17]
The pace race between Shoaib Akhtar, Brett Lee and ... - ESPNcricinfo
Aug 11, 2013 · Akhtar now stood alone as the fastest bowler in the world. He had just bowled a full 1.2kph faster than Lee's best of 156kph (97.0mph). Only ...Missing: range | Show results with:range
[18]
The biomechanics of fast bowling in men's cricket: a review - PubMed
This review concentrates on synthesizing and analysing the biomechanical research which has been carried out on fast bowling in men's cricket.
[19]
Good fast bowlers don't happen by accident - ESPNcricinfo
Dec 23, 2002 · "There are slight variations and different techniques that can make one ball like 10 different types of balls. You've got your bouncer, yorker, ...
[20]
'Fast bowling is about imposing yourself on the batsman'
Oct 17, 2012 · Fast bowling involves action, timing, rhythm, energy, a good wrist position, and a smart approach to impose on the batsman. It requires a brain ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[21]
Renault zone - ESPNcricinfo
Two years later overarm bowling was legalised - which is why cricket ... law amended in 1994 to incorporate two bouncers per over. One-day cricket took ...Missing: legalization | Show results with:legalization
[22]
The great taboo | ESPNcricinfo
Nov 1, 2014 · To bowl a string of malicious bouncers trying to pin a tailender backing towards square-leg these days is to show commendable commitment and ...
[23]
All Out Cricket: The evolution of the slower delivery | ESPNcricinfo
Nov 14, 2015 · Jo Harman charts the evolution of the slowie, from Franklyn's first moon balls through to the smorgasbord of cutters, splitters and back-of-the-handers that we ...
[24]
Harshal Patel: 'There's nothing wrong in bowling 24 slower balls in a ...
Oct 11, 2022 · And as a fast bowler you want to see the speed gun touching 137-138, and my quick balls can get through that ceiling. You want to do that. You ...
[25]
Decoding Andrew Tye's knuckleball - The Cricket Monthly
Apr 29, 2017 · Decoding Andrew Tye's knuckleball. The fast bowler from Western Australia speaks about the slower delivery he has made his own, to great effect.Missing: cutters | Show results with:cutters
[26]
A biomechanical comparison of conventional classifications of ...
Fast bowling is categorised into four action types: side-on, front-on, semi-open and mixed; however, little biomechanical comparison exists between action ...
[27]
Relationships between fast bowling technique and ball release ...
Fastest bowlers have a quicker run-up, straighter knee, more upper trunk flexion, and delay arm circumduction, which explain 74% of ball release speed ...Missing: pace | Show results with:pace
[28]
Back injuries and the fast bowler in cricket - PubMed
Fast bowlers are classified as side-on, front-on or mixed. The mixed action is categorized by the lower body configuration of the front-on action and the ...
[29]
Lumbar vertebral stress injuries in fast bowlers: a review ... - PubMed
Potential risk factors identified include bowling action, overuse, age, lumbar muscle asymmetry and physical characteristics.
[30]
Cricket Fast Bowling Technique and Lumbar Bone Stress Injury
Mar 1, 2021 · Significant differences were found between injured and noninjured bowlers in rear knee angle, rear hip angle, thoracolumbar side flexion angle, ...
[31]
Injury Prevention Strategies for Adolescent Cricket Pace Bowlers
Adolescent cricket pace bowlers are prone to non-contact shoulder, low back and lower-limb injuries. Exercise-based injury prevention programmes (IPPs) are ...<|separator|>
[32]
Spin bowling | ESPNcricinfo
To spin the ball, you must use your fingers. Hold the ball tight with the first finger over the seam and, at the time the ball is leaving the hand, flick it ...Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[33]
BBC Sport - Cricket - Left-arm spin explained
A left-arm spin delivery turns from the leg side to the off when bowled at a right-handed batsman. It's bowled in the same way as a right-arm off spinner ...<|separator|>
[34]
No Ball – The Laws Of Cricket | Lord's
21.2 Fair delivery – the arm. For a delivery to be fair in respect of the arm the ball must not be thrown. A ball is fairly delivered in respect of the arm ...
[35]
Illegal Bowling Actions | About ICC Cricket
An Illegal Bowling Action is where a player is throwing rather than bowling the ball. This is defined by the ICC as being where the player's elbow extends.Missing: overarm | Show results with:overarm<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Cricket's Turning Points: The 15-degree rule - ESPNcricinfo
Aug 7, 2011 · ... 2004, the ICC set a uniform 15-degree limit for all bowlers. Given all the complex calculations involved, the umpires only name the suspect ...
[37]
Straighten the law | ESPNcricinfo
Nov 18, 2005 · The laws are very specific: a bowler's arm, once it gets to shoulder height, should stay straight until delivery. If it's bent, then it should ...
[38]
[PDF] icc regulations for the review of bowlers with suspected illegal ...
suspected Illegal Bowling Actions – and the consequences of confirmed. Illegal Bowling Actions – between National Cricket Federations and the ICC. Unless ...
[39]
Chucking crackdown 20 years too late - Hair - ESPNcricinfo
Oct 13, 2014 · Former international umpire Darrell Hair has said the ICC's crackdown on bowlers with suspect actions has come 20 years too late.
[40]
Saeed Ajmal: Pakistan spinner banned over bowling action - BBC
Sep 9, 2014 · Pakistan spinner Saeed Ajmal is suspended after the International Cricket Council deems his bowling action to be illegal.Missing: 2014-2016 chucking crisis
[41]
Saeed Ajmal banned from bowling - ESPNcricinfo
Sep 9, 2014 · December 2013 - Shane Shillingford suspended from bowling, cleared in March 2014; Marlon Samuels prohibited from bowling quicker deliveries.Missing: 2014-2016 chucking crisis
[42]
Saeed Ajmal: latest clampdown in cricket's 'chucking' debate may be ...
Aug 12, 2014 · Andy Bull: The shades of grey that exist in cricket's longest-running dispute may soon be solved by wearable technology.Missing: 2014-2016 | Show results with:2014-2016
[43]
ICC news: Independent tests for ball-tracking systems - ESPNcricinfo
Feb 15, 2012 · The most contentious aspect of the DRS - the ball-tracker - is being put to the test by the ICC to establish the accuracy of Hawk-eye and ...
[44]
Evolution Of The Over Arm Bowling Action - Howzattt Cricket
Apr 16, 2021 · The original underarm bowling action used in cricket. Up until the 19th century, bowling under arm was the norm for bowlers.
[45]
Bodyline - ESPN
Aug 11, 2007 · "Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game, making protection of the body by the batsmen the ...Missing: impact gameplay<|separator|>
[46]
Bodyline | National Museum of Australia
Sep 1, 2025 · The 1932–33 Ashes series is the most controversial in the history of Australian-English Test cricket. The English team, desperate to contain ...Missing: gameplay | Show results with:gameplay
[47]
Evolution of fielding positions in cricket and their strategic use
### Summary: Influence of Overarm Bowling on Fielding Positions (Slips and Gully)
[48]
Formats of the Game | About ICC Cricket
Nov 7, 2023 · There are three formats of cricket played at the international level – Test matches, One-Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals.
[49]
Anantha Narayanan: Analysing Test matches across eras - part I
Apr 13, 2013 · Look at the 7% increase in the average first-innings score; it is now around 340-350. And a very significant increase in the wins by teams ...
[50]
A statistical look at how cricket has changed over the past 30 years
Apr 17, 2023 · The overall batting strike rate in Tests has risen from the low 40s in the 1990s to the low 50s, and even in years such as 2019, when the ...
[51]
Ned Willsher Profile - Cricket Player England | Stats, Records, Video
Edgar Willsher. Born. November 22, 1828, Little Halden Farm, Rolvenden ... overarm bowling. In 1868 he led a side on a tour of Canada and the United ...Missing: shift | Show results with:shift
[52]
Sydney Barnes Profile - Cricket Player England | Stats, Records, Video
Yet against Barnes's fantastically swinging, bouncing, late-turning attack on ... Sydney Barnes shows his bowling action. Sydney Barnes demonstrates his ...Records · Stats · Matches · Videos
[53]
Malcolm Marshall - Cricket Player West Indies - ESPNcricinfo
But Marshall's average of 20.94 is unsurpassed by any bowler who has taken 200 Test wickets. Marshall continued playing for Hampshire for the next two ...Records · Stats · Matches · Videos
[54]
Malcolm Marshall - West Indies - ICC Hall of Famers | ICC
Considered the best of West Indies quicks of the 1980s, Malcolm Marshall took 376 Test wickets at a staggering average of 20.94. He took 22 5-wicket hauls, and ...
[55]
Dale Steyn, the greatest fast bowler of the century | ESPNcricinfo
Jul 18, 2018 · Among fast bowlers who have taken over 200 wickets since 2000, Steyn's average of 22.42 is third-best, behind those of Glenn McGrath and Vernon ...Missing: style | Show results with:style
[56]
Dale Steyn Profile - Cricket Player South Africa | Stats, Records, Video
Full Name. Dale Willem Steyn ; Born. June 27, 1983, Phalaborwa ; Age. 42y 139d ; Batting Style. Right hand Bat ; Bowling Style. Right arm Fast.Stats · Matches · Records · Videos
[57]
Rewind to 1993: The ball of the century | ESPNcricinfo
Aug 2, 2013 · "With the ball to Gatting, all I tried to do was pitch on leg stump and spin it a fair way," Warne later recalled. "As it left my hand it ...
[58]
Murali: The man who reinvented spin bowling - BBC News
Jul 22, 2010 · Muralitharan is the man who remembers everything. He brought to the craft a new way of doing things, converting a finger-spinning exercise into ...Missing: technique | Show results with:technique
[59]
Muthiah Muralidaran - Cricket Player Sri Lanka - ESPNcricinfo
Muttiah Muralitharan, Murali. Batting Style. Right hand Bat. Bowling Style. Right arm Offbreak. Playing Role. Bowler. Height. 5ft 7in. Education. St Anthony's ...Stats · Matches · Records · VideosMissing: technique | Show results with:technique
[60]
Cathryn Fitzpatrick Profile - Cricket Player Australia | Stats, Records ...
16 years as the world's fastest bowler, Cathryn Fitzpatrick then moved into coaching, taking the acting head coach role with Australia in May 2007.
[61]
Cathryn Fitzpatrick: The female Brett Lee | ESPNcricinfo
Jul 7, 2001 · She's been described as the female Brett Lee. As the world's fastest bowler in women's cricket Cathryn Fitzpatrick keeps getting asked the same ...