Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Paradox of tolerance

The paradox of tolerance is a philosophical principle asserting that unlimited tolerance within a society will inevitably lead to the erosion and disappearance of tolerance itself, as those who are intolerant exploit tolerant norms to gain dominance and suppress opposition.^[1] Formulated by the philosopher Karl Popper in his 1945 book The Open Society and Its Enemies, the concept argues that to maintain a tolerant open society, it must defend itself against intolerant ideologies or groups that reject rational discourse and resort to coercion or violence.^[2] Popper emphasized that tolerance should be reciprocated through argumentative rationality, but where intolerance meets persuasion with force, society has a duty not to tolerate such threats, claiming "in the name of tolerance, the right not to tolerate the intolerant."^[3] This idea underscores the conditional nature of tolerance in liberal democracies, where freedoms like speech and association are protected only insofar as they do not undermine the framework enabling them.^[4] Popper's formulation arose amid reflections on totalitarianism, particularly the rise of Naziism, highlighting how appeasing aggressive ideologies invites their triumph.^[2] The paradox has since informed discussions on balancing pluralism with security, though it remains contested: proponents view it as essential for societal self-preservation, while detractors caution against its potential to rationalize overreach in suppressing dissenting views under the guise of defense.^[5] Empirical observations of historical episodes, such as the subversion of Weimar Germany's tolerant institutions by intolerant movements, lend causal support to Popper's reasoning, illustrating how unchecked intolerance can cascade into systemic collapse.^[1]

Origins

Karl Popper's Original Formulation

Karl Popper articulated the paradox of tolerance in The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945), Volume 1, Chapter 7, Note 4.^[6] There, he argued that unconditional tolerance undermines itself when granted to those intent on its destruction.^[6] The core passage states: "Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance. If we extend unlimited tolerance even to those who are intolerant, if we are not prepared to defend a tolerant society against the onslaught of the intolerant, then the tolerant will be destroyed, and tolerance with them." Popper qualified this by noting that suppression of intolerant views is unwarranted if they can be rebutted through rational argument and restrained by public opinion; however, societies must reserve the right to counter them forcibly when they reject debate, denounce reason as deceptive, prohibit followers from engaging arguments, and instead employ physical violence such as "fists or pistols."^[6] Popper's formulation specifically addressed groups unwilling to participate in rational discourse and prone to coercion, rather than individuals or philosophies merely expressing disagreement.^[6] This conditional intolerance serves as a protective mechanism for open societies, which prioritize critical rationalism and voluntary cooperation over imposed uniformity.^[6] Written amid the ideological conflicts culminating in World War II, Popper's note framed the paradox as essential to safeguarding democratic institutions from totalitarian movements that exploit tolerance to gain power and then dismantle it.^[6]^[7]

Historical and Philosophical Context

The intellectual foundations of limits on toleration trace back to Enlightenment thinkers who grappled with balancing individual freedoms against threats to social order. John Locke, in his 1689 A Letter Concerning Toleration, argued for broad religious liberty but drew firm boundaries: toleration should not extend to those whose beliefs or practices subverted civil government, such as atheists incapable of upholding oaths or groups promoting doctrines of intolerance toward others.^[8] Locke's exclusions targeted entities that undermined the reciprocal trust essential to societal bonds, reflecting a pragmatic realism about human associations where unchecked subversion erodes the conditions for liberty itself.^[8] By the 19th and early 20th centuries, liberal constitutional frameworks in Europe inadvertently enabled the ascent of ideologies hostile to open societies. In Italy, Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party, established in November 1921, capitalized on post-World War I freedoms of association and expression within the Kingdom's liberal parliamentary system to organize squads and rallies, amassing enough leverage to prompt King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini prime minister following the March on Rome in October 1922.^[9] This initial tolerance facilitated the party's transformation into a regime that dismantled multiparty democracy by 1925.^[9] Analogous dynamics unfolded in Germany and Russia. The Weimar Republic's democratic institutions, enshrined in its 1919 constitution, permitted Adolf Hitler's National Socialist German Workers' Party to propagate through elections and public discourse, securing 37.3% of the vote in the July 1932 Reichstag elections and positioning the Nazis to exploit political instability for Hitler's chancellorship in January 1933.^[10] In Russia, after the February 1917 Revolution established a provisional government with expanded political freedoms, Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks agitated openly via soviets and propaganda before overthrowing it in October 1917, promptly curtailing dissent through the Cheka's repressive apparatus.^[11] These cases illustrated how tolerant systems could be leveraged by movements intent on abolishing tolerance.^[12] Karl Popper's worldview was profoundly shaped by these interwar upheavals. Born on July 28, 1902, in Vienna to parents of Jewish ancestry—though raised in a non-observant household—he encountered the Anschluss and escalating Nazi persecution, prompting his departure from Austria in 1937 amid threats tied to his heritage.^[13] Relocating to New Zealand for a university position, Popper's direct exposure to totalitarianism's encroachment on intellectual life reinforced his commitment to defending rational, anti-authoritarian frameworks against historicist and collectivist doctrines.^[13]

Core Principles

Definition of the Paradox

The paradox of tolerance refers to the logical inconsistency embedded in any societal framework that espouses unconditional tolerance toward all positions, including those explicitly opposed to tolerance. Such a system, by granting equal protections to intolerant ideologies or actors, invites exploitation that erodes the foundational commitment to openness and pluralism, as the intolerant can utilize the absence of boundaries to propagate views and behaviors aimed at curtailing dissent and enforcing conformity. This tension manifests as a self-undermining loop: unrestricted tolerance presupposes the perpetual tolerance of its own negation, rendering the principle unsustainable without internal qualifiers.^[14] At its core, the paradox delineates a boundary condition for tolerance's viability, where the imperative to exclude or constrain those who seek to abolish tolerance introduces a meta-rule that selectively applies intolerance to preserve the broader tolerant order. This self-referential mechanism highlights the non-absolute nature of tolerance as a social norm, requiring proactive defense against causal threats that could cascade into systemic collapse.^[15] Causally, tolerant structures confer asymmetric advantages to intolerant minorities, who can strategically mask intentions under the guise of compliance—participating in discourse, elections, or institutions—until achieving sufficient leverage to impose suppression, thereby inverting the system's dynamics. Empirical illustrations of this dynamic include the Weimar Republic (1919–1933), where liberal democratic freedoms allowed the Nazi Party to organize, campaign, and secure 37.3% of the vote in the July 1932 Reichstag election, enabling their subsequent consolidation of power and dismantlement of tolerant institutions by March 1933.^[16]^[17]

Distinction Between Ideas and Actions

Karl Popper maintained that extreme ideas, regardless of their content, should be confronted through rational argumentation rather than coercive measures, aligning with his philosophy of critical rationalism and falsificationism, which posits that knowledge advances by subjecting theories to severe criticism and potential refutation.^[18] In The Open Society and Its Enemies, Popper argued that as long as intolerant philosophies can be checked by public opinion and rational debate, suppression is unwise, emphasizing the open society's reliance on the free exchange of ideas to expose falsehoods.^[19] Popper defined intolerance narrowly as the advocacy of violence or the deliberate suppression of rational discourse, distinguishing it from mere offensive or unpopular opinions that remain within the bounds of arguable propositions.^[20] He specified that the right to suppress such intolerance arises only when its proponents reject rational engagement, denounce argumentation as deceptive, and instruct followers to respond with physical force, such as fists or weapons.^[4] This threshold ensures that tolerable dissent—ideas open to falsification through criticism—is preserved, while actions aimed at destroying the conditions for debate are not. From a causal perspective, permitting those who employ or advocate violence to propagate unchecked allows them to undermine tolerant institutions, as their methods preclude the rational processes essential to open societies.^[21] Conversely, extending suppression to non-violent ideas risks entrenching dogmatism, contradicting Popper's defense of societies where error is corrected through ongoing critical scrutiny rather than authority.^[18] This distinction upholds tolerance as a mechanism for truth-seeking, vulnerable to exploitation only by those who forsake it for aggression.

Criticisms and Philosophical Challenges

Misinterpretations of Popper's Intent

Popper's paradox has been misinterpreted to endorse the censorship of ideas labeled as "intolerant" without evidence of advocacy for violence or suppression of rational debate, often extending to conservative positions opposing unrestricted immigration or affirming biological sex differences over ideological redefinitions.^[21] In the original formulation from The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945), Popper limited intolerance warranting countermeasures to those ideologies that reject argumentation in favor of physical force, boycotts, or terror, insisting that dissenting philosophies must first be challenged through rational discourse and public opinion before any suppression.^[14] He emphasized: "as long as we can counter them by rational argument and keep them in check by public opinion, suppression would certainly be most unwise."^[14] This distinction aligns with Popper's broader critique of utopian social engineering, which he contrasted with piecemeal reforms aimed at testable, incremental improvements rather than wholesale ideological overhauls that preemptively eliminate opposition.^[22] Utopian approaches, akin to those of Plato's philosopher-kings enforcing a static ideal, risk totalitarianism by demanding conformity to an unassailable vision, whereas Popper favored open societies capable of error correction through criticism, not purges of heterodox views.^[22] Misconstruing the paradox to justify ideological censorship thus contradicts Popper's commitment to falsifiability and critical rationalism, substituting subjective offense for the objective threat of coercive action. Such expansions invert Popper's logic, rendering "tolerant" frameworks intolerant of any challenge to prevailing norms and thereby eroding the open society's resilience to genuine threats via enforced homogeneity.^[21] Right-leaning commentators argue this misuse privileges institutional gatekeepers' definitions of intolerance, enabling suppression of dissent under the guise of defense against it, much like the historicist dogmatisms Popper opposed.^[21] Empirical observation of debate outcomes supports Popper's preference for argumentative rebuttal over preemption, as suppressed ideas often persist underground or gain sympathy through perceived martyrdom, undermining long-term stability.^[14]

Arguments Against Selective Intolerance

Critics contend that selective intolerance, by empowering institutions or the state to define and suppress "intolerable" views, creates a slippery slope toward authoritarian abuse, as the criteria for intolerance remain inherently subjective and prone to manipulation by those controlling enforcement mechanisms.^[23]^[24] In practice, this has manifested in jurisdictions with expansive hate speech regulations, where authorities have prosecuted individuals for expressions deemed offensive by prevailing powers, such as criticisms of immigration policies or religious practices, thereby shielding entrenched interests rather than genuine threats to tolerance.^[25] Libertarian thinkers emphasize that preemptively targeting intolerance undermines the default presumption of tolerance essential to free societies, fostering a gray area where rational disagreement is chilled under threat of reprisal, ultimately weakening societal defenses against real aggression.^[5]^[14] Empirical patterns in censorship efforts further illustrate unintended radicalization: suppression drives fringe ideas underground, where they evade moderation and intensify among isolated adherents, while public deplatforming generates backlash sympathy and heightened visibility, as observed in cases where banned figures gain amplified followings post-removal.^[26] From foundational liberal principles, genuine tolerance requires societies to withstand ideological disagreement without recourse to coercive measures, as eroding speech protections for some inevitably imperils the civil liberties—such as assembly and expression—that enable tolerance to persist amid diversity.^[27] Conservative observers similarly warn that institutional selectivity, often rationalized as safeguarding pluralism, corrodes the impartial rule of law by privileging certain orthodoxies, as evidenced by applications targeting non-violent dissenters under guises of combating extremism.^[28] This approach, rather than bolstering stability, invites escalating cycles of mutual accusation, where each side claims the mantle of the "truly tolerant" to justify curbs on rivals.^[29]

First-Principles Objections from Liberty Perspectives

From the perspective of classical liberal and libertarian thought, tolerance is fundamentally understood as a form of negative liberty, entailing the absence of coercive interference in individuals' actions and expressions unless they directly infringe upon the equal liberty of others. This conception, articulated by Isaiah Berlin, prioritizes protecting individuals from arbitrary constraints by the state or society, allowing diverse pursuits provided no harm—defined narrowly as direct violation of others' rights—is inflicted. John Stuart Mill's harm principle reinforces this by limiting legitimate interference to cases where actions demonstrably harm non-consenting parties, rejecting paternalistic or preemptive curbs on speech or belief as unjust encroachments on personal sovereignty. The paradox of tolerance, by contrast, invites proactive intolerance toward ideologies deemed threatening, which liberty advocates argue conflates mere advocacy with imminent harm, thereby eroding the non-interference core of tolerance itself. A key first-principles objection arises from the causal uncertainties inherent in preemptively identifying and suppressing "intolerant" views. Proponents of the paradox assume authorities possess sufficient foresight to distinguish benign dissent from existential threats without error, yet human knowledge of future outcomes remains inherently limited and fallible, as emphasized in critiques of centralized intervention.^[14] Such preemption risks high error costs: false positives suppress valid challenges to prevailing norms, stifling innovation and self-correction in society, while false negatives fail to avert genuine dangers. In diverse polities, where disagreement is the norm, this epistemic hubris undermines causal realism—the recognition that interventions often produce unintended cascades, such as entrenched power abuses under the guise of defense. Liberty perspectives counter that true resilience emerges not from state-enforced boundaries but from individuals' voluntary discernment, where erroneous ideas naturally dissipate through rational rebuttal rather than prohibition. Libertarian objections further contend that the paradox overrelies on coercive mechanisms, undervaluing decentralized alternatives rooted in individualism. Rather than state suppression, a free society leverages the marketplace of ideas, where competing arguments vie openly, allowing truth to prevail via persuasion and evidence, as Mill proposed. Social mechanisms like private ostracism—boycotts, shunning, or associational exclusion—enable communities to enforce norms without violating universal rights, preserving negative liberty by confining intolerance to consensual spheres.^[21] Popper's prescription, while targeting violence, implicitly justifies broader interventions that empower majorities or elites to define "intolerance," inviting the very authoritarianism it seeks to avert. In essence, unbounded tolerance of peaceful disagreement fortifies liberty by distributing vigilance across individuals, obviating the need for top-down edicts that historically amplify rather than mitigate threats to openness.^[14]

Applications in Free Speech and Democracy

Relation to Freedom of Expression

In the United States, the First Amendment protects speech expressing intolerant or hateful ideas unless it constitutes a direct incitement to imminent lawless action, as clarified by the Supreme Court in Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969), which overturned a conviction under an Ohio law criminalizing advocacy of violence for political reform, holding that abstract advocacy remains shielded even if it advocates illegal conduct.^[30] This high threshold contrasts with the paradox of tolerance, which implies that permitting unchecked expression of intolerant ideologies risks eroding societal tolerance itself, creating a philosophical tension between absolute free speech protections and pragmatic limits to safeguard liberal norms.^[21] Proponents of limits, drawing on the paradox, argue for restricting speech that undermines tolerance, as seen in European hate speech regulations, such as the EU Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA, which requires member states to criminalize public incitement to violence or hatred based on race, color, religion, descent, or national/ethnic origin. These laws aim to prevent the normalization of intolerance, positing that early suppression disrupts pathways to extremism; however, empirical assessments of their impact remain inconclusive, with some analyses indicating no clear reduction in hate crimes or radicalization rates attributable to such prohibitions.^[31] Conversely, evidence from cross-national studies suggests that robust free speech environments more effectively counter extremism than censorship, as greater freedom of discussion correlates with lower terrorism incidence, potentially by enabling public discrediting of intolerant ideas through open debate rather than driving them underground.^[32] For instance, research on democratic societies finds that censorship of extremist rhetoric can exacerbate violence by reinforcing narratives of victimhood among radicals, whereas exposure to counterarguments in unrestricted forums marginalizes such views without state intervention.^[33] This aligns with first-principles reasoning that ideas are defeated causally through superior persuasion, not prohibition, though the paradox underscores the risk of inaction against advocacy explicitly plotting intolerance's violent overthrow.^[34]

Implications for Democratic Stability

The paradox of tolerance bears resemblance to the paradox of democracy, where majority rule risks devolving into the tyranny of the majority over minorities, as observed by Alexis de Tocqueville in his 1835–1840 analysis of American democracy, noting how democratic equality fosters social conformity that suppresses individual liberty and dissent.^[35] This dynamic parallels the tension between unrestricted freedom and necessary order, wherein unchecked tolerance of disruptive elements can precipitate anarchy, while overly stringent limits on perceived threats invite centralized control that undermines democratic pluralism.^[36] In causal terms, democratic stability hinges on balancing these forces: regimes that fail to curb groups explicitly advocating violent overthrow often collapse, as seen in the Russian Provisional Government's tolerance of Bolshevik agitation from March to October 1917, enabling Lenin's forces to seize power amid institutional paralysis and civil unrest.^[37] Empirical patterns reinforce this: historical cases like the Weimar Republic's initial accommodation of paramilitary groups contributed to democratic erosion by 1933, allowing authoritarian consolidation through electoral and extralegal means.^[38] Conversely, excessive application of intolerance toward non-violent opposition—framing policy disagreements as existential threats—can engender illiberal backsliding by alienating moderates and amplifying polarization, as quantitative analyses of U.S. political trends from 1994–2020 show that mutual perceptions of opponent intolerance correlate with heightened partisan animosity and reduced cross-aisle cooperation.^[39] Such labeling dynamics, when institutionalized, erode procedural legitimacy, fostering elite-driven suppression that mirrors the very majoritarian excesses democracies seek to avoid. From a causal-realist perspective, the paradox underscores that democratic resilience requires discriminating between tolerable pluralism and destabilizing aggression: tolerating the latter invites regime collapse via asymmetric exploitation, yet overbroad intolerance risks self-undermining cycles where legitimate challenges are delegitimized, breeding resentment and populist revolts that further destabilize norms.^[40] Evidence from post-2000 European cases, including Hungary and Poland, illustrates how accusations of "intolerance" against conservative factions have sometimes justified institutional overrides, correlating with V-Dem indices of declining democratic quality due to eroded checks and balances.^[41] Thus, miscalibrated responses to the paradox can perpetuate instability, as polarized societies exhibit lower institutional trust and higher volatility in governance outcomes.

Empirical Evidence on Suppression Outcomes

A 2023 study examining six deplatforming events targeting hate organizations on Facebook, involving the removal of over 200,000 users, documented short-term backlash effects: highly engaged subgroups increased their production and consumption of hateful content by up to 0.5 pieces per day immediately following disruptions, suggesting potential reinforcement of radicalization among core audiences before adaptation occurs.^[42] Complementary modeling research indicates that social media censorship can amplify extremism by segregating users into unmoderated echo chambers, where differential association intensifies radical views and may spill over to offline behaviors, as mutual verification in isolated networks reinforces ideological commitment without counterexposure.^[43] These findings align with observations from 2021-2023 analyses of bans on far-right figures, where displaced communities migrated to less regulated platforms like Telegram, sustaining or escalating offline mobilization in some instances, such as coordinated protests.^[44] Counterexamples of suppression yielding positive outcomes remain limited to overt violent threats. Deplatforming ISIS propagandists on Twitter between 2014 and 2016, which suspended over 1.2 million accounts and reduced English-language ISIS tweets by 95% from peak levels, correlated with diminished online recruitment visibility and a subsequent drop in foreign fighter inflows from approximately 1,100 per month in early 2015 to under 100 by 2018, as sympathizers shifted to fragmented, lower-reach alternatives.^[45] However, such successes hinge on coordinated, intelligence-driven enforcement against hierarchically structured groups with clear violent intents, contrasting with broader ideological suppressions where displaced actors adapt via decentralized networks. In non-violent contexts like universities and media, empirical data reveal suppression of dissenting—often conservative—viewpoints fails to curb perceived intolerance and may entrench divisions. The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression's (FIRE) 2025 College Free Speech Rankings, surveying 58,238 undergraduates across 257 institutions, found that 68% of students opposed campus appearances by speakers asserting "transgender people have a mental disorder," versus 29% opposing pro-Palestinian slogans like "from the river to the sea," amid 148 documented scholar sanctions (e.g., 37 terminations) and 204 student sanctions since 2020, disproportionately targeting heterodox views on gender, race, and policy; yet, overall tolerance for controversial speech declined, with a majority opposing hypothetical speakers on sensitive topics for the first time in survey history, and no evidence of reduced campus conflict or self-censorship (which fell modestly from 22% in 2022 to 17% in 2024).^[46] Cross-societal analyses corroborate that open discourse fosters tolerance: a 2023 study of 150+ countries linked higher free expression indices to lower social conflict levels in democracies, attributing this to expression's role as a "safety valve" that dissipates tensions through debate rather than suppression, which risks governmental overreach and heightened polarization.^[47]

Resolutions and Alternatives

Popper's Prescribed Response

In The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945), Karl Popper prescribed a measured response to the paradox of tolerance, advocating tolerance toward all views that can be countered through rational means while reserving the right to suppress those that reject argument in favor of violence.^[48] He specified that societies should not suppress utterances of intolerant philosophies outright, as doing so would be unwise when such ideas can be refuted by rational argument and restrained by public opinion.^[14] Instead, Popper argued for claiming the authority to use force against the intolerant only if they prove unwilling to engage rationally, such as by denouncing debate as deceptive, prohibiting followers from listening to arguments, or responding with physical aggression like "fists or pistols."^[20] This approach underscores Popper's commitment to an open society defined by critical rationalism, where institutional mechanisms prioritize ongoing criticism, falsification of errors, and rational discourse over preemptive ideological suppression.^[18] Such a society avoids purity tests for acceptable beliefs, instead fostering error-correction through open debate that allows even potentially intolerant views to be reformed if they participate in rational exchange.^[14] Popper explicitly limited defensive intolerance to threats that undermine tolerance itself via violence or total rejection of reason, rejecting broader suppression of reformable opinions and emphasizing that tolerance must be actively defended without becoming self-destructive.^[49] This prescription aligns with his broader philosophy that open societies endure by upholding rational standards while targeting only the initiation of coercive actions that preclude discussion.^[48]

Non-Violent Counter-Strategies

Non-violent counter-strategies to intolerant ideologies emphasize open debate, educational initiatives, and voluntary social structures, positing that superior ideas prevail through rational persuasion rather than coercive suppression, thereby preserving societal tolerance. This approach draws on the marketplace of ideas framework, where erroneous or harmful views are refuted by evidence and logic in public discourse, historically demonstrated in shifts like the decline of geocentrism through scientific argumentation in the 17th century and the Enlightenment's erosion of divine right monarchy via philosophical critique. Empirical analyses support that such competition allows truth to emerge without the risks of entrenching falsehoods, as suppression often fails to eliminate underlying beliefs and can instead validate them among adherents.^[50] A key historical illustration is the 19th-century abolitionist movement in the United States, which advanced primarily through moral suasion—non-violent tactics including speeches, pamphlets, and petitions that appealed to ethical principles and empirical accounts of slavery's horrors, gradually shifting public sentiment from 1830s fringe advocacy to widespread support by the 1850s, culminating in the 13th Amendment's ratification on December 6, 1865. This persuasion-based strategy mobilized over 200,000 signatures on anti-slavery petitions to Congress by 1838 and fostered organizations like the American Anti-Slavery Society, founded in 1833, which prioritized dialogue over force despite facing mob violence. Unlike violent uprisings, which remained marginal, these efforts built coalitions across classes and regions, demonstrating causal efficacy in normative change without undermining free expression.^[51] Experimental evidence underscores the pitfalls of alternatives, showing that confronting intolerance with censorship triggers backlash: in studies of tolerance asymmetries, intolerant individuals exposed to hypothetical suppression scenarios exhibited heightened intolerance, with effect sizes indicating reinforced commitment to their views, whereas deliberative engagement reduced extremeness by 15-20% through exposure to counter-evidence. Post-2020 university programs promoting structured dialogue, such as Georgetown University's Free Speech Project initiatives launched in 2021, have correlated with decreased self-reported polarization among participants, as measured by pre- and post-event surveys tracking openness to opposing views, outperforming deplatforming approaches that amplified echo chambers by limiting rebuttal opportunities.^[52]^[53] Voluntary associations further enable non-coercive resilience by leveraging homophily—natural affinity among like-minded individuals—to form self-sustaining communities that model tolerant norms and exert peer influence, allowing members to exit intolerant groups without state mandate. In diverse societies, such entities, numbering over 1.5 million nonprofits in the U.S. as of 2020 per IRS data, compete for adherents by demonstrating practical benefits of pluralism, eroding intolerant appeal through demonstrated superiority rather than prohibition; for instance, civic groups emphasizing shared civic values have sustained tolerance in heterogeneous neighborhoods by fostering particularized trust that scales to generalized norms over time. This mechanism aligns with causal realism, as voluntary opt-in structures incentivize ideological refinement to retain members, historically evident in 19th-century mutual aid societies that integrated immigrants via inclusive practices amid nativist pressures.^[54]

Critiques of Proposed Solutions

Critics contend that implementing intolerance toward the intolerant, as prescribed by Popper, encounters significant enforcement challenges, as it necessitates that tolerant actors consolidate coercive power, which historically invites abuse and elite capture rather than targeted suppression.^[55] This approach risks transforming defenders of openness into a new intolerant elite, capable of arbitrarily defining and punishing "intolerance" to entrench their own dominance, thereby eroding the very principles of liberty and pluralism intended to be preserved.^[5] Empirical evidence from social media platforms illustrates how such solutions amplify existing biases rather than neutrally countering threats. A 2024 Yale study analyzing account suspensions found that pro-Trump and conservative hashtag users faced significantly higher removal rates compared to pro-Biden or liberal counterparts, suggesting over-censorship aligned with platform moderators' predominant left-leaning orientations.^[56] Similarly, a 2024 University of Michigan analysis of user-driven moderation revealed systematic bias against politically opposing views, exacerbating echo chambers rather than fostering balanced discourse.^[57] These outcomes indicate that institutional enforcement mechanisms, when applied to suppress perceived intolerance, often devolve into ideologically skewed overreach, undermining public trust and democratic resilience. From a principled standpoint rooted in conservative realism, suppression strategies falter by prioritizing state or elite intervention over decentralized bulwarks like robust civil society and individual self-defense capabilities. Proponents argue that strong voluntary associations and communities, as historically observed in federalist structures, better inoculate against intolerant encroachments without ceding authority to centralized power.^[28] Complementing this, the right to armed self-defense serves as a deterrent, ensuring that tolerant majorities retain agency against violent minorities without relying on potentially corruptible institutions, as evidenced by lower historical rates of totalitarian takeover in armed citizenries compared to disarmed ones.^[55] Such alternatives emphasize causal resilience through distributed power rather than fragile dependence on benevolent enforcers.

Modern Usage and Controversies

Invocation in Contemporary Politics

In the aftermath of the January 6, 2021, U.S. Capitol riot, left-leaning commentators and platforms invoked Karl Popper's paradox of tolerance to rationalize the permanent suspension of former President Donald Trump's accounts on major social media sites, including Twitter and Facebook, arguing that his rhetoric constituted intolerance threatening democratic institutions.^[55]^[58] This framing positioned deplatforming as a necessary defense against authoritarian tendencies, with proponents asserting that unlimited tolerance of such figures would enable their dominance, echoing Popper's call for intolerance toward the intolerant to preserve open societies.^[59] Conservative critics highlight the asymmetric invocation of the paradox, noting that during the 2020 George Floyd protests, groups like Antifa—linked to over 100 consecutive nights of unrest in Portland, Oregon, resulting in more than $1 million in damages from a single 2016 incident and broader national riot damages estimated at $1-2 billion—faced no equivalent deplatforming despite documented violence, including assaults on federal property and injuries to over 2,000 law enforcement officers.^[60]^[61]^[62] They argue this selective application reveals a double standard, where left-wing extremism is tolerated or excused as activism, while the paradox is weaponized against right-wing populism, undermining its philosophical consistency.^[63] This pattern persists in debates over content moderation, with left-leaning institutions often prioritizing suppression of perceived right-wing threats under the paradox's banner, while sources critiquing such bias—frequently marginalized in academia and mainstream media—point to empirical disparities in enforcement as evidence of ideological capture rather than neutral application.^[55]^[63]

Case Studies of Alleged Misuse

Following the August 12, 2017, Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, where a counter-protester was killed in a car-ramming attack by a white nationalist, advocates invoked Popper's paradox to justify broad suppression of alt-right figures and platforms, arguing that tolerance of such groups enables their rise to dominance.^[64]^[65] Critics contended this represented misuse, as it extended to non-violent expressions of nationalism or immigration skepticism, not solely advocacy of persecution, leading to deplatformings like that of Richard Spencer from payment processors and social media.^[66] Such actions fueled accusations of viewpoint discrimination, with data showing alt-right online engagement persisted via alternative sites despite bans.^[67] After the January 6, 2021, U.S. Capitol riot, which resulted in five deaths and widespread disruption of the electoral certification, the paradox was cited to rationalize deplatforming former President Donald Trump and associated accounts, framing election skepticism as inherently intolerant threats to democratic norms.^[68]^[69] Platforms like Twitter suspended Trump on January 8, 2021, citing risks of further incitement, but detractors argued this overreached by conflating riot participation with broader conservative dissent, suppressing millions of followers without evidence of universal intolerance.^[70] Empirical analysis post-deplatforming indicated reduced misinformation spread from affected networks but also heightened cohesion among far-right users, who migrated to less moderated spaces.^[71]^[72] In education debates, the paradox has been applied to label parental rights advocates as intolerant for opposing school curricula on gender identity or sexual orientation, as seen in protests against policies like Virginia's 2021-2022 parental notification requirements, where opponents equated opt-outs with bigotry enabling broader exclusion.^[73] This framing prompted backlash, including electoral gains for candidates supporting such rights, such as Republican Glenn Youngkin's November 2021 Virginia gubernatorial victory by 2.1 percentage points amid school transparency controversies.^[74] Critics of the invocation highlight definitional slippage, where policy disagreement is recast as existential intolerance, eroding public trust in institutions.^[75] These cases illustrate alleged overreach yielding counterproductive results, with deplatformed individuals often attaining martyr status that amplifies their narratives; for instance, Trump's post-January 6 bans correlated with sustained or increased base loyalty, culminating in his 74.2 million votes in the 2024 presidential election, exceeding his 2020 tally.^[70]^[55] Studies on deplatforming effects confirm that while online reach may decline short-term, offline political mobilization can intensify, as suppressed groups leverage perceived censorship to recruit.^[76] This dynamic underscores causal risks of broad intolerance applications, potentially entrenching divisions rather than resolving them.^[67]

Recent Debates and Developments (2020–2025)

In 2023, rationalist communities critiqued the paradox of tolerance for promoting absolutist interpretations that justify preemptive suppression of non-violent dissent, arguing that such applications risk eroding open discourse without reliably preventing extremism. A LessWrong essay published on January 10 contended that Popper's framework, when extended beyond clear threats of violence, leads to slippery slopes where subjective "intolerance" becomes a pretext for censoring ideological opponents, potentially fostering the very authoritarianism it aims to avert.^[5] This perspective highlighted empirical patterns in online moderation, where broad deplatforming of rhetoric—rather than action—has correlated with increased radicalization in echo chambers, as users migrate to less regulated spaces. The paradox has been invoked amid U.S. culture wars to rationalize content moderation against conservative viewpoints, yet analyses suggest this exacerbates polarization rather than resolving it. A Quillette article from August 31, 2023, examined how platforms and institutions citing the paradox to curb "hate speech" often target protected political expression, drawing on data from deplatforming events like the 2021 U.S. Capitol riot aftermath, where suppression of adjacent online communities amplified fringe narratives without reducing offline violence.^[21] Such invocations, the piece argued, conflate rhetorical extremism with physical threats, fueling distrust in institutions and contributing to a 2022–2023 Pew Research finding of heightened partisan divides, with 62% of Americans viewing the opposing party as a threat to national well-being. By 2024–2025, discussions shifted toward distinguishing online rhetoric from incitement to violence, with policy reports emphasizing free speech as a bulwark against extremism. A UK government essay series released on August 18, 2025, under the "Countering Extremism: Defending Free Speech" initiative, asserted that restricting expression to combat ideological threats has historically backfired, citing cases where blasphemy laws and hate speech regulations in Europe correlated with underground radicalization rather than deradicalization.^[77] Authors like Alex Hitchens argued for prioritizing counter-speech and evidence-based scrutiny over suppression, aligning with emerging analyses that rhetorical intolerance rarely escalates to violence absent organizational infrastructure, as seen in post-2020 monitoring of jihadist and far-right forums where open debate diffused tensions more effectively than bans. This reflects a pragmatic update, prioritizing causal evidence over precautionary intolerance.^[78]

References

[1]
Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappeara... - Goodreads
We should therefore claim, in the name of tolerance, the right not to tolerate the intolerant. Karl R. Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies - Volume One: ...<|separator|>
[2]
Karl Popper - The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) - Lib Quotes
Collection of sourced quotations from The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) by Karl Popper ... tolerance with them. Karl Popper. Source; Report... We ...
[3]
Karl Popper Quotes About Tolerance
"The Open Society and Its Enemies". Book by Karl Popper, Volume 1. Notes to Chapter 7, Note 4, 1945. We should therefore claim, in the name of tolerance, ...
[4]
The Open Society and Its Enemies Quotes by Karl Popper
112 quotes from The Open Society and Its Enemies: 'The so-called paradox of freedom is the argument that freedom in the sense of absence of any constrain...
[5]
Against the paradox of tolerance - LessWrong
Jan 10, 2023 · Karl Popper's Paradox of Tolerance argues that an absolutely tolerant society is impossible, since it would be vulnerable to intolerant ...
[6]
[PDF] The Open Society and its Enemies: The Spell of Plato, Vol. 1, 1st ed.
Chapter 10. The Open Society and its. Enemies . . . . 149. NOTES. 178. Page 7. THE OPEN SOCIETY AND ITS ENEMIES. INTRODUCTION. Concerning metaphysics . . ,. I.
[7]
Popper and the Paradox of Tolerance - Skepchick
Aug 18, 2017 · It is a series of memes based on Karl Popper's idea of the “Paradox of Tolerance,” which he introduced in his 1945 work of political philosophy.
[8]
Amendment I (Religion): John Locke, A Letter concerning Toleration
Those are not at all to be tolerated who deny the being of a God. Promises, covenants, and oaths, which are the bonds of human society, can have no hold upon ...
[9]
Italy Under Mussolini | History of Western Civilization II
The liberal establishment, fearing a Soviet-style revolution, started to endorse the small National Fascist Party led by Benito Mussolini. In October 1922 the ...
[10]
How Hitler Used Democracy to Take Power | TIME
Apr 26, 2024 · It was the political calculus by which the Nazi leader disabled, then dismantled, the Weimar Republic. Hitler exploited his 37% to gridlock ...
[11]
The Red Terror - Alpha History
Jan 23, 2018 · This growing anti-Bolshevik sentiment had many causes. As it was in October 1917, support for the Bolsheviks remained concentrated in the ...
[12]
Democracy | State of Deception: The Power of Nazi Propaganda
Nazi Political Strategy in a Democracy. Nazi political strategy evolved during the Weimar Republic from inciting insurrection to Nazis winning at the ballot box ...
[13]
Remembering Karl Popper - Hoover Institution
... Popper left Austria under the threat of Nazi anti-Semitism. From New Zealand, where he had obtained a university teaching post, he returned to England after ...
[14]
On the Paradox of Tolerance | Libertarianism.org
Aug 17, 2017 · Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance. If we extend unlimited tolerance even to those who are intolerant, if we are ...
[15]
Derechos Humanos: The limits of tolerance: Popper's paradox
Sep 4, 2023 · The difficult paradox of tolerance ... In The Open Society and its Enemies, a must-read for every liberal, Popper states that "unlimited tolerance ...
[16]
Bowling for Fascism: Social Capital and the Rise of the Nazi Party
Social networks thus aided the rise of the Nazis that destroyed Germany's first democracy. The effects of social capital depended on the political context: in ...
[17]
[PDF] Liberalism and the Lessons of Weimar Arnold Brecht, Hans Speier ...
May 10, 2019 · In 1933, the people Germany elected Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party into power. This occurred under what had previously been a liberal democracy ...
[18]
Karl Popper - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 13, 1997 · Popper draws a clear distinction between the logic of falsifiability and its applied methodology. The logic of his theory is utterly simple: a ...Missing: tolerance | Show results with:tolerance
[19]
Karl Popper and The Paradox of Tolerance - Tigerpapers
May 24, 2012 · The paradoxical problem can be stated as the following: a tolerant person may be hostile toward intolerance; thus, a tolerant person would ...
[20]
The Paradox of Tolerance Karl Popper - Conversational Leadership
Jul 16, 2024 · Ironically, some misuse Popper's paradox to support behaviors he cautioned against. Source: The Open Society and Its Enemies Quotations: Karl ...Missing: exact | Show results with:exact
[21]
Tolerating Intolerance: The Free Speech Paradox - Quillette
Aug 31, 2023 · As the writer Jason Kuznicki has argued, “To Popper, intolerance is not to be deployed when the utterance of intolerant ideas might make you ...
[22]
Karl Popper: Political Philosophy
Popper argued that utopian engineering, though superficially attractive, is fatally flawed: it invariably leads to multitudinous unintended and usually ...
[23]
CMV: The "tolerance paradox" is wrong : r/changemyview - Reddit
Aug 15, 2018 · If society says we should be tolerant of intolerant people, we make it easier and more acceptable for intolerance to spread. I understand your ...Missing: collapse empirical
[24]
Karl Popper's paradox of tolerance is a concept that ... - Facebook
Aug 8, 2024 · “Popper first conceptualized the paradox of tolerance in his 1945 work The Open Society and Its Enemies. Popper contends that a society that ...
[25]
Argument – Should hate speech be a crime? | New Internationalist
Dec 1, 2012 · The state should not have such power. It's open to abuse, as happened to anti-war protesters who abused British soldiers for their role in Iraq.<|separator|>
[26]
Recommender systems and the amplification of extremist content
Jun 30, 2021 · This conceptual confusion also extends to discussions of involvement in terrorism and extremism, Whittaker (2020) argues that studies have ...<|separator|>
[27]
John Rawls - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Mar 25, 2008 · The first principle accords these rights and liberties to all citizens equally. Unequal rights would not benefit those who would get a ...
[28]
How the Woke Fail the Paradox of Tolerance - New Discourses
Feb 11, 2021 · It is not only when they espouse and preach intolerance but when they also cease to be amenable to reason and rational debate, forbid their ...
[29]
Argument for a more narrow understanding of the Paradox ... - Reddit
Jan 23, 2023 · And nowadays, when most people invoke the paradox of tolerance, the problem is what they are being intolerant of is not in fact intolerance, but ...The "paradox of tolerance" isn't as insightful as people think it isThe true paradox of intolerance : r/interestingasfuck - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[30]
Brandenburg v. Ohio | Oyez
A case in which the Court held that a Ku Klux Klan's First Amendment rights were violated by an Ohio criminal syndicalism law.
[31]
[PDF] Hate Speech--Definitions & Empirical Evidence
Oct 1, 2017 · James Weinstein's paper is a thoughtful, refreshing and considered contribution to the ongoing debate over whether or not hate speech laws ...
[32]
[PDF] Does Freedom of Expression Cause Less Terrorism?
We find that freedom of discussion in particular is substantially associated with less terrorism, and argue that. Page 3. 3 freedom lowers the risk of terror ...
[33]
[PDF] Censorship of Hate Speech May Well Increase Violence
Aug 25, 2017 · Third, censorship and ostracism of extremists plays into the hands of the leaders of extremist parties who use the threat as a means of ...
[34]
Banning Hate Speech Won't End Extremist Violence
Jun 6, 2022 · Studies suggest that freedom of expression is associated with less rather than more violent extremism, terrorism, and social conflict in democracies.<|separator|>
[35]
Alexis de Tocqueville on the Tyranny of the Majority | NEH-Edsitement
What is the moral authority of the majority in a democracy based upon? Why does tyranny of the majority arise? Why might democratic tyranny be worse than other ...Missing: paradox | Show results with:paradox
[36]
[PDF] Tyranny of the Majority: Hegel on the Paradox of Democracy
Jan 9, 2021 · argues that democracy leads to tyranny of the majority, which may only block the actualization of true freedom. It is precisely in this ...
[37]
A history of disruption, from fringe ideas to social change - Aeon
Dec 23, 2021 · But Lenin saw only one way: through the violent overthrow of the ... collapse and violence, and on the high level of discipline in the ...
[38]
Tolerance and the Fate of Democracies - Cato Unbound
Dec 30, 2020 · A democratic society can, consistent with its own premises and values, restrict political participation from antidemocratic forces or factions.
[39]
Rethinking Political Polarization - Oxford Academic
Jun 9, 2023 · Marking the transition from ordinary to extraordinary conflict, political intolerance pushes actors into polarization. Concepts often rest ...
[40]
The Realignment of Political Tolerance in the United States
Oct 18, 2022 · Whereas support for racial equality used to be correlated with tolerance of racist speech, it now fosters intolerance of racist speech. This ...
[41]
The social psychology of intergroup tolerance and intolerance
Experimental research in the UK (Helbling & Traunmüller, Citation2020) demonstrates that people's intolerance towards practices and beliefs of Muslim minorities ...
[42]
Disrupting hate: The effect of deplatforming hate organizations ... - NIH
Jun 5, 2023 · We study the effects of six network disruptions of designated and banned hate-based organizations on Facebook, in which known members of the organizations were ...
[43]
[PDF] Is radicalization reinforced by social media censorship? - arXiv
Thus, censorship can produce extremism insofar as mutual verification contexts (formed on the basis of differential association amongst those sharing ...
[44]
Censoring political opposition online: Who does it and why - PMC
In addition, opponents of causes may witness the increased extremism of inhabitants of the echo chamber and respond in kind by adopting extreme opposing views ...
[45]
[PDF] Digital Decay: Tracing Change Over Time Among English
Until 2016, Twitter was the online platform of choice for. English-language Islamic State (IS) sympathizers. As a result of Twitter's counter-extremism policies ...Missing: suppressing | Show results with:suppressing
[46]
https://www.thefire.org/research-learn/2025-college-free-speech-rankings
[47]
Is Freedom of Expression Dangerous? No, Study Finds More ...
Oct 25, 2023 · The study finds that speech “restrictions will lead to more conflict, a consequence that to some extent may be driven by government misuse of restrictions.
[48]
the paradox of tolerance - Quote by Karl Popper - Goodreads
'the paradox of tolerance: unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance ... Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies · Like ...
[49]
The Limits of Toleration - Open Inquiry
Later on in 'On Toleration,' Popper says that 'we need not tolerate even the threat of intolerance; and we must not tolerate it if the threat is getting serious ...<|separator|>
[50]
[PDF] TESTING THE MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS - NYU Law Review
24 Ideas were good or bad insofar as they were accepted or rejected in the competition of the market. ... marketplace of ideas to stand for three distinct ...
[51]
The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship Abolition ...
Drafted by William Lloyd Garrison, the declaration pledged its members to work for emancipation through non-violent actions of “moral suasion,” or “the ...
[52]
Testing the Asymmetry Hypothesis of Tolerance: Thinking About ...
Aug 1, 2023 · In fact, we found a backlash effect among the intolerant participants with them showing higher intolerance as a result. These findings support ...
[53]
Free Speech on Campus: Bridging Divides in Polarized Times
Polarization has contributed to a decline in free expression on college campuses. In certain instances, students have been less willing than before to listen to ...
[54]
Voluntary Associations and Tolerance: An Ambiguous Relationship
Aug 6, 2025 · The author shows that when members of voluntary associations build particularized trust rather than generalized trust, this decreases their ...Missing: countering coercion
[55]
Yes, You Do Have to Tolerate the Intolerant
Aug 8, 2024 · The cartoon version of Popper's paradox insists that the tolerant will end up being destroyed if they tolerate in their midst compatriots who “ ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[56]
Do Social Media Platforms Suspend Conservatives More?
Oct 15, 2024 · Our research found that accounts sharing pro-Trump or conservative hashtags were suspended at a significantly higher rate than those sharing pro-Biden or ...Missing: moderation 2020s
[57]
U-M study explores how political bias in content moderation on ...
Oct 28, 2024 · Our research documents political bias in user-driven content moderation, namely comments whose political orientation is opposite to the moderators' political ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[58]
Popper, ”paradox of tolerance”, Hitler, Trump and the modern far-right
Mar 18, 2024 · ... roughly like this: If tolerant people tolerate and accept intolerance, it follows that intolerant people like fascists and Nazis will take…
[59]
MAGA, Morality, and the Paradox of Tolerance
Oct 17, 2019 · Karl Popper coined the Paradox of Tolerance: “In order to maintain a tolerant society, the society must be intolerant of intolerance.” A ...
[60]
PORTLAND: Fake News Ignores Antifa Violence, Residents' Pleas ...
Oct 8, 2025 · In 2020, Portland Antifa terrorists led 100 days of carnage and violence ... In 2016, Antifa-led rioting caused more than $1 million in damage ...
[61]
https://acleddata.com/report/demonstrations-and-political-violence-america-new-data-summer-2020/
[62]
Tell Congress to investigate the 2020 BLM/Antifa riots as they did ...
... violence on law enforcement officers and their families. The 2020 violent riots resulted in significant injury to over 2000 police officers, and many ...
[63]
How Not to Resolve the Paradox of Tolerance - New Discourses
Jan 26, 2021 · The solution to Popper's Paradox is a well defined definition of tolerance that still allows for the existence of the free society. “Tolerance ...
[64]
After Charlottesville, how we define tolerance becomes a key question
Oct 1, 2017 · It included, in a footnote, what Popper called “the paradox of tolerance”. Complete tolerance is an impossible goal for Popper, because if ...
[65]
A philosophical principle coined in 1945 could be a key ... - Quartz
The Paradox of Tolerance suggests that we should view advocacy of intolerance and persecution as a criminal behavior in and of itself. Many European countries ...
[66]
Free Speech and Misreading The Paradox of Tolerance
Sep 9, 2020 · In the aftermath of the horrific Charlottesville rally, a memed quote by Carl Popper called “The Paradox of Tolerance” started making the ...
[67]
The Geopolitics of Deplatforming: A Study of Suspensions of ...
Feb 14, 2024 · However, the findings also show some clear political biases in the suspension of users, and in turn, that these suspensions have consequences ...
[68]
The Paradox of Tolerance - Paradigm Shift International, a nonprofit ...
... paradox of tolerance in his book "The Open Society and Its Enemies. ... The January 6th Capitol riot demonstrated how online radicalization translates to real- ...
[69]
Ten Theses on Tolerance - Persuasion
Apr 27, 2022 · Tolerance can endanger itself. In what Karl Popper calls the “paradox of tolerance,” unbounded tolerance can lead to the victory of intolerance ...
[70]
Is deplatforming extremists effective or dangerous? Experts weigh in.
Jan 18, 2021 · Deplatforming Trump supporting rioters who stormed the Capitol risks accelerating a small violent majority, experts including a former Al ...Missing: increased | Show results with:increased
[71]
Post-January 6th deplatforming reduced the reach of misinformation ...
Jul 1, 2024 · We show that the intervention reduced circulation of misinformation by the deplatformed users as well as by those who followed the deplatformed users.Missing: increased | Show results with:increased
[72]
The Cohesion of Far-Right Extremist Followers after Deplatforming
Aug 24, 2025 · This study offers important insights into the resilience of online extremist communities and the limitations of deplatforming as a strategy to ...
[73]
Muslim parents keep kids home in “attendance strike” to protest ...
Oct 18, 2023 · Parental rights movement is one based in hate and not actually caring about children. ... It's the paradox of tolerance. melleb. • 2y ago.Wye Hill Controversy : r/raleigh - RedditDon't let the Christian Sunday schools suffer under the ... - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[74]
Drawing the Line: Moral Conflict and the Fragility of Liberal Tolerance
unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance itself, because those who are intolerant will ...
[75]
Leftists misunderstand the paradox of tolerance - Reddit
May 8, 2023 · Leftists often cite Karl Popper's paradox of tolerance for why they think we should censor any opinion they deem to be intolerant. But this is misunderstanding.Argument for a more narrow understanding of the Paradox ...Which side is more tolerant of the other? : r/AskALiberalMore results from www.reddit.com
[76]
The systemic impact of deplatforming on social media - PMC
Deplatforming, or banning harmful users from social media, is a common way to maintain online safety. Here, we study what happens to banned Twitter users who ...
[77]
freedom of speech is the key to countering extremism - GOV.UK
Aug 18, 2025 · This essay argues that protecting free speech, rather than restricting it, is essential for effectively countering extremism.Missing: combating | Show results with:combating
[78]
[PDF] freedom of speech is the key to countering extremism - GOV.UK
Currently, the government's counter extremism work has shown little interest in the blasphemy issue, despite its impact on community relations and its proven ...