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Part-time

Part-time employment refers to a work arrangement in which employees regularly work fewer hours than those in a comparable full-time position, typically less than 35 hours per week, though definitions vary by country and context.^[1] This form of non-standard employment allows individuals to balance professional obligations with other responsibilities, such as family care or education, and is governed internationally by the International Labour Organization's (ILO) Part-Time Work Convention, No. 175, adopted in 1994, which promotes equal treatment between part-time and full-time workers in terms of wages, benefits, and working conditions.^[2] Globally, part-time work is widespread and accounts for a substantial share of total employment, with women comprising approximately 57% of part-time workers as of 2014 despite representing less than 40% of the overall workforce, highlighting significant gender disparities in labor markets.^[1] The COVID-19 pandemic temporarily increased involuntary part-time work, though recovery trends as of 2025 show stabilization in many regions.^[3] Prevalence varies by region; for instance, part-time employment rates are notably high in countries like the Netherlands (around 44% as of 2024) and Nordic nations due to supportive policies, while involuntary part-time work—where individuals prefer full-time hours but cannot find them—is a challenge in places like the United States and parts of Europe amid economic fluctuations.^[1] In the U.S., the Fair Labor Standards Act does not define part-time status, but federal guidelines often consider it as 16 to 32 hours per week, and it includes arrangements like job sharing where multiple employees fill one full-time role.^[4]^[5] Part-time employment offers key benefits, such as greater flexibility for workers managing childcare, health issues, or schooling, enabling broader labor market participation and improved work-life balance.^[1]^[6] However, it also presents challenges, including lower earnings, limited access to health insurance, retirement plans, and paid leave compared to full-time roles, as well as risks of job insecurity and career stagnation, particularly when part-time positions are involuntary or low-skilled.^[7]^[8] Policies to enhance part-time work quality, such as those outlined in ILO Recommendation No. 182, emphasize facilitating transitions to full-time employment and ensuring equitable opportunities for advancement.^[9]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Part-time employment refers to a work arrangement in which an individual is hired by an employer to perform duties for fewer hours than a standard full-time schedule, with the International Labour Organization (ILO) defining a part-time worker as an employed person whose normal hours of work are less than those of comparable full-time workers.^[10] This definition emphasizes a relative threshold based on the employer's full-time norm, rather than a fixed universal hour limit. Globally, part-time work is commonly understood as involving fewer than 30 to 35 hours per week, varying by national labor standards and industry practices.^[1]^[11] In contrast to full-time employment, which typically entails 35 to 40 hours per week and often qualifies workers for comprehensive benefits such as health insurance, paid leave, and retirement contributions, part-time roles generally offer reduced hours and may limit or exclude eligibility for these benefits depending on jurisdiction and employer policy.^[12]^[13] Part-time work also differs from freelance or gig arrangements, which involve self-employment or independent contracting without a traditional employer-employee relationship, often featuring project-based or on-demand tasks rather than scheduled hours under an ongoing employment contract.^[14]^[15] For instance, a part-time retail associate might be scheduled for 20 hours per week, allowing time for other commitments, while their full-time counterpart works 40 hours with greater job security and benefit access. Thresholds for part-time classification can vary internationally; the ILO provides guidelines framing it as under 30 hours per week in many contexts to facilitate global comparisons, though actual implementation depends on local regulations.^[1]^[16] This flexibility in scheduling distinguishes part-time work while maintaining its status as formal employment.

Key Characteristics

Part-time employment features flexible yet often unpredictable scheduling patterns that distinguish it from full-time roles. Fixed shifts, such as evenings or weekends, offer structured hours that align with workers' non-work commitments, while variable hours allow weekly fluctuations based on business demands, and on-call arrangements require availability without guaranteed shifts. According to the Economic Policy Institute, as of 2015, 83% of hourly part-time workers face unstable schedules, with 16% experiencing irregular or on-call shifts that can include short notice of less than one week.^[17] Compensation in part-time positions is primarily hourly and prorated relative to full-time equivalents, though a persistent wage penalty exists. Part-time workers earn about 19.8% less per hour than comparable full-time workers after accounting for demographics, education, industry, and occupation, leading to reduced overall income despite similar base rates in many cases. Overtime eligibility under the U.S. Fair Labor Standards Act applies equally to non-exempt part-time employees, requiring pay at 1.5 times the regular rate for hours over 40 in a workweek, but their limited schedules rarely trigger this provision.^[18] Benefits for part-time workers are typically scaled down or conditional on hours worked, creating notable limitations. Under the Affordable Care Act, employers must provide health insurance only to those averaging 30 or more hours per week, leaving many part-time employees ineligible for full coverage and reliant on marketplaces or public programs. Paid leave, including vacation, accrues on a pro-rata basis; for instance, U.S. federal part-time employees with less than three years of service earn one hour of annual leave for every 20 hours in pay status. Family and Medical Leave Act entitlements are also prorated, with part-time workers using leave proportionally to their normal schedule, such as one-third of a workweek for 20 hours taken out of a typical 30-hour routine.^[19]^[20]^[21] Workload in part-time jobs is calibrated to support equilibrium with personal obligations like caregiving or studies, generally capping at under 35-40 hours weekly to prevent overload. This structure, however, heightens underemployment risks for those seeking more hours, often resulting in insufficient earnings and career stagnation. As of August 2025, 4.7 million U.S. workers were employed part-time for economic reasons (involuntary part-time), contributing to broader economic vulnerability.^[22]

Historical Development

Origins in Industrial Era

The Industrial Revolution, beginning in the late 18th century in Great Britain and spreading to Europe and the United States by the early 19th century, transformed labor from agrarian and artisanal work to factory-based production, imposing rigid full-time schedules often exceeding 12-16 hours per day, six days a week, to maximize machinery utilization.^[23]^[24] This shift drew women and children into the workforce, particularly in textile mills, where they performed tasks like spinning and weaving, but initial employment was predominantly full-time under harsh conditions, with women comprising a significant portion of operatives in U.S. New England mills by the 1820s.^[25]^[26] Early regulatory efforts, such as Britain's 1819 Cotton Factory Act, limited children's work to partial days—up to 12 hours for those aged 9-13—marking one of the first structured instances of shorter-than-full-time labor to address exploitation, though adult women generally worked longer shifts. Part-time work gained traction as a flexible alternative during economic pressures in the early 20th century, particularly amid the U.S. Great Depression of the 1930s, when employers reduced hours to cut costs and retain workers amid widespread unemployment reaching 25% by 1933.^[27] Millions shifted to involuntary part-time roles, with estimates indicating that by 1932, three-quarters of employed workers were on reduced schedules averaging 60% of normal hours, accelerating part-time as a survival mechanism for families while highlighting its precarious nature.^[28] In Europe, similar patterns emerged in industrial sectors, where labor shortages and economic downturns prompted partial employment for women balancing domestic responsibilities.^[29] Labor shortages during World Wars I and II further propelled part-time opportunities, especially for women entering the workforce to fill gaps left by enlisted men, exemplified by the U.S. "Rosie the Riveter" campaign that mobilized over six million women into defense industries starting in 1942.^[30] Government initiatives during World War II explicitly promoted part-time schedules to accommodate homemakers, with special recruitment for flexible roles in factories and munitions production, enabling broader female participation without full disruption of family life.^[31] Pre-1950 data from developed nations reflect part-time's marginal role, comprising less than 5% of the overall workforce in the U.S. by 1940, though it reached 18% among employed women working under 35 hours weekly, underscoring its emergence as a niche response to industrial and wartime demands rather than a dominant practice.^[32]^[33]

Modern Evolution

Following World War II, part-time employment expanded significantly from the 1950s to the 1970s, driven by the structural shift toward service-oriented economies in developed nations. In the United States, the service sector's share of total employment rose from 46% in 1947 to 55% by 1965, creating demand for flexible labor in retail, hospitality, and personal services where part-time schedules aligned with fluctuating needs. This period marked a departure from the industrial era's rigid full-time norms, as service industries accommodated variable consumer patterns and seasonal demands.^[34] The proportion of part-time workers in the U.S. workforce grew from 13% in 1957 to over 18% by 1988, with a pronounced increase during the 1970s reflecting broader labor market changes. Key drivers included the feminist movements of the 1960s and 1970s, which emphasized work-life balance and propelled women's labor force participation from 34% in 1950 to nearly 50% by 1980, often through part-time roles that allowed reconciliation of employment with family responsibilities. By the 1990s, precursors to the gig economy emerged via the proliferation of temporary agencies, which offered short-term part-time placements; U.S. temporary help employment, for instance, expanded from 1.1 million jobs in 1990 to 2.3 million by 2008, serving as a flexible buffer for employers amid economic uncertainty.^[35]^[36]^[37] Technological advancements further propelled part-time work's evolution post-2000, with the internet boom of the 1990s laying the groundwork for remote tools that enabled location-independent scheduling. The adoption of broadband and collaboration software in the early 2000s facilitated flexible arrangements, particularly in professional services, allowing part-time workers to contribute without fixed office hours. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 intensified this trend, as furloughs and business disruptions led to a surge in part-time roles; in the U.S., involuntary part-time employment more than doubled from 4.4 million in February to over 10 million by April 2020, with many full-time positions converted to reduced hours to retain staff. Post-2020 recovery saw involuntary part-time decline, but voluntary part-time grew with hybrid work arrangements; by 2024, global part-time rates stabilized amid ongoing flexibility demands. As of 2022, global part-time employment accounted for about 17% of total employment, according to World Bank data based on ILO statistics, with non-standard forms comprising a larger share.^[38]^[39]^[40]^[41]

Types and Variations

By Employment Schedule

Part-time employment can be categorized by scheduling arrangements, which determine the predictability and consistency of work hours. These include fixed schedules with regular weekly hours, variable or flexible arrangements where hours fluctuate, and seasonal models tied to temporary demand periods. Such classifications help distinguish how part-time work accommodates diverse needs while varying in stability.^[1] Fixed part-time schedules involve consistent, predetermined hours worked each week, typically ranging from 15 to 25 hours, often in set shifts such as weekends or specific weekdays. These arrangements provide predictability, allowing workers to plan around regular commitments, and are common in roles requiring ongoing but reduced presence. For instance, federal guidelines define part-time work as a fixed schedule of fewer than 80 hours per biweekly pay period, ensuring structured employment less than full-time equivalents.^[42]^[43] Variable or flexible part-time schedules, in contrast, feature hours that adjust weekly based on employer needs or worker availability, with no guaranteed minimum in some cases. A prominent example is the zero-hour contract, where workers are on-call without assured shifts, leading to potential income variability and often fewer than 15 hours per week on average. The International Labour Organization notes that such on-call work, including zero-hours arrangements, affects approximately 2.5-3% of U.S. employment and up to 4-5% in certain European countries, emphasizing its role in accommodating fluctuating demands while posing challenges for planning. Evening shifts for parents or adjusted hours for other obligations exemplify this flexibility, though they may involve short notice periods of one week to a month.^[1]^[44] Seasonal part-time employment entails temporary increases in hours during peak periods, such as 20 hours per week for three months, followed by reduced or no work. These roles address cyclical demands and are classified as contingent if not expected to continue year-round, per U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics definitions. For example, holiday retail positions or summer jobs in leisure industries often operate on this model, with employment spiking in June through August and dipping in winter months. School-term schedules for students, typically 10 to 20 hours during academic periods, align with this temporary structure by concentrating work around non-vacation times.^[45]^[46]

By Industry and Sector

Part-time employment is particularly prevalent in the service sectors, reflecting the concentration of flexible scheduling in consumer-facing industries.^[47] This dominance stems from the need for adaptable staffing to match variable customer demand, with part-time roles enabling businesses to scale operations without fixed overhead costs. In retail and hospitality, part-time work constitutes 40-50% of positions, often involving roles such as cashiers, sales associates, and servers that align with shift-based schedules to cover peak hours like evenings and weekends.^[41] The International Labour Organization notes that accommodation and food services typically employ disproportionately more part-timers, driven by post-pandemic recovery and fluctuating tourism volumes, making these sectors reliant on temporary and on-call labor.^[41] Education and healthcare exhibit part-time employment in 20-30% of roles, influenced by seasonal or demand-driven fluctuations, such as adjunct lecturers in universities or per-diem nurses in hospitals. In education, the OECD's TALIS 2024 survey highlights part-time arrangements for teachers, often to accommodate professional development or work-life balance amid varying academic calendars.^[48] Similarly, in healthcare, the U.S. National Nursing Workforce Survey for 2024 indicates that while full-time roles predominate (approximately 75% of employed nurses), part-time options are available for nurses.^[49] The technology and professional services sectors are witnessing emerging trends in remote part-time work, including freelance coding or consulting, facilitated by digital platforms and the gig economy. The World Economic Forum's Future of Jobs Report 2025 points to growing demand for flexible tech roles, such as software developers and data analysts, where part-time contributions allow professionals to balance multiple projects or upskill amid rapid industry changes.^[50] Gig economy platforms, such as ride-sharing services (e.g., Uber) and freelance marketplaces (e.g., Upwork), further enable part-time work in these sectors, with millions of workers globally engaging in such arrangements as of 2025.^[51]

Advantages and Disadvantages

For Workers

Part-time employment offers several advantages for workers, particularly in enhancing work-life balance. By committing fewer hours to work, individuals can allocate more time to personal pursuits such as education, family responsibilities, or leisure activities, which contributes to overall well-being. For instance, studies show that even 1 to 8 hours of weekly part-time work can yield significant mental health benefits for previously unemployed individuals, including improved general health questionnaire scores by 0.83 to 1.11 points.^[52] Additionally, part-time roles serve as an accessible entry point for career starters, such as students, allowing them to gain practical experience without the demands of full-time commitment. International research demonstrates that teenagers engaging in part-time work alongside studies often achieve better labor market outcomes upon entering the workforce, including higher employability and career readiness.^[53] This arrangement enables skill-building in real-world settings while pursuing academic goals, fostering long-term professional development.^[54] Despite these benefits, part-time work presents notable disadvantages for workers, including income instability due to variable hours. Unpredictable scheduling often leads to fluctuating earnings, making financial planning challenging and exacerbating economic insecurity, particularly for low-wage hourly employees.^[55] Labor economics analyses from the 2020s highlight that involuntary part-time workers, who seek more hours but cannot obtain them, face heightened underemployment and earnings volatility.^[56] Career advancement is another area of concern, as part-time status frequently limits promotional opportunities. Workers perceive part-time colleagues as 12% less likely to receive internal promotions compared to full-time peers, regardless of gender.^[57] This "part-time penalty" is particularly evident for parents; for example, mothers working part-time encounter additional barriers to advancement due to assumptions about commitment, compounding motherhood-related promotion delays.^[57] Skill underutilization further compounds these issues, as part-time positions often involve roles below workers' qualifications, leading to limited human capital accumulation and lower long-term earnings potential.^[58] Quantitative data underscores the financial drawbacks, with studies from the early 2020s showing part-time workers earn 19.8% to 29.3% less per hour than comparable full-time workers in similar occupations and industries, even after adjusting for demographics and education.^[18] This wage penalty persists across groups, affecting men more severely at 25.8% and women at 15.9%, and contributes to broader professional stagnation for those reliant on part-time arrangements.^[18]

For Employers

Hiring part-time employees offers employers several operational and financial advantages, particularly in managing variable workloads and controlling expenses. One key benefit is cost savings on payroll and benefits, as part-time workers in the private sector have significantly lower access to employer-sponsored benefits compared to full-time staff. For instance, in March 2025, only 25% of part-time workers had access to medical care benefits, versus 87% of full-time workers, allowing employers to avoid substantial premiums that average 80% of single coverage costs for participating employees.^[59] Similarly, retirement benefits access stands at 47% for part-time workers, compared to 81% for full-time, reducing fixed compensation costs that can comprise up to 30% of total payroll in full-time roles.^[59] These savings enable businesses to allocate resources more efficiently, often resulting in 19.8-29.3% lower wages per hour worked compared to full-time, based on the latest available data.^[18] Another advantage is enhanced flexibility to align staffing with demand fluctuations, such as peaks during busy periods, without committing to permanent overhead. Part-time arrangements allow employers to scale operations dynamically, covering shifts like evenings or weekends while minimizing idle time for full-time staff.^[60] This approach also broadens the talent pool by attracting individuals seeking non-traditional schedules, including parents, students, or retirees, who bring diverse perspectives and skills that can improve innovation and customer service.^[60] For example, restaurants frequently employ part-time staff to handle lunch rushes and peak dinner hours, ensuring adequate coverage without excess payroll during slower times.^[61] In the tech sector, firms use part-time or flexible hires for seasonal projects, such as software updates or product launches, to rapidly scale teams amid market volatility.^[62] Despite these benefits, part-time hiring presents challenges, including higher turnover rates that increase recruitment and onboarding expenses. Part-time employees often exhibit greater mobility due to limited investment in the role and absence of benefits, leading to turnover rates that exceed those of full-time staff, particularly in high-volume industries.^[63] This frequent churn necessitates repeated training, with costs for onboarding new hires averaging $5,475 per nonexecutive employee as of 2025, compounded by lost productivity during transition periods.^[64] Coordination issues further complicate operations, as reduced hours limit face-to-face interactions, potentially fostering resentment among full-time teams and hindering knowledge sharing or team cohesion.^[60] Overall, while part-time employment reduces fixed costs and enhances adaptability—particularly valuable in volatile 2025 markets where hiring slowed by up to 20% in key sectors— it may lead to productivity dips from inconsistent staffing.^[65] Recent analyses indicate positive ROI for flexible models in uncertain economies, though success depends on robust retention strategies. As of 2025, flexible part-time models have gained traction amid economic uncertainty, aiding adaptability.^[66]

Legal and Regulatory Aspects

Labor Rights and Protections

Part-time workers are generally entitled to the same minimum wage rate as full-time employees for the hours they work, ensuring that their hourly compensation is not diminished due to part-time status.^[4] Under international standards, this rate must be calculated proportionately to hours worked or earnings, preventing any lower basic wage compared to comparable full-time workers.^[10] For overtime, protections typically apply based on total hours worked exceeding a standard threshold, such as 40 hours per week, at a rate of at least one-and-a-half times the regular hourly rate, regardless of whether the worker is classified as part-time.^[4] Anti-discrimination provisions safeguard part-time workers from bias related to their employment status, including equal pay for work of equal value and protections against unfavorable treatment in hiring, promotions, or other terms of employment.^[10] These rights extend to ensuring equivalent access to vocational training, career development, and social security benefits, proportionate to hours worked where applicable.^[10] The principle of non-discrimination is reinforced by requiring that part-time status alone does not justify less favorable conditions compared to full-time counterparts performing similar duties.^[10] Leave rights for part-time workers include pro-rated access to paid annual leave, sick leave, and public holidays, calculated based on hours worked or earnings to maintain equity with full-time employees.^[10] For maternity leave, universal standards mandate a minimum duration of 14 weeks, with at least two weeks compulsory, applicable to all women workers including those employed part-time, and compensated at a level no less than sickness pay.^[67] Upon return from such leave, part-time workers are protected to resume their job or an equivalent position under no less favorable conditions.^[67] Key international frameworks underpinning these protections include the International Labour Organization's (ILO) Part-Time Work Convention, 1994 (No. 175), which mandates non-discrimination and equal treatment in areas such as remuneration, working conditions, and access to employment opportunities for part-time workers.^[10] In the United States, the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) clarifies that part-time workers receive full applicability of minimum wage and overtime rules without exemptions based on hours worked, while also aligning with broader equal pay requirements under related statutes.^[4] These conventions and laws collectively aim to integrate part-time workers into the broader labor rights framework, promoting fairness and stability in diverse work arrangements.

Global Variations

In Europe, part-time employment benefits from robust regulatory frameworks aimed at ensuring equitable treatment. The EU Framework Agreement on Part-time Work, annexed to Directive 97/81/EC, mandates non-discrimination against part-time workers compared to full-time counterparts, with benefits provided on a pro-rata temporis basis for aspects like pay, leave, and training. Complementing this, the EU Working Time Directive (2003/88/EC) establishes a maximum average of 48 hours per week, including overtime, to safeguard health and safety for all workers, including part-timers, while guaranteeing at least 11 hours of daily rest. In Germany, the Part-Time and Fixed-Term Employment Act (TzBfG) further strengthens these protections by allowing employees to request part-time arrangements and entitling them to pro-rated social security contributions and benefits based on hours worked, typically applying fully once earnings exceed the mini-job threshold of €556 per month as of 2025.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] North American approaches to part-time work diverge significantly between the United States and Canada, reflecting differing emphases on employer mandates versus social safety nets. In the U.S., the Affordable Care Act defines full-time employment as 30 or more hours per week, meaning part-time workers (under 30 hours) receive no federal requirement for employer-sponsored health benefits, often resulting in reliance on marketplaces or public programs for coverage. By contrast, Canada integrates part-time workers into its Employment Insurance (EI) system, where eligibility requires 420-700 insurable hours in the prior year (achievable via part-time roles), and benefits are calculated at 55% of average insurable earnings up to a maximum, effectively pro-rating support based on prior contributions while allowing part-time earnings to offset benefits at a 50% deduction rate.^[72]^[73]^[74] In the Asia-Pacific region, part-time regulations highlight stark cultural and policy contrasts, from exploitation risks to compensatory premiums. Japan's Act on Improvement, etc., of Employment Management for Part-Time and Fixed-Term Workers (2008) seeks parity in treatment with regular employees regarding wages, benefits, and training, yet "black companies"—firms notorious for labor violations—frequently flout these rules by enforcing unpaid overtime and denying protections to part-timers, contributing to high turnover and health issues. Australia's Fair Work Act, however, mandates a 25% casual loading on the base hourly rate for part-time casual employees to offset the absence of paid annual leave, sick leave, and notice periods, ensuring higher take-home pay as a cultural norm in flexible work arrangements.^[75]^[76]^[77] Developing regions often feature informal part-time work as the prevailing norm, with limited formal protections exacerbating vulnerability. In India, informal employment dominates the labor market, comprising approximately 90% of total employment as per the 2024 ILO India Employment Report, where part-time roles—common in agriculture, construction, and services—typically lack contracts, minimum wages, or social security, leaving workers exposed to economic instability and exploitation.^[78]

Societal and Economic Impacts

On Workforce Participation

Part-time work significantly influences workforce participation by enabling entry and retention among underrepresented demographics, particularly women. In OECD countries, part-time employment facilitates higher labor force participation for women, who are disproportionately represented in such roles compared to men; for instance, approximately 31% of employed women worked part-time in 2023, versus about 9% of employed men, allowing many to balance caregiving responsibilities with paid work. This disparity underscores part-time work's role as an enabler for female inclusion, with studies indicating that flexible scheduling options correlate with sustained participation rates among mothers and caregivers.^[79] While part-time arrangements serve as a bridge for groups like students and parents seeking to enter or remain in the labor market, they can also create barriers for involuntary part-timers who prefer full-time positions. In the United States, about 17% of part-time workers in 2025 were employed involuntarily due to economic reasons, such as slack business conditions or inability to find full-time jobs, totaling around 4.7 million individuals and highlighting a potential "trap" that limits career progression and earnings potential.^[80] This underemployment affects labor market retention, as involuntary part-timers often face reduced job security and benefits, deterring long-term attachment to the workforce.^[81] Emerging trends reflect demographic shifts driving part-time uptake, including aging populations and youth challenges post-2020 recessions. In Japan, where the elderly labor force participation rate exceeded 25% in 2024—the second-highest among OECD nations—most workers aged 65 and older held part-time or non-regular positions, supporting retention amid population aging and labor shortages.^[82]^[83] Similarly, youth underemployment has persisted after the COVID-19 downturn, with global youth unemployment at 13% in 2023 (a 15-year low but still elevated for many), and increased reliance on part-time roles contributing to casualization and delayed full-time entry, particularly in regions with uneven recovery; as of 2024, the rate stabilized around 12.5% per ILO estimates.^[84] The International Labour Organization notes that this trend exacerbates skills mismatches for young workers aged 15-24. Research demonstrates a positive correlation between part-time availability in flexible labor markets and overall employment rates, as it enhances labor utilization without displacing full-time jobs. Analyses of European and OECD data show that economies with robust part-time options, such as the Netherlands, achieve higher aggregate participation by accommodating diverse needs, leading to employment-to-population ratios up to 5 percentage points above less flexible peers.^[85] Seminal studies emphasize that such flexibility reduces barriers to entry, fostering inclusive growth in participation across demographics.^[86]

On Broader Economy

Part-time employment plays a significant role in supporting economic growth in service-oriented economies, where flexibility allows businesses to match labor supply with variable demand. In the United States, the service sector, which heavily relies on part-time workers in areas like retail, hospitality, and healthcare, accounts for approximately 77.6% of GDP as of 2021, with recent trends suggesting continued dominance into 2025.^[87] This structure enables efficient resource allocation, contributing to overall GDP expansion by facilitating scalability in labor-intensive industries without the fixed costs of full-time positions. For instance, part-time workers make up about 17.8% of the total employed workforce in August 2025, helping sustain output in sectors prone to seasonal or hourly fluctuations.^[88] However, the prevalence of part-time work can exacerbate income inequality by widening wage gaps and diminishing aggregate consumer spending power. Part-time workers earn an average of 19.8% less per hour than comparable full-time workers, even after adjusting for industry, occupation, and demographics, which perpetuates earnings disparities particularly among women and lower-skilled groups.^[89] This dynamic effect of increasing part-time employment further contributes to long-term earnings inequality, as reduced hours limit access to benefits and career progression, thereby lowering household income and overall spending capacity in the economy.^[90] Debates on part-time employment's impact on productivity highlight trade-offs between output levels and operational efficiencies. Some analyses suggest that part-time workers may exhibit lower per-hour productivity due to factors like reduced training investment or fragmented workflows, though empirical evidence is mixed and often context-dependent. Conversely, part-time arrangements can enhance firm-level productivity by up to 2% through better work-life balance and fewer sick days, as organizations with higher part-time shares report lower sickness absence rates, offsetting potential output shortfalls via improved attendance and morale.^[91]^[92] Policy interventions, such as minimum wage increases, influence part-time hiring patterns and broader recovery dynamics. Raising the minimum wage elevates labor costs for low-wage roles, prompting some employers to reduce hours or limit part-time positions, with the Congressional Budget Office estimating that such hikes could lead to fewer overall low-wage jobs.^[93] Following the 2008 Great Recession, involuntary part-time employment surged, reaching about 6% of the workforce by late 2009 and remained elevated, correlating with a protracted recovery marked by persistent labor market slack and slower GDP rebound compared to prior downturns.^[94]^[95] This trend underscored how underemployment hindered full economic revitalization for over a decade.^[96]

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Industrialization redefined the role of women in the home, at the same time opening new opportunities for them as industrial wage earners.
[25]
The Labor Market During the Great Depression and the Current ...
Jun 19, 2009 · During the Great Depression, many workers were unemployed for long periods, with 1 in 4 unemployed in 1933. Unemployment rose to 24.9% in 1933, ...
[26]
Children and the Great Depression - Digital History
Only one company in ten failed to cut pay, and in 1932, three-quarters of all workers were on part-time schedules, averaging just 60 percent of the normal work ...<|separator|>
[27]
Women Workers in the British Industrial Revolution – EH.net
These numbers suggest that female labor force participation was low, and that 40 percent of occupied women worked in domestic service.
[28]
Women in the Work Force during World War II | National Archives
May 29, 2025 · With men off to fight a worldwide war across the Atlantic and the Pacific, women were called to take their place on the production line.
[29]
[PDF] Employment of Women in War Production
Since 1940 there has been a very marked increase in the employment of women, especially married women, and special efforts have been made to organize part-time ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
[PDF] The Quiet Revolution That Transformed Women's Employment ...
The avail- ability of part-time work by firms led to an increase in those working fewer than 35 hours per week from 18 percent of the female labor force in 1940 ...
[31]
[PDF] Labor Force and Employment, 1800-1960
We assume that the relative rise in the rate for the youngest age group from 1930 to 1950 reflects the greater availability of part-time work.
[32]
Service sector - World history
Sep 14, 2015 · Between 1947 and 1965, the share of the American labor force employed in the service sector increased from 46 percent to 55 percent. For most of ...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[33]
[PDF] Short Hours, Short Shrift: Causes and Consequences of Part-Time ...
Since the late 1950s the number of part-timers as a percentage of the total U.S. labor force has increased from 13 percent in 1957 to over 18 percent in 1988.
[34]
The history of women's work and wages and how it has created ...
The major strides women have made in the labor market. Their entry into paid work has been a major factor in America's prosperity over the past century and a ...
[35]
[PDF] The expanding role of temporary help services from 1990 to 2008
Aug 2, 2010 · From 1990-2008, temporary help employment grew from 1.1 to 2.3 million, now acting as a bridge to permanent employment, and a buffer for ...
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The Remote Work Revolution: History and Future Growth - Insightful
Apr 21, 2023 · The widespread adoption of the Internet in the late 1990s and early 2000s provided the essential infrastructure for remote work to flourish. By ...Tracing The Origins Of... · Forecasting The Future Of... · Adapting To The Future Of...Missing: boom part-
[37]
[PDF] Part-Time Workers Are Facing Heightened Uncertainty During ...
2 Yet between February and April 2020, the number of people working part time for “economic reasons” (i.e., involuntarily) more than doubled.3 Although this ...
[38]
Part time employment, total (% of total employment) | Data
Part time employment, total (% of total employment) Wages and Working Time Statistics database ( COND ), International Labour Organization ( ILO )
[39]
Alternative Work Schedules - OPM
A part-time employee has a fixed schedule of fewer than 80 hours in a biweekly pay period and must be scheduled to work on fewer than 10 workdays. Tour of Duty ...
[40]
Concepts and Definitions (CPS) - Bureau of Labor Statistics
Sep 15, 2025 · The part-time labor force is the sum of the part-time employed and unemployed. Unemployment rates for full- and part-time workers are calculated ...
[41]
[PDF] On-call work and 'zero hours' contracts
In contrast, under “zero hours” contracts, workers are not entitled to any minimum number of hours of work. What is on-call work?
[42]
Contingent and Alternative Employment Arrangements Technical Note
Nov 8, 2024 · For example, a seasonal job that is only available at a certain time each year counts as a contingent job. The number and types of seasonal jobs ...Missing: part- | Show results with:part-
[43]
Summer surge: Strong-growth industries with seasonal employment ...
For millions of people, summertime means enjoying activities such as attending outdoor performances, visiting amusement parks, or sightseeing. For millions of ...Missing: part- definition
[44]
OECD Employment Outlook 2025
Jul 9, 2025 · International Migration Outlook 2025. Data. Data. Browse all data. Data. Indicators. Key data and interactive charts across a wide range of ...Missing: time | Show results with:time
[45]
None
Summary of each segment:
[46]
Results from TALIS 2024 - OECD
Oct 7, 2025 · In 2024, 280 000 educators from 55 education systems shared insights into their working conditions, professional development and the realities ...Novice Teachers Receive More... · Results From Talis 2024 · In The Same Series
[47]
[PDF] Future of Jobs Report 2025 - World Economic Forum: Publications
The Future of Jobs Report 2025 brings together the perspective of over 1,000 leading global employers—collectively representing more than. 14 million workers ...
[48]
Work–Life Balance: Weighing the Importance of Work–Family and ...
Feb 1, 2020 · The work–life balance also reduces stress-related outcomes such as psychological distress, emotional exhaustion, anxiety, and depression [10].
[49]
How much paid work is needed for mental health and well-being?
This study found that even a small number of working hours (between one and 8 ha week) generates significant mental health and well-being benefits.
[50]
[PDF] Teenage Part-time Working: how schools can optimise benefits and ...
International research shows that teenagers who work part-time alongside their full-time studies can expect to do better when they entered the labour force as ...
[51]
The Lasting Benefits of Early Work Experience
Aug 15, 2014 · Young adults who graduated high school in the late 1970s and early 1980s and worked part-time during their senior year saw a career benefit 5-10 years after ...
[52]
Unpredictable work hours and volatile incomes are long-term risks ...
Irregular work hours lead to income volatility for hourly wage workers, increasing the difficulty of making ends meet.
[53]
Still falling short on hours and pay: Part-time work becoming new ...
Dec 5, 2016 · Table 1 presents the number of persons at work total and at work part time overall and for the two types of part-time employment—voluntary and ...
[54]
Employees' perceptions of co-workers' internal promotion penalties
May 26, 2024 · Results show that promotion chances are perceived as significantly lower for co-workers who are women (gender penalty), mothers (motherhood penalty) and part- ...
[55]
(PDF) Why do Part-time Workers Earn Less? The Role of Worker ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The lower skills of part-time than full-time workers result primarily from limited work experience and accumulation of human capital.
[56]
[PDF] EMPLOYEE BENEFITS IN THE UNITED STATES – MARCH 2025
The take-up rate was 67 percent for full-time workers and 44 percent for part-time workers. • Ninety-nine percent of full-time state and local government ...
[57]
[PDF] Comparing benefit costs for full- and part-time workers
In addition, the difference in coverage rates between full- and part-time jobs varies considerably, ranging from about 19 percentage points for savings plans ...
[58]
Filling the gaps: Pros and cons of hiring part-time employees | Insperity
1. Greater flexibility. Part-time employees allow you to staff exactly according to your company's needs, and weather ups and downs with ease. For organizations ...
[59]
Flexible Scheduling in Restaurants: Best Practices | Lineup.ai
A flexible schedule in a restaurant typically ranges based on various factors including the specific needs of the business and the preferences of the employees.
[60]
Part-Time Employees Want More Hours. Can Companies Tap This ...
Jul 24, 2023 · A report by Joseph Fuller and colleagues shows how algorithms and inflexibility prevent companies from accessing valuable talent in a long-term shortage.
[61]
Committing to Part-Timers - SHRM
If you don't want to accept higher turnover levels, then you need to consider ways of hiring that can help you achieve longevity, perhaps using selection tools ...
[62]
The Real Costs of Recruitment - SHRM
Apr 11, 2022 · But many employers estimate the total cost to hire a new employee can be three to four times the position's salary, according to Edie Goldberg, ...Missing: 20-40% | Show results with:20-40%
[63]
Indeed's 2025 US Jobs & Hiring Trends Report: What To Expect ...
Dec 10, 2024 · The US labor market's resilience continued in 2024, and now all eyes turn toward a potential soft landing in 2025.Job Gains Are Slowing In Key... · Hires And Quits Are Near... · Wage Growth Is Slowing<|separator|>
[64]
The Dawning of the Age of Flex Labor - Harvard Business Review
Sep 4, 2015 · By making adjustments easier, the flexible work system allows firms to adjust faster and more accurately. Society. The need for —and therefore ...
[65]
EU legislation on family leaves and work-life balance
Under Directive 92/85, women have the right to a minimum of 14 weeks of maternity leave. At least 2 of them are compulsory. Maternity leave is compensated at ...
[66]
Part-Time Work - Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion
A Framework Agreement between Europe's employers and trade unions sets out to eliminate unjustified discrimination against part-time workers.
[67]
Working hours in EU: What are the minimum standards? - Your Europe
As an employer, you must ensure that your staff does not work more than 48 hours per week (including overtime).
[68]
Employee benefits in Germany | L&E Global
Oct 22, 2024 · Employees, however, have a statutory right to work part-time (from 15 up to 32 hours per week; for children born before 1 September 2021 up to ...
[69]
Identifying full-time employees | Internal Revenue Service
Sep 13, 2025 · A full-time employee is, for a calendar month, an employee employed on average at least 30 hours of service per week, or 130 hours of service per month.
[70]
EI regular benefits: Do you qualify - Canada.ca
You'll need between 420 and 700 hours of insurable employment during the qualifying period to qualify for regular benefits.Extended parental benefits for... · EI - Workers and residents · Fired for misconductMissing: pro- | Show results with:pro-
[71]
Employment Insurance – Working While on Claim - Canada.ca
Jun 6, 2025 · For the weeks she worked part-time, she took home $338 in EI sickness benefits plus her part-time earnings of $260 for a total of $598.Missing: pro- | Show results with:pro-
[72]
Act on Improvement, etc. of Employment Management for Part-Time ...
The purpose of this Act is to enable Part-Time Workers to effectively exercise their abilities through ensuring, etc. of their treatment balanced with that of ...Missing: black | Show results with:black
[73]
“Black Corporations” Still Common in Japan | Nippon.com
Nov 22, 2023 · The most-cited reason was the “high turnover rate” (mentioned by 44.0%), followed by “long working hours” (39.7%) and “unpaid overtime” (38.0%), ...
[74]
What is casual loading? Here's How it Works | Workday Aus & NZ
In most industries, the standard rate for casual loading is 25%. This means casual employees typically earn 25% on top of their base hourly rate. For example, ...How Casual Loading Works · Who Is Entitled To Casual... · Is Casual Loading Paid On...
[75]
None
Below is a merged summary of informal employment in India based on the India Employment Report 2024, consolidating all the information from the provided segments. To ensure a dense and comprehensive representation, I will use tables where appropriate to organize detailed data (e.g., percentages, page numbers, quotes) and include narrative text for additional context and qualitative insights. The response retains all information mentioned across the summaries, avoiding redundancy where possible.
[76]
Full Report: Gender gaps in paid and unpaid work persist | OECD
Sep 15, 2025 · Compared to men, women have lower employment rates, are more likely to work part-time, spend fewer hours to paid work, and spend more hours ...
[77]
The Conference Board Employment Trends Index™ (ETI)
The share of involuntary part-time workers was flat in August near 17%, below the high of 18% reached in February. Measures of industrial activity in August ...
[78]
[PDF] The Employment Situation - August 2025 - Bureau of Labor Statistics
Sep 5, 2025 · In August, average hourly earnings of private-sector production and nonsupervisory employees rose by 12 cents, or 0.4 percent, to $31.46. (See ...
[79]
[PDF] Japan's Labor Market under Demographic Decline
Aug 23, 2025 · The labor force participation rate for people aged 65 and over was above 25 percent in 2024, which was the second highest among OECD countries, ...Missing: elderly | Show results with:elderly
[80]
Global Employment Trends for Youth 2024
Aug 12, 2024 · Standing at 13 per cent in 2023, the global youth unemployment rate does not just reflect a full recovery from the COVID-19 peak; it is also at ...
[81]
Are part-time workers less productive and underpaid?
Part-time work comes at a cost of lower wages for workers, mainly because part-time jobs are concentrated in lower paying occupations and sectors.
[82]
Part‐Time Employment and the Utilisation of Labour Resources
In this paper it is argued that the promotion of part-time employment contributes to a better utilisation of the labour supply potential in a country, to the ...
[83]
https://english.kyodonews.net/articles/-/61020
[84]
A Closer Look at Full-time and Part-time Employment: August 2025
August's employment report showed that 17.8% of total employed workers were part time and 82.2% of total employed workers were full-time.Missing: ILO | Show results with:ILO
[85]
Part-time workers earn 19.8% less per hour than comparable full ...
Part-time workers face an adjusted hourly wage penalty of 29.3% compared with workers with similar demographic characteristics, and education levels who work ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[86]
Earnings inequality and working hours mismatch - ScienceDirect.com
For example, Biewen et al. (2018) and Paul (2016) show that part-time work negatively affects wages in the long term. Thus, the increase in part-time ...Missing: instability | Show results with:instability
[87]
Part-time work has a positive impact on productivity | IESE Insight
Mar 23, 2023 · Letting your employees work part-time can bring a 2% increase in firm-level labor productivity and see fewer sick days per year.
[88]
Part-time work and sickness absence – an organization-level analysis
Nov 14, 2023 · The aim of this study is to identify whether there is a relationship between part-time work and sickness absence at the organizational level.
[89]
How Increasing the Federal Minimum Wage Could Affect ...
Jan 30, 2024 · Raising the minimum wage would increase the cost of employing low-wage workers. As a result, some employers would employ fewer workers than they ...
[90]
[PDF] Part-Time Employment During the Great Recession and the Ensuing ...
Apr 4, 2014 · By the time that the recession had been declared officially over in June 2009, the part-time employment rate stood at 18.0% representing a 15.4 ...
[91]
[PDF] Involuntary Part-Time Employment - UNH Scholars Repository
Involuntary Part-Time Employment. A Slow and Uneven Economic Recovery. Rebecca Glauber. National Issue Brief #116. Spring 2017. University of. New Hampshire.
[92]
Involuntary Part-Time Work a Decade after the Recession
Nov 25, 2019 · Involuntary part-time employment reached unusually high levels during the last recession and declined only slowly afterward.