Parallel Lives
Parallel Lives is a series of 50 biographies composed by Plutarch, a Greek Platonist philosopher, biographer, and priest from Chaeronea (c. 46–120 CE), pairing 23 notable Greek figures with 23 Roman counterparts to examine their virtues, vices, and moral characters through comparative analysis.[1] Written in Koine Greek during the early Roman Empire around 100 CE, the work prioritizes ethical insights and character studies over strict historical chronology or factual precision, aiming to provide models of behavior for readers.[2] Each biography details the subject's birth, career, achievements, and death, followed by a comparative synopsis highlighting parallels and contrasts in their lives and decisions.[3] Notable pairs include Theseus-Romulus, founders of Athens and Rome, and Alexander-Caesar, conquerors whose ambitions shaped empires, underscoring themes of leadership, fortune, and human flaws.[2] Four unpaired lives, such as those of Artaxerxes and Galba, survive as supplements, reflecting Plutarch's broader interest in exemplary figures from Persian and later Roman history.[3] The collection's enduring influence stems from its role as a key source for ancient anecdotes and personalities, despite occasional anachronisms or moralizing interpretations drawn from secondary traditions rather than primary evidence.[1]Background and Authorship
Plutarch's Life and Intellectual Context
Plutarch was born between 45 and 47 CE in Chaeronea, a small city in Boeotia, central Greece, to a family of modest wealth that valued education and philosophy.[1] His father, Ariston, provided early instruction in rhetoric and philosophy, fostering an environment steeped in Greek intellectual traditions despite the region's provincial status under Roman rule. Plutarch later pursued advanced studies in Athens under the Platonist philosopher Ammonius, where he engaged deeply with Platonic dialogues and ethical inquiry, laying the foundation for his lifelong commitment to moral philosophy.[1] Throughout his career, Plutarch combined scholarly pursuits with public service, traveling extensively to Alexandria and making multiple visits to Rome, where he lectured on philosophy and history to elite audiences, including figures like Quintilian and Pliny the Younger.[4] He held Roman citizenship, likely acquired through patronage, which facilitated his interactions with Roman administrators and intellectuals. In the mid-90s CE, Plutarch was appointed one of two lifelong priests at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, a role he fulfilled for over fifteen years amid the sanctuary's declining oracle consultations, reflecting his dedication to preserving Greek religious and cultural heritage in a Roman-dominated world.[5] Intellectually, Plutarch aligned with Middle Platonism, emphasizing a literal interpretation of Plato's Timaeus and defending doctrines such as the soul's immortality and divine providence against skeptical critiques.[6] He synthesized Platonic metaphysics with ethical concerns drawn from Aristotle and the Stoics, prioritizing practical virtue over abstract speculation, as evident in his treatises on moral improvement through historical exemplars. This framework positioned him as a bridge between Hellenistic philosophy and Roman pragmatism, critiquing imperial excess while advocating harmonious Greco-Roman civic virtue.[1]Composition Timeline and Sources
Plutarch composed the Parallel Lives primarily during the reign of Emperor Trajan (98–117 CE), in the final two decades of his life, after the death of Domitian in 96 CE.[7] The work's dedication to his friend Quintus Sosius Senecio, a Roman consul in 99 CE and 107 CE, places its inception around the turn of the century, with individual biographies likely produced sequentially rather than as a unified collection from the outset.[8] Internal cross-references and allusions to contemporary events, such as Trajan's Dacian Wars, support a composition timeline extending into the 110s CE, though the full series was never formally arranged or published as a single volume during Plutarch's lifetime (c. 46–120 CE).[9] The relative chronology of the Lives relies on three main indicators: explicit references to other works within the biographies, allusions to Plutarch's evolving philosophical views, and historical details aligning with datable events.[10] Earlier pairs, such as those involving late Republican figures, may predate the imperial-era ones, but scholarly consensus holds that the majority postdate 96 CE, reflecting Plutarch's matured perspective as a priest at Delphi and public figure in Greece.[11] For sources, Plutarch drew extensively from earlier Greek historians like Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon for Greek subjects, often synthesizing their accounts with later compilations such as those of Diodorus Siculus.[12] Roman biographies relied on Hellenistic Greek treatments of Roman history, including Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Polybius, supplemented by oral traditions, inscriptions, and anecdotes gathered during Plutarch's multiple visits to Rome, where he interacted with Roman elites and accessed libraries.[12] He occasionally referenced Latin authors indirectly through Greek intermediaries or summaries, but prioritized verifiable reports over legendary material, as stated in prefaces like that to the Life of Alexander, where he critiques unreliable chroniclers and favors "ancient decrees" and eyewitness-derived memoirs. This method preserved fragments of lost works, enhancing the Lives' value despite Plutarch's selective emphasis on moral exemplars over exhaustive chronology.[12]Structure and Content
Pairing Mechanism and Surviving Works
Plutarch structured each entry in the Parallel Lives by pairing the biography of a notable Greek with that of a Roman figure whose career, virtues, or misfortunes showed meaningful parallels, often spanning similar domains such as statesmanship, military leadership, or lawgiving. This juxtaposition served to enable a concluding synkrisis, a formal comparison evaluating their moral qualities and life outcomes, though such epilogues are absent in some surviving instances.[11][13] Representative pairs encompass Theseus and Romulus as mythical founders of cities, Solon and Publicola as legislative reformers, Pericles and Fabius Maximus as strategic leaders during wartime crises, and Demetrius of Phalerum and Mark Antony as flamboyant rulers prone to excess.[2] From an original composition likely totaling around fifty biographies, forty-eight extant lives remain, forming twenty-three pairs alongside four unpaired singles: the Greek mercenary leader Aratus of Sicyon, the Persian king Artaxerxes II, and the short-reigning Roman emperors Galba and Otho (the latter constituting a Roman-only pairing without a Greek counterpart).[14][15] The Lamprias Catalogue, an ancient inventory of Plutarch's works attributed to his son, attests to broader plans but confirms losses, including the entire pair of the Theban general Epaminondas and Scipio Africanus.[14]Key Biographical Pairs and Themes Within Lives
![Plutarch's Parallel Lives manuscript][float-right] Plutarch paired biographies of illustrious Greeks and Romans whose lives shared parallels in achievements, moral dilemmas, or historical roles, enabling comparative analysis of character and conduct. Of the originally intended fifty biographies forming twenty-five pairs, twenty-three pairs survive intact, totaling forty-six lives, supplemented by four unpaired biographies: Aratus of Sicyon, Artaxerxes II of Persia, and the Roman emperors Galba and Otho.[2][16] Prominent pairs encompass foundational figures such as Theseus and Romulus, legendary founders who navigated civil strife and external threats to establish Athens and Rome, respectively, underscoring themes of heroic origins and civic institution-building.[16] Lawgivers Lycurgus and Numa Pompilius form another, contrasting Spartan austerity with Roman religious piety in shaping enduring polities.[16] Oratorical counterparts Demosthenes and Cicero highlight resistance to autocratic power through eloquence, with both facing exile and assassination for opposing Macedonian and Roman dictators.[2] Military exemplars include Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar, whose relentless campaigns expanded empires but exposed vulnerabilities to overambition and betrayal, culminating in untimely deaths.[2] Similarly, Pericles and Fabius Maximus illustrate divergent approaches to leadership—bold democratic innovation versus cautious delay—amid existential wars against Persia and Hannibal.[2]| Greek Figure | Roman Figure | Key Parallels |
|---|---|---|
| Theseus | Romulus | Legendary city-founders, fratricide and unification |
| Lycurgus | Numa Pompilius | Legislative reformers, emphasis on discipline and religion |
| Demosthenes | Cicero | Rhetoricians combating tyranny |
| Alexander | Julius Caesar | Conquerors driven by glory, assassinated |
| Pericles | Fabius Maximus | Strategists in protracted conflicts |