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Gully

A gully is a landform consisting of a deep, narrow trench or channel incised into soil or sediment primarily by the concentrated flow of surface runoff water, mass movement, or both, at least 0.3 m (1 ft) in depth, and typically too large to be smoothed over by standard farming equipment.^[1]^[2] These features represent an advanced stage of water erosion, progressing from smaller rill channels when runoff becomes recurrent and forceful enough to detach and transport substantial amounts of material.^[3] Gully formation is driven by a combination of hydrological, soil, and land-use factors, beginning with the concentration of overland flow in pre-existing depressions or along slopes, which scours the surface and deepens over time through headward extension and wall slumping.^[4] Ephemeral gullies, which form and refill seasonally, differ from permanent gullies that develop into stable ravines with vegetated banks; both types are exacerbated by intense rainfall, poor soil structure, and activities like tillage or overgrazing that reduce vegetative cover.^[5]^[6] Gullies commonly occur on hillslopes in agricultural landscapes, semi-arid regions, and areas with easily erodible loess or silty soils.^[7] The development of gullies has profound environmental and economic consequences, including accelerated loss of topsoil that diminishes farmland productivity, increases sedimentation in streams and reservoirs, and threatens water quality by elevating nutrient and pollutant loads.^[8] In agricultural settings, unchecked gully erosion can fragment fields, hinder machinery access, and contribute to broader land degradation, with global estimates indicating it accounts for a significant portion of total soil loss in vulnerable areas.^[9] Effective management strategies, such as installing grade stabilization structures, planting cover crops, and reshaping landscapes to divert flow, are essential for preventing initiation and repairing existing gullies to sustain soil health and ecosystem services.

Etymology and Terminology

Etymology

The term "gully" originates from the Latin gula, meaning "throat," which passed into Old French as goulet, a diminutive form denoting a narrow passage or channel.^[10]^[11] This evolved in Middle English to golet, referring to a water channel or gutter, before emerging as "gully" in the 17th century.^[10]^[12] The earliest documented use of "gully" specifically for a landform—a channel carved by running water—appears in the 1650s.^[10] This usage built on earlier 16th-century English applications of related terms to anatomical or conduit-like structures, adapting the metaphor of a throat-like passage to erosional topography.^[11] Linguistic variations for comparable features exist across languages; for instance, Spanish employs "barranca" to describe a steep-sided gully or ravine, emphasizing its deep, incised nature.^[13]^[14]

Definition and Distinctions

A gully is defined as a V- or U-shaped channel incised into the landscape by concentrated surface runoff, eroding unconsolidated soil or sediment, with typical depths ranging from 0.5 to 30 meters and lengths extending up to several kilometers.^[15] This landform represents a significant stage in erosional progression, where water flow becomes sufficiently focused to create persistent incisions beyond superficial disturbance.^[16] Key morphological characteristics of gullies include steep headwalls that retreat through undercutting and collapse, alcoves or headcuts at the upper ends, well-defined channels along their length, and depositional fans or aprons at the base where sediment accumulates.^[16] These features typically develop on hillslopes or valley sides, where overland flow converges to exploit weaknesses in the regolith.^[17] The cross-sectional profile often evolves from V-shaped in early stages to U-shaped as walls stabilize or widen through slumping.^[18] Gullies occupy an intermediate position in the continuum of erosional landforms, distinguishing them from rills—shallower channels under 0.3 meters deep that form linear, branching patterns and can be readily filled by tillage—and from larger valleys, which are broader with depths exceeding 30 meters, flatter floors, and often host perennial streams rather than episodic runoff.^[19]^[15] This scale-based differentiation highlights gullies as thresholds where erosion transitions from diffuse sheet and rill processes to more entrenched incision, without the integrated fluvial systems of mature valleys.^[16]

Formation and Development

Erosion Processes

Gully erosion is initiated when concentrated overland flow exceeds the soil's infiltration capacity, causing surface runoff to incise the landscape and form a headcut—a near-vertical scarp at the upstream end of the channel.^[20] This process typically begins during intense rainfall events that generate high runoff volumes, leading to the concentration of water in shallow depressions or rills.^[21] The headcut advances upslope through plunge pool erosion at its base, where falling water undercuts the soil, promoting instability and retreat. As the gully develops, headcut migration occurs at rates ranging from 0.01 to 135 m/year, depending on flow characteristics and soil properties, with sidewall slumping and rilling contributing to lateral and vertical expansion.^[22] Sidewall slumping involves the collapse of overhanging banks due to gravitational forces, while rilling forms smaller incisions that coalesce into the main channel. Downstream, eroded material is transported and deposited, forming depositional aprons at the gully mouth.^[16] These stages progressively deepen and widen the gully, transitioning it from an ephemeral feature to a more permanent incision. Hydraulic forces play a central role in detaching soil particles, primarily through shear stress exerted by turbulent flow on the channel bed and walls. The boundary shear stress \tau is given by the equation:

\tau = \gamma h S

where \gamma is the specific weight of water (density times gravity), h is the flow depth, and S is the channel slope; erosion initiates when \tau exceeds the soil's critical shear stress threshold.^[23] This turbulent flow scours sediment, accelerating headcut retreat and channel incision. Mass wasting processes, including soil creep and landslides, further enlarge gully walls by exploiting instabilities created by hydraulic erosion. Soil creep involves slow, downslope movement of saturated soil along the walls, while landslides occur as discrete failures when shear strength is overcome, adding significant volumes of material to the channel.^[24] These mechanisms interact with fluvial processes to sustain gully expansion over time.^[25]

Influencing Factors

Climatic factors play a pivotal role in promoting gully formation by providing the hydrological energy necessary for soil detachment and transport. High-intensity rainfall events, typically exceeding 50 mm/h, are particularly conducive in semi-arid and tropical regions, where such storms generate concentrated overland flow that incises the soil surface.^[26] In temperate zones, freeze-thaw cycles exacerbate this process by inducing soil cracking and reducing cohesion, allowing water infiltration and subsequent detachment during thawing periods.^[27] Geomorphic and edaphic conditions further determine gully susceptibility by influencing runoff concentration and soil resistance. Steep slopes greater than 5% accelerate flow velocity, increasing shear stress on the soil, while erodible materials like loess and sodic clays, characterized by low cohesion and high dispersibility, facilitate rapid incision.^[28] Sparse vegetation cover diminishes root reinforcement and surface protection, thereby heightening exposure to erosive forces.^[29] Human activities significantly amplify gully development by altering landscape stability and runoff patterns. Overgrazing and deforestation remove protective vegetal layers, increasing bare soil vulnerability to erosion, as observed in global hotspots such as China's Loess Plateau, where these practices have historically intensified gully networks.^[30] Improper land management, including tillage oriented parallel to slope contours rather than perpendicular, promotes concentrated flow and soil disturbance.^[31] Quantitative thresholds, such as critical slope-length combinations, help predict gully-prone areas by quantifying where flow accumulation leads to incision. The Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) incorporates the LS factor—combining slope length and steepness—to estimate erosion potential.^[32]

Types of Gullies

Natural Gullies

Natural gullies form through geological and hydrological processes driven by water erosion, distinct from human-engineered channels. They arise primarily from concentrated surface runoff and subsurface flow in erodible soils, leading to incision and headward expansion without direct anthropogenic construction. These features play a key role in landscape evolution, sediment transport, and soil loss in various environments.^[33] Subtypes of natural gullies include ephemeral and classical or permanent forms. Ephemeral gullies are shallow channels, typically less than 0.6 m deep, that develop in concentrated flow paths during intense rainfall and can be obliterated by routine tillage, often reforming in the same locations annually. They contribute significantly to sediment yield, accounting for approximately 40% of total watershed sediment in some agricultural settings, with ranges reported from 20% to 90% depending on local conditions. In contrast, classical or permanent gullies are deeper incisions that cannot be filled by normal tillage, typically exceeding 0.5–1 m in depth and persisting as stable landscape features in badlands where ongoing erosion prevents infilling. These permanent structures evolve from ephemeral precursors and dominate sediment production in uncultivated, highly erodible terrains.^[33] Natural gullies are distributed globally, with prevalence in regions susceptible to high runoff and dispersive soils. They are common in arid and semi-arid zones, such as the Australian outback, where expansive gully networks dissect ochre-colored soils. In loess-dominated areas like the Mississippi River basin, particularly the deep loess hills of central Missouri, gullies form extensive patterns due to the fine, erodible nature of wind-deposited sediments. Tropical highlands, including the Ethiopian Highlands, also host rapid gully advance, with headward erosion rates reaching up to 21 m per year in some watersheds. Bank gullies represent a specific variant, initiated by undercutting along riverbanks or terrace edges where concentrated flow exploits vertical drops in erodible hillslopes. This process leads to headward retreat and sidewall collapse, amplifying channel incision. Piping, another mechanism, involves subsurface tunnel formation from concentrated groundwater flow, which erodes soil particles internally; subsequent tunnel collapse creates surface depressions that evolve into open gullies. In terms of scale and morphology, natural gullies typically measure 1–10 m in width, forming dendritic or branching networks that facilitate efficient drainage and sediment conveyance. Prominent examples include badland formations in the American Southwest, where intricate gully systems carve arid landscapes into labyrinthine patterns of steep walls and narrow channels. Unlike artificial channels designed for irrigation or drainage, natural gullies exhibit irregular, self-organizing geometries shaped by episodic erosion events.

Artificial Gullies

Artificial gullies are linear channels formed or substantially enlarged through direct human intervention, such as in mining, agriculture, and infrastructure development, where initial purposeful excavation or alteration evolves into erosional features due to concentrated water flow. These differ from natural gullies by their anthropogenic origins, often starting as designed conduits for water management or resource extraction before unintended erosion takes hold. Common examples include irrigation ditches that incise deeply when flow velocities exceed design limits, roadside drains that erode beyond their intended shallow profiles in response to stormwater runoff, and mining scars from hydraulic operations where high-pressure water jets dislodge sediment, leaving persistent channel networks. In 19th-century California, hydraulic mining in the Sierra Nevada employed water cannons to erode hillsides for gold extraction, creating vast artificial gully systems that persist as visible landforms and contribute to ongoing sediment issues.^[34] Formation contexts for artificial gullies frequently involve urban stormwater systems where channels designed for drainage erode into unintended gullies due to high runoff volumes from impervious surfaces, or agricultural practices where furrows or field drains concentrate surface flow on vulnerable soils. In Northeast China's Black Soil Region, agricultural terraces with steep inclines have accelerated runoff during heavy rains, inducing the development of linear gullies parallel to the structures and amplifying soil loss rates. Case studies highlight the global prevalence of artificial gullies in developing regions, particularly along unpaved roads where vehicle ruts and poor drainage initiate incision. In West Pokot, Kenya, road construction without adequate erosion control has contributed to significant gully formation along roads, with gully expansion rates of approximately 1–2 m per year driven by seasonal rains and loose soils, demonstrating how infrastructure exacerbates land degradation in tropical highlands.^[35] Morphologically, artificial gullies often feature straighter alignments and more uniform, trapezoidal or rectangular cross-sections reflective of their engineered starts, in contrast to the irregular, V-shaped profiles typical of natural gullies shaped by variable flow and sediment transport. Unmaintained artificial gullies can expand rapidly through headward erosion, similar to natural processes but intensified by human-modified hydrology.

Impacts and Consequences

Environmental Effects

Gully erosion significantly contributes to soil loss and degradation by mobilizing large volumes of sediment from affected landscapes. In many regions, gullies alone can produce annual sediment yields ranging from 10 to 100 tons per hectare, far exceeding rates from sheet or rill erosion and accelerating overall soil depletion.^[36] This intense sediment transport strips away fertile topsoil, leading to nutrient depletion as essential elements like nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter are removed with the eroded material.^[37] Over time, such degradation exacerbates land infertility and promotes desertification, transforming productive areas into barren expanses incapable of supporting vegetation or agriculture.^[38] Hydrological alterations induced by gully development further compound environmental stress. The formation of deep channels concentrates surface runoff, increasing peak flows and the frequency of flash flooding in downstream areas by channeling water more rapidly and efficiently across the terrain. Additionally, gullies disrupt natural infiltration patterns, reducing groundwater recharge as compacted or exposed subsoils limit water percolation into aquifers and contribute to overall groundwater depletion.^[36] Biodiversity suffers profoundly from gully erosion through direct and indirect ecological disruptions. Gullies fragment habitats by carving impassable barriers into continuous landscapes, isolating populations of flora and fauna and hindering gene flow essential for species resilience.^[39] They also cause the loss of riparian vegetation along channel margins, where undercut banks and scour remove stabilizing root systems and shade-providing plants critical for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.^[40] This degradation facilitates invasion by exotic species, which exploit disturbed soils and altered hydrology to outcompete native plants, further eroding local biodiversity. In African savannas, gully networks have reduced wildlife corridors, impeding migrations of large mammals and threatening regional ecosystem connectivity.^[41]^[42] On geological timescales, gully erosion drives long-term geomorphic evolution by promoting landscape incision. Initial gully networks deepen and widen over centuries to millennia, incising valleys and reconfiguring drainage patterns that can evolve into larger fluvial systems.^[43] This process contributes to broader landscape lowering and the formation of incised valleys, altering topography and sediment budgets for thousands of years.^[44]

Socioeconomic Impacts

Gullies significantly undermine agricultural productivity by reducing available arable land and causing crop failures through soil displacement and nutrient depletion. In gully-prone regions of southeastern Nigeria, vast expanses of farmland have been rendered unusable, with studies indicating losses that threaten food security for local communities reliant on subsistence farming.^[45] Erosion processes bury farm infrastructure, such as fences and irrigation systems, further exacerbating yield reductions and forcing farmers to abandon productive areas.^[46] These impacts contribute to broader environmental degradation, including accelerated soil loss that diminishes long-term land fertility.^[47] Infrastructure and settlements face substantial risks from gully expansion, leading to frequent road washouts, bridge collapses, and direct threats to residential areas. In the United States, gully-related erosion contributes to annual economic losses in the billions, with overall soil erosion costs estimated at approximately $37.6 billion in lost productivity as of 2006.^[48] Globally, such disruptions compound vulnerabilities in developing regions, where inadequate maintenance amplifies the socioeconomic toll on transportation networks and housing stability.^[49] The gully erosion crisis in southeastern Nigeria, which has intensified since the 1970s, exemplifies these challenges, displacing millions of residents and heightening food insecurity through the destruction of farmlands and homes.^[47]^[45] Economic damages in the southeast alone reach up to $100 million annually, affecting over a million people through forced relocations and livelihood disruptions.^[50] Similar patterns occur in China's Yellow River basin, where gully erosion in the loess plateau has long-term socioeconomic repercussions, including reduced agricultural output and increased vulnerability to flooding that impacts rural populations and infrastructure.^[51] These regional cases highlight how unchecked gully formation perpetuates cycles of poverty and migration. Globally, water-induced soil erosion could lead to losses of up to USD 625 billion by 2070.^[52] In indigenous lands, gully progression erodes cultural sites, including prehistoric and sacred areas, disrupting traditional practices and heritage preservation efforts.^[53]

Prevention and Remediation

Preventive Measures

Preventive measures for gully formation primarily involve proactive land management strategies that minimize soil exposure, enhance water infiltration, and disrupt concentrated surface runoff. Vegetative and agronomic methods are foundational, including contour farming, which aligns tillage and planting along the land's contour lines to slow water flow and promote even distribution across slopes, thereby reducing erosion potential. Cover cropping entails planting non-harvested vegetation during off-seasons to maintain continuous soil cover, increasing infiltration rates and binding soil particles with root systems. Agroforestry integrates trees with crops or pasture to stabilize slopes through extensive root networks and canopy interception of rainfall, further mitigating runoff velocity. Grassed waterways, shaped channels lined with dense perennial grasses, serve to channel concentrated flows safely, dissipating energy and trapping sediments before gullies can initiate.^[54]^[54]^[55]^[56] Engineering approaches complement these by physically altering landscapes to control water dynamics. Terracing constructs level benches on slopes to shorten flow paths, capture runoff, and prevent the concentration of water that leads to incision. Sediment traps, such as small basins or barriers placed in drainage paths, intercept and retain eroded material, halting the progression of potential gully heads. These structures are particularly effective in areas with steep gradients or high runoff volumes.^[57]^[58] Policy and planning frameworks enforce sustainable practices in erosion-prone regions through regulatory and incentive-based mechanisms. Land-use zoning restricts intensive development or cultivation on vulnerable slopes, directing activities to stable areas to avoid disturbing dispersive soils. Grazing management limits, such as rotational systems that cycle livestock across paddocks, minimize bare soil exposure by allowing vegetation recovery, typically utilizing no more than 50% of forage height per cycle to preserve ground cover and reduce compaction. These policies often integrate with conservation programs to promote adoption.^[59]^[60] The effectiveness of these integrated preventive measures is well-documented, with studies indicating substantial reductions in gully erosion rates through combinations like improved pasture management and conservation tillage that enhance soil cover and structure. For instance, grassed waterways have demonstrated up to 99% reductions in sediment export from fields, underscoring their role in averting gully development. Such outcomes highlight the value of holistic approaches tailored to local conditions.^[61]^[56]

Remediation Techniques

Remediation of existing gullies focuses on stabilizing channels, reducing erosion rates, and restoring land functionality through a combination of structural and biological methods. Structural interventions are commonly employed to control water flow and prevent further incision. Check dams, constructed from rock, logs, or other materials, slow runoff velocity, trap sediment, and limit headcut migration; for instance, loose rock check dams in northern Ethiopia have demonstrated high effectiveness in gully control by reducing channel gradients and promoting deposition Nyssen et al., 2004. Gabions, consisting of wire mesh baskets filled with stones, reinforce gully walls, provide grade stabilization, and dissipate energy from flowing water, particularly in areas with high sediment loads NRCS, 2007. Piped diversions route concentrated flows away from vulnerable gully sections, minimizing additional scouring and facilitating infilling NRCS, 2001. Biological restoration complements structural measures by enhancing soil cohesion and reducing surface runoff over time. Revegetation with deep-rooted species, such as vetiver grass (Chrysopogon zizanioides), establishes dense root networks that bind soil particles and intercept water, effectively stabilizing gully sidewalls and beds in tropical and subtropical environments Vetiver Network International, 2012. Bioengineering approaches like brush layering involve installing alternating layers of live woody cuttings and soil on gully slopes, which sprout to form a living barrier that traps sediment and accelerates natural revegetation World Bank, 2009. Regional examples illustrate the application and outcomes of these techniques. In Eastern Nigeria, community-led initiatives since the 1980s have incorporated earthen dams and tree planting to halt gully advancement, with modern efforts under the Nigeria Erosion and Watershed Management Project (NEWMAP) integrating these methods to reclaim degraded lands and protect communities World Bank, 2019. Similar programs in the United States, supported by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), utilize check dams, gabions, and revegetation through initiatives like the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), which has funded gully stabilization projects to restore agricultural productivity NRCS, 2022. Effective remediation requires ongoing evaluation to assess long-term stability. Post-intervention monitoring using LiDAR enables precise quantification of gully volume changes and erosion rates, as demonstrated in studies where multi-temporal airborne LiDAR data revealed reduced headcut retreat and sediment yields following treatment Brown et al., 2023. These techniques are most successful when integrated with preventive measures to ensure sustained landscape recovery.

Evolution and Termination

Natural Termination Processes

Natural termination of gullies occurs through several interconnected geomorphic and ecological processes that reduce erosive forces and promote stability without human intervention. One primary mechanism is sediment infilling, where upstream deposition from diminished overland flows or rises in base level gradually fills channels, shallowing the gully cross-section and reducing its capacity for concentrated flow. This aggradation happens when sediment supply exceeds the stream's transport capacity, often in response to climatic stabilization or reduced rainfall intensity, leading to progressive burial of the gully floor over decades. Vegetation colonization plays a crucial role in halting gully expansion by stabilizing sidewalls and bottoms through root reinforcement and increased surface roughness, which slows runoff velocity and enhances infiltration. Pioneer species, such as grasses and sedges (e.g., Eriophorum spp. in peatlands), initially establish on less steep walls, trapping sediment and building soil organic matter, which further reduces erosion potential. In humid regions, this evolves into ecological succession, with shrubs and eventually forested cover (e.g., birch or pine woodlands) dominating, creating a dense canopy that intercepts rainfall and binds soil, effectively terminating active incision.^[62] Geomorphic thresholds also contribute to natural cessation, particularly when ongoing erosion reduces the gully slope sufficiently to diminish flow energy and stall headcut advance. At this point, shear stress on the bed falls below the threshold needed to entrain sediment, shifting the system from incision to aggradation or lateral stability. This threshold is influenced by drainage area and soil erodibility, with smaller contributing areas accelerating the slope reduction.^[63] Illustrative examples include abandoned gullies in reforested landscapes of central and eastern Europe, such as those in the Loess Belt regions of Germany and Poland, where post-19th century farmland abandonment allowed natural revegetation to transform erosive channels into stable meadows by the late 20th century. These sites demonstrate how reduced agricultural disturbance facilitated sediment trapping and grass colonization, converting once-active features into vegetated landforms with minimal ongoing erosion. Human activities, such as selective reforestation, can occasionally mimic these processes by accelerating vegetation establishment.^[64]

Human Influences on Evolution

Human activities significantly accelerate gully evolution through land use changes that alter hydrological regimes and soil stability. Urbanization increases impervious surfaces, such as roads and buildings, which boost peak runoff volumes and velocities, leading to enhanced incision and widening of existing gullies. Similarly, deforestation removes vegetative cover, exposing soils to erosive forces and amplifying gully growth; studies using fallout radionuclides indicate that such land clearing can elevate soil erosion rates, including gully formation, by approximately fivefold compared to intact forests, as root systems and litter layers that bind soil are lost.^[65] Stabilizing interventions, extending beyond immediate remediation, involve long-term strategies like land retirement and rewilding to foster natural infill processes. By withdrawing agricultural or disturbed lands from active use and allowing native vegetation to regenerate, these approaches reduce runoff and promote sediment deposition within gully channels. In the Loess Plateau of China, human-induced land use shifts to forestry and grassland from 1990 to 2020 resulted in the infilling of 21 gullies, with average area reductions of 257 m² per gully through enhanced vegetation cover that stabilized sidewalls and trapped eroded materials. Such interventions interact briefly with natural processes like sediment aggradation but are primarily driven by restored ecological functions that mitigate erosive forces over decades.^[66] Predictive modeling tools, including GIS-integrated hydrological simulations, enable forecasting of gully evolution under human-modified scenarios. The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) model, a process-based simulator, projects gully incision and sediment yield over multi-decadal timescales by incorporating variables like land management practices and climate inputs. For instance, WEPP analyses under various climate scenarios, using updated weather generators like CLIGEN, have demonstrated potential decreases in gully erosion by 1-3% in certain U.S. regions due to projected precipitation shifts, while accounting for human factors such as tillage or impervious cover expansions. These models support proactive planning by quantifying how combined anthropogenic and climatic pressures could alter gully trajectories.^[67] A notable case study illustrates these dynamics in post-mining landscapes of Appalachia, where surface coal extraction has historically initiated extensive gully networks through spoil pile instability and altered drainage. Reclamation efforts under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, involving grading, topsoil replacement, and afforestation, have achieved partial gully termination within 20-50 years by promoting vegetation regrowth that reduces overland flow and facilitates infill. In mountaintop removal sites, modeling of post-reclamation evolution shows that while initial erosion pulses persist for decades, stabilized slopes with established tree cover can halve sediment yields compared to unreclaimed areas, though full recovery to pre-mining conditions remains elusive over longer periods.^[68]^[69]

Extraterrestrial Gullies

Gullies on Mars

Gullies on Mars were first identified in 2000 through high-resolution images captured by the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), revealing geologically young landforms suggestive of recent surface processes. These features are distributed primarily in the mid-latitudes, between approximately 30° and 60° in both hemispheres, with a higher concentration in the southern hemisphere on steep slopes of craters, valleys, and dunes.^[70] They occur across diverse terrains at elevations from the northern lowlands to the southern highlands, though they are absent or rare in regions like the Tharsis bulge and Hellas basin, and preferentially form on pole-facing slopes at lower latitudes within this band and equator-facing slopes at higher latitudes.^[70] Morphologically, Martian gullies consist of an alcove-channel-fan system, where an upper alcove—often a theater-shaped depression—feeds into an incised channel that terminates in a depositional fan or apron of debris.^[70] These systems range from 100 meters to several kilometers in length, with channels showing sinuosity, levees, and terraces indicative of fluid-like flow, and aprons displaying overlapping lobes or streamlined forms. Compared to terrestrial gullies, Martian examples appear fresher, lacking overlying impact craters or vegetation cover, which underscores their relative youth—potentially less than a few million years old—and highlights superficial similarities in overall structure driven by mass-wasting processes.^[70] Formation hypotheses for Martian gullies center on mechanisms involving volatiles, with ongoing debate between water-related and dry processes. Early interpretations favored liquid water from groundwater seepage or surface runoff, potentially during warmer epochs with higher obliquity that allowed mid-latitude snow accumulation and melting. However, observations of recent activity, documented by the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter since the 2000s, indicate seasonal flows during southern winter and spring (around solar longitude Ls 150°–360°), driven by carbon dioxide (CO₂) frost sublimation triggering dry granular avalanches or gas-fluidized debris flows, rather than current liquid water. Alternative models include briny water seeps or CO₂ ice avalanches mobilizing regolith, with laboratory experiments supporting enhanced flow mobility under Martian pressures; recent 2025 studies further propose that sliding and burrowing blocks of sublimating CO₂ ice can excavate sinuous channels, particularly in linear dune gullies.^[70]^[71] These features provide key evidence for Mars' climatic evolution, suggesting episodes of enhanced volatile activity and possible liquid water stability in the geologically recent past, which could inform models of atmospheric and obliquity changes.^[70] HiRISE imagery has captured new channel incisions and fan deposits as recently as the 2020s, implying ongoing geomorphic activity that challenges purely ancient formation scenarios and highlights the role of seasonal frost in modern surface modification.^[72]

Gullies on Other Celestial Bodies

Gully-like landforms have been identified on the asteroid Vesta, observed by NASA's Dawn spacecraft during its orbital mission from 2011 to 2012. These features consist of linear grooves and alcoves primarily located on crater walls, interpreted as remnants of ancient wet debris flows triggered by the impact-induced melting of subsurface ice.^[73] Recent analyses propose that curvilinear gullies and associated fan-shaped deposits formed through short-lived flows of concentrated saltwater brines, mobilized by impacts that briefly overcame Vesta's low temperatures.^[74] Such processes contrast with purely dry granular flows, as evidenced by laboratory simulations replicating the observed morphologies under Vesta's conditions.^[75] On Phobos, the larger moon of Mars, potential gully-like features manifest as sinuous grooves across much of its surface, attributed to regolith slides and the rolling of boulders ejected from impacts on Mars that subsequently fall back onto Phobos.^[76] These grooves, numbering in the hundreds, exhibit parallel alignments and are thought to result from the moon's rubble-pile structure and tidal stresses, rather than fluid erosion. Rare flow-like features resembling gullies appear on icy moons such as Europa, Jupiter's satellite, where they may originate from cryovolcanic outflows of subsurface brines or slushy ice extruded through fractures in the ice shell.^[77] These sinuous, lobate deposits, observed by the Galileo spacecraft, suggest episodic venting driven by tidal heating, though their exact relation to gully formation remains under investigation.^[78] In environments beyond Mars, gully-like features differ markedly due to microgravity regimes and the absence of atmospheres, resulting in shallower incisions dominated by dust avalanches or granular flows rather than sustained fluvial action.^[79] No confirmed instances of active liquid water erosion exist, with formations instead linked to transient volatiles mobilized by impacts. Current research relies on limited spacecraft data, supplemented by numerical models indicating that impact heating can generate short-lived fluids on airless bodies, though these processes yield smaller-scale features compared to Mars' more voluminous systems.^[79] These extraterrestrial examples share broad morphological parallels with Martian gullies, such as alcove-headwall-channel-fan configurations, but highlight diverse geomorphic drivers across the solar system.^[73]

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[20]
Gully Erosion - ESDAC - European Commission
May 11, 2025 · Actively eroding gullies generally produce sediment through headcut retreat and channel widening/deepening. Gully headcut retreat is generally ...
[21]
How fast do gully headcuts retreat? - ScienceDirect.com
Linear GHR rates vary between 0.01 and 135 m year−1 (median: 0.89 m year−1), while areal GHR rates vary between 0.01 and 3628 m2 year−1 (median: 3.12 m2 year−1) ...
[22]
A review of topographic threshold conditions for gully head ...
The starting point is that the flow shear stress (τf) produced by runoff must exceed a threshold soil shear resistance (τsoil): τ f = ρ f ghs in γ ≈ ρ f ghtanγ ...
[23]
Qualifying mass failures on loess gully sidewalls using laboratory ...
9). Gully erosion is one of the most destructive land degradation processes. Soil slumping along cracks on a gully sidewall is a crucial process of gully ...
[24]
Implications of bank failures and fluvial erosion for gully ...
Mar 5, 2005 · As soil cohesion increases, erosion slows down, gullies become deeper with vertical walls, and episodic mass failures occur. Differences in ...
[25]
Rainfall simulation to identify the storm-scale mechanisms of gully ...
An interrogation of research on the influence of rainfall on gully erosion. Gully erosion is a major soil degradation problem in many parts of the world. ...
[26]
Freeze-Thaw Induced Gully Erosion: A Long-Term High-Resolution ...
Sep 13, 2019 · Sidewall slumping and sheeting action after freeze-thaw ... Time-lapse monitoring of sidewall mass-wasting in a Northeast Tennessee gully.
[27]
[PDF] Slopearea thresholds of roadinduced gully erosion and consequent ...
Jul 10, 2013 · This concentrated overland flow causes gullying on roadside slopes that deliver large quantities of sand and gravel from the road surface and ...Missing: sodic | Show results with:sodic
[28]
Geomorphic character and dynamics of gully morphology, erosion ...
Intense rainfall is the primary trigger, but the local conditions such as slope morphometry, land use, barren soil cover and soil-plant characteristics control ...
[29]
Human Impacts on Soil Erosion Identified Using Land-Use Changes
Aug 10, 2025 · The Loess Plateau of China, located in the middle of the Yellow River basin, experiences serious soil erosion problems caused by overgrazing and ...
[30]
Contribution of physical and anthropogenic factors to gully erosion ...
Therefore, different factors controlling and influencing the development of gullies, such as topography, physical properties of soil, lithology, climate, ...
[31]
[PDF] A review of the (Revised) Universal Soil Loss Equation ((R)USLE)
Nov 27, 2018 · Hence, the combination of CTI and the (R)USLE is a promising direction for including gully erosion, but care must be taken in coupling these ...
[32]
[PDF] HYDRAULIC-MINING DEBRIS IN THE SIERRA NEVADA
Nov 5, 2016 · delivered to a mining dump was artificially guided and usually ... gullies were excavated by rain-made rills after the harrowing. In ...
[33]
Road construction and gully erosion in West Pokot, Kenya - Jungerius
Oct 18, 2002 · The research demonstrates a common problem of road design in developing countries: however carefully the measures against erosion are ...
[34]
Entropy-based Model for Gully Erosion - ScienceDirect.com
Aug 25, 2022 · In this paper, we propose a new gully erosion model that is based on the classical premise of net shear stress, ie, hydraulic shear stress minus critical ( ...
[35]
Effect of Environmental Factors on Soil Nutrient Loss under ... - MDPI
Oct 9, 2021 · ... nutrient loss was evaluated. Ten ... gully erosion and topographic thresholds in the marginal zone of the Chinese Loess Plateau.
[36]
Gully incision as a key factor in desertification in an arid environment ...
... gully erosion. No recovery effects of the gully channels were found in the nearby region. The soil erosion is generated by a long-term natural dynamic ...
[37]
Influence of gully erosion control on amphibian and reptile ... - Ovid
and gully erosion. Riparian gully formation has ... Habitat fragmentation and the distribution of ... in maintaining regional biodiversity.
[38]
[PDF] Riparian Ecosystems, Volume 1: Science Synthesis and ...
May 16, 2018 · ... gully erosion in riparian areas diminishes its ability to trap ... loss of riparian vegetation led to. 2434 deeper incision of channels ...
[39]
Assessing habitat heterogeneity and vegetation outcomes of ...
Feb 1, 2020 · ... invasion by exotic species (Pärtel et al., 2016; Vasquez and Sheley ... gully erosion. Apart from stabilizing the restored areas ...
[40]
[PDF] drivers and effects of gully erosion on communities in
This thesis examines the drivers and effects of gully erosion on communities in Suswa Catchment, Narok County, Kenya, using a geospatial approach.
[41]
A Multi-Millennial Reconstruction of Gully Erosion in Two ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... valleys to channel incision. Widespread and rapid gully formation in the 19th century required degradation of valley-floor vegetation and ...
[42]
Tracing millennia-scale erosional and depositional dynamics in ...
Highlights. We follow two millennia of soil erosion processes in the Southern Levant. To follow them we utilize 1kyrs gully incision in agricultural plots ...
[43]
[PDF] A Review of the menace of soil erosion in Nigeria with specific ... - HAL
Jun 11, 2024 · Loss of Farmland: A vast area of farmlands has been lost due to the menace of gully erosion while others are at their various stages of ...
[44]
[PDF] Gully Erosion and Landslides in Southeastern Nigeria - Iris Publishers
May 28, 2019 · Large areas of agricultural lands are becoming unsuitable for cultivation as erosion destroys farmlands and lowers agricultural productivity [4] ...<|separator|>
[45]
Gully Erosion in Southeastern Nigeria: Role of Soil Properties and ...
This review has shown the influence of geology, climate, geomorphology (slope), vegetation, man and soil itself on gully development and soil erosion in general ...
[46]
Soil Erosion 101 - NRDC
Jun 1, 2021 · Gully erosion—the washing away of soil through deep grooves or channels across unprotected land. Gully erosion can refer to soil being washed ...
[47]
Evaluating ephemeral gully erosion impact on Zea mays L. yield and ...
Ephemeral gully erosion causes serious water quality and economic problems in the Midwest United States. A critical barrier to soil conservation practice ...
[48]
Erosion crisis swallows homes and livelihoods in Nigeria
Jan 20, 2020 · The economic damage brought by gullies, mainly in Nigeria's southeast, could be up to $100 million every year, with an agricultural yield losses ...
[49]
Impacts of vegetation restoration on soil erosion in the Yellow River ...
Jun 1, 2025 · Impacts of vegetation restoration on soil erosion in the Yellow River Basin, China ... Soil erosion poses significant ecological and socioeconomic ...
[50]
The Complex Epidemiological Relationship between Flooding ...
We conducted a scoping review to assess the strength of evidence regarding the potential relationship between flooding and MBD and to determine knowledge gaps.
[51]
Impacts of soil erosion and climate change on the built heritage of ...
In this research, we implemented a multiscale methodology to identify sheet, rill and gully erosion in the context of climate change for the prehistoric sites.
[52]
Management Practices to Reduce Soil Loss - Penn State Extension
Mar 24, 2025 · The best way to protect soil from erosion is to keep it covered and undisturbed. Learn about no-till, reduced tillage, cover crops, and contour farming.
[53]
Agroforestry: Conservation Trees and Erosion Prevention
Some successful agroforestry approaches using particular tree species to bind soil and reduce erosion risk in sloping pastoral and arable lands are described.
[54]
Grassed waterways are fundamental in reducing erosion and ...
In the graph below, the data shows that the newly installed waterway aided in significantly reducing soil leaving the field (99% reduction). Even a seemingly ...Missing: effectiveness | Show results with:effectiveness
[55]
[PDF] Sedimentation and Erosion Control: Terraces - Online-PDH
Terraces on moderate to steep irregular slopes pro- vide sheet and rill erosion protection and prevent the formation of ephemeral gullies or stop the progress.<|separator|>
[56]
Controlling gully erosion | Farm Progress
Sep 28, 2018 · Water and sediment control basins. Similar to terraces, these are built to form a sediment trap and water detention basin with a stable outlet.
[57]
Grazing management that protects sensitive areas from gully erosion
Prior to implementation, obtain a written grazing plan with guidelines and recommendations for matching the forage quantity and quality.
[58]
[PDF] Grazing Management and Soil Health
Many livestock operations improve their forage productivity by simply rotating their livestock more frequently and providing previously grazed pastures or ...
[59]
[PDF] alluvium- Truii - Great Barrier Reef Foundation
Jun 12, 2019 · Reduction in gully erosion for different interventions. Intervention. Hillslope erosion rate reduction (%). 1 (low) – revegetation, fencing ...
[60]
[PDF] Geomorphological controls on the re-vegetation of erosion gullies in ...
This paper describes the natural re-vegetation of eroded blanket peat gullies in the Dark Peak National Park,. Southern Pennines (UK).<|separator|>
[61]
[PDF] Geomorphic Thresholds: The Concept and Its Applications
In semi-arid regions sediment storage progressively increases the slope of the valley floor until failure occurs by gullying. This is a special type of ...
[62]
The Potential of Permanent Gullies in Europe as Geomorphosites
Jul 29, 2017 · This study describes 12 representative gully regions within nine European countries. The characteristics of 42 permanent gullies, gully systems, and badland ...Materials And Methods · Discussion · Gullies As Tourist And...
[63]
Understanding deforestation impacts on soil erosion rates using ...
Both 137Cs and 210Pbex highlighted that deforestation increased soil erosion by around five times. Moreover, the impacts of deforestation on soil ...
[64]
Long-Term Gully Erosion and Its Response to Human Intervention in ...
Dec 13, 2021 · The gully erosion process is influenced by both natural conditions and human activities on the tableland region, the Chinese Loess Plateau.
[65]
[PDF] Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) Model 2024 Status
WEPP is a physical process-based simulation technology to estimate runoff, soil loss, and sediment yields from hillslope profiles, small watersheds, and fields.
[66]
[PDF] How mining changes erosion processes and variables
Nov 20, 2023 · Improved modeling of post-mining landscape evolution will mitigate environmental degradation from past mining and reduce the impacts of future ...Missing: termination | Show results with:termination
[67]
The uncertain future of mountaintop-removal-mined landscapes 2
Feb 1, 2024 · We model 10,000 years of erosion beginning from both pre- and post-mining topography. ... Mining-driven topographic changes alone reduce total ...
[68]
https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_journals/2024/rmrs_2024_shobe_c001.pdf
[69]
What is Creating Gullies on Vesta?
Dec 6, 2012 · "The straight gullies we see on Vesta are textbook examples of flows of dry material, like sand, that we've seen on Earth's moon and we expected ...
[70]
Mysterious features on asteroid Vesta may be explained by saltwater
Oct 28, 2024 · On a large asteroid named Vesta, mysteriously curved gullies and fan-shaped deposits may have formed from short-lived flows of saltwater, a new study reports.
[71]
Lab Work Digs Into Gullies Seen on Giant Asteroid Vesta by ... - NASA
Dec 20, 2024 · But on some worlds, including the giant asteroid Vesta that NASA's Dawn mission explored, the surfaces also contain deep channels, or gullies, ...
[72]
Martian Moon Phobos Got Its Strange Grooves from Rolling Boulders
Nov 22, 2018 · Some planetary researchers have posited that large impacts on Mars have showered the nearby moon with groove-carving debris. Others think that ...
[73]
Flow-like Features On Europa - NASA Science
Jan 7, 2019 · This image shows features on Jupiter's moon Europa that may be "flows" from ice volcanoes. It was taken by the Galileo spacecraft solid state imaging (CCD) ...
[74]
Landscapes and Features of Europa - NASA Science
Jan 7, 2019 · These 15 frames show the great variety of surface features on Jupiter's icy moon, Europa, which have been revealed by the Galileo spacecraft ...
[75]
Geomorphological evidence for transient water flow on Vesta
We identify two types of gullies on Vesta: curvilinear and linear. · We propose transient water forms curvilinear gullies that end in lobate deposits. · A debris- ...<|control11|><|separator|>