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Tech

Technology, commonly abbreviated as tech, is the practical application of scientific knowledge, especially in industry or engineering, to achieve specific practical goals, create tools, systems, and processes that solve problems and enhance human capabilities.^[1] This encompasses not only physical devices and machinery but also methods and techniques for accomplishing tasks, such as information storage or educational systems.^[1] In a broader sense, technology represents the systematic application of organized knowledge to practical tasks, distinguishing human innovation through the creation of artifacts that modify the environment and address needs.^[2] The history of technology traces back to prehistoric times with the development of simple tools like stone implements, evolving through major periods such as the Agricultural Revolution, Industrial Revolution, and the digital age, where innovations have profoundly shaped societies, economies, and daily life.^[2] Key milestones include the shift to science-based technologies around 1900, post-World War II advancements in computing and electronics, and the rapid acceleration of digital transformation in the late 20th and 21st centuries, enabling global connectivity and automation.^[2] The field has formalized academically since the 1950s, with organizations like the Society for the History of Technology promoting study of its societal implications, including environmental effects and contributions from diverse groups. Technology's impact is dual-edged, driving progress while posing challenges. On the positive side, digital technologies have connected over two-thirds of the world's population as of 2025, with more than 5.5 billion internet users, boosted financial inclusion, improved healthcare through AI diagnostics, and expanded education via virtual platforms, potentially creating over 30 million green jobs by 2030, including from nature-based solutions.^[3]^[4] Conversely, they exacerbate inequalities—such as the approximately 7% global gender gap in internet use as of 2025, which is wider in least developed countries at around 25%—and threaten job displacement, with automation and AI potentially displacing or transforming up to 30% of jobs globally by 2030, though net job creation is projected in many sectors, alongside privacy erosion and misinformation spread.^[5]^[6] Overall, technology continues to evolve, influenced by both scientific discovery ("technology push") and societal needs ("mission pull"), as exemplified by space agencies advancing innovations for exploration and everyday applications.^[7]

Definition and Scope

Core Definition

Technology is defined as the systematic application of organized knowledge to practical tasks, encompassing tools, processes, systems, and methods designed to solve problems or achieve specific goals. This includes the creation of artifacts that extend human capabilities, from simple implements to complex infrastructures, emphasizing utility and efficiency over theoretical exploration.^[8] The term "technology" originates from the Greek words technē (art, skill, or craft) and logos (study or discourse), forming technologia to denote the systematic treatment of an art or craft.^[9] The concept traces back to ancient Greek philosophy, where Aristotle employed a form of the term in his Rhetoric to describe the organized study of productive knowledge, though its modern connotation as applied industrial arts emerged in the 19th century.^[10] While closely related, technology differs fundamentally from science: science seeks to discover and explain natural phenomena through observation and theory-building, whereas technology focuses on the invention, design, and application of solutions to real-world needs.^[11] For instance, scientific inquiry into physics might uncover principles of motion, but technology applies those principles to engineer devices like machines.^[12] This distinction highlights technology's practical, activity-oriented nature, often embedded in social and economic contexts rather than pure knowledge generation.^[8] Foundational technological artifacts illustrate this applied essence, such as the wheel, which revolutionized transport by enabling rotational motion for carts and machinery; the lever, a simple machine that amplifies force for lifting and balancing; and fire control, which allowed humans to harness combustion for cooking, warmth, and tool-making, fundamentally altering survival strategies.^[13] These early innovations demonstrate technology's role in amplifying human physical and cognitive abilities from prehistoric times.^[11]

Classification Systems

Technology classification systems provide structured frameworks to organize the diverse array of technological developments, enabling analysis of their functions, applications, and impacts across domains. These systems typically categorize technologies based on key attributes such as sector, scale, and purpose, facilitating comparisons in economic, innovative, and policy contexts. For instance, sectoral classifications group technologies by their primary field of application, while scale-based schemes differentiate between microscopic innovations like nanotechnology and macroscopic infrastructure projects. Such frameworks underscore technology's breadth, from tangible hardware to systemic processes, without overlapping into specific branch details.^[14] Major classification schemes include those organized by sector, scale, and purpose. Sectoral approaches, such as the World Intellectual Property Organization's (WIPO) technology classification derived from International Patent Classification (IPC) codes, divide technologies into 35 fields across five broad areas: electrical engineering (e.g., telecommunications), instruments (e.g., optics), chemistry (e.g., pharmaceuticals), mechanical engineering (e.g., engines), and other fields (e.g., biotechnology). This system ensures comprehensive coverage of patentable inventions for cross-country technological comparisons, with balanced field sizes to avoid skewing analyses. Similarly, the OECD's high-technology sector classification, based on R&D intensity, groups manufacturing into high-tech (e.g., aerospace, electronics), medium-high-tech (e.g., electrical machinery, vehicles), medium-low-tech (e.g., rubber products), and low-tech (e.g., textiles) categories, using ISIC Rev. 2 codes to measure innovation intensity across 22 sectors. Scale-based classifications distinguish micro-scale technologies, such as microelectronics and nanomaterials operating at the atomic or molecular level, from macro-scale ones like civil engineering structures spanning kilometers, highlighting differences in design challenges and integration requirements. Purpose-oriented schemes, such as Baumol's framework, contrast productive technologies, which enhance efficiency and output (e.g., industrial automation), with unproductive (rent-seeking) or destructive ones (harmful, such as certain weapons systems), applied to entrepreneurial activities that can create, extract, or destroy value.^[14]^[15]^[16] Thomas Kuhn's concept of paradigm shifts, originally from scientific revolutions, has been adapted to technology classification to explain evolutionary patterns in innovation. In technological contexts, paradigms represent dominant designs and epistemic frameworks guiding incremental progress until anomalies prompt shifts to new models, such as the transition from analog to digital electronics. This approach influences classifications by emphasizing path dependency and punctuated change, where technologies evolve within established paradigms before revolutionary disruptions redefine categories. Within this, hard technologies are classified as tangible, hardware-based artifacts (e.g., machinery, devices) that operate autonomously once deployed, while soft technologies encompass intangible, human-mediated elements like software, processes, and knowledge systems requiring ongoing social interaction. The shift from hard to soft technologies reflects broader trends in global innovation, where soft elements increasingly drive value through skills and information integration.^[17]^[18]^[19] International standards, particularly the International Organization for Standardization's (ISO) International Classification for Standards (ICS), provide a hierarchical framework for technology sectors. The ICS comprises three levels: 40 top-level fields (e.g., 29 Electrical Engineering, 25 Manufacturing Engineering), 392 groups (e.g., 29.120 Electrical Accessories), and 909 subgroups (e.g., 29.120.10 Conduits for Electrical Purposes), covering all standardization activities from information technology to metallurgy. Updated in 2016 to incorporate emerging fields like digital technologies, it ensures global consistency in classifying standards across economic sectors. This system supports interoperability and policy-making by mapping technologies to industrial applications without favoring specific innovations.^[20]^[21] Classification criteria often revolve around novelty, complexity, and societal integration to assess a technology's maturity and impact. Novelty evaluates whether a technology introduces unprecedented capabilities, distinguishing emerging (e.g., quantum computing prototypes) from established ones based on patent novelty and diffusion rates. Complexity measures the intricacy of components and interactions, with high-complexity technologies like integrated circuits requiring advanced R&D, as quantified in OECD's R&D intensity metrics where high-tech sectors exceed 5% R&D-to-value-added ratios. Societal integration assesses how seamlessly a technology embeds into social, economic, and ethical structures, considering adoption barriers and benefits, such as through balanced field coverage in WIPO's IPC-based system to reflect real-world technological structures. These criteria ensure classifications remain dynamic, prioritizing verifiable innovation metrics over subjective judgments.^[22]^[14]

Historical Development

Prehistoric and Ancient Innovations

The earliest evidence of human technological innovation dates to the Paleolithic era, with the development of stone tools that marked a pivotal shift in survival strategies. The Oldowan tool industry, characterized by simple choppers and flakes produced by striking stones together, emerged approximately 2.6 million years ago in East Africa, enabling early hominins to access meat and marrow more efficiently through scavenging and basic butchery.^[23] These rudimentary implements represented empirical problem-solving based on trial and observation, without reliance on systematic scientific principles. Subsequent advancements led to the Acheulean industry around 1.6 million years ago, featuring symmetrical bifacial hand axes crafted from larger stone cores, which improved cutting and scraping capabilities for processing hides, wood, and plants.^[24] Acheulean tools, often pear-shaped and weighing up to several kilograms, demonstrated enhanced planning and dexterity, spreading across Africa, Europe, and Asia over a million years.^[25] The Neolithic Revolution, beginning around 10,000 BCE in the Fertile Crescent, transformed human societies through the domestication of plants such as wheat and barley, and animals including goats, sheep, and cattle, fostering settled agriculture and surplus food production.^[26] This shift from hunter-gatherer lifestyles to farming relied on empirical innovations like selective breeding and soil management, which increased food reliability and supported population growth from sparse bands to denser communities numbering in the thousands.^[27] By enabling permanent settlements, these developments laid the groundwork for social complexity, as agricultural yields allowed specialization beyond subsistence tasks.^[28] In ancient civilizations, engineering feats further exemplified practical ingenuity driven by necessity. The Egyptian pyramids, constructed around 2600 BCE during the Old Kingdom, such as the Step Pyramid of Djoser, involved precise quarrying, transportation, and stacking of millions of limestone blocks using ramps and levers, symbolizing pharaonic power and astronomical alignment.^[29] In Mesopotamia, irrigation systems from the Sumerian period (circa 4000–2000 BCE) channeled Euphrates and Tigris floodwaters via canals and levees, boosting crop productivity in arid regions and sustaining urban centers like Uruk.^[30] Greek innovations included aqueducts, such as those built in Athens by the 6th century BCE, which conveyed water over distances using gravity-fed conduits of stone and clay, minimizing evaporation and contamination.^[31] A notable device was the Archimedes' screw, invented around 287–212 BCE, consisting of a helical blade within a wooden cylinder rotated to lift water for irrigation or drainage, revolutionizing fluid handling in Hellenistic engineering.^[32] These pre-industrial technologies, grounded in observational learning, directly contributed to exponential population expansion by enhancing resource availability and societal organization.^[33]

Industrial and Modern Advancements

The Industrial Revolution, commencing in Great Britain around 1760 and extending through the early 19th century, marked a profound transformation from agrarian economies to industrialized societies driven by mechanization and fossil fuel power.^[34] Central to this era was the refinement of the steam engine by James Watt, who patented an improved version with a separate condenser in 1769, dramatically increasing efficiency for pumping water from mines and powering textile machinery, factories, and locomotives.^[35] This innovation facilitated the growth of urban centers, expanded global trade via steamships and railways, and shifted labor from farms to factories, laying the foundation for mass production and modern capitalism. The late 19th century saw the rise of electrical technologies, with Thomas Edison developing the first practical incandescent light bulb in 1879 through iterative filament testing, enabling widespread indoor illumination and extending productive hours in homes and workplaces.^[36] Complementing this, Nikola Tesla's advancements in alternating current (AC) systems, patented in 1888, allowed efficient long-distance power transmission, powering the electrification of cities and industries in a "War of Currents" against Edison's direct current (DC).^[37] These developments spurred the Second Industrial Revolution, incorporating steel production, chemicals, and automobiles. Mass production techniques advanced in the early 20th century, exemplified by Henry Ford's introduction of the moving assembly line in October 1913 at his Highland Park plant in Michigan, which reduced Model T production time from 12 hours to about 90 minutes, making automobiles affordable and revolutionizing manufacturing worldwide.^[38] Concurrently, aviation emerged with the Wright brothers' first powered, controlled flight on December 17, 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, using their self-propelled Wright Flyer, which covered 120 feet and paved the way for commercial and military air travel.^[39] The mid-20th century brought electronic computing, with ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), developed by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert starting in 1943 and completed in 1945 at the University of Pennsylvania, becoming the first general-purpose electronic digital computer for ballistic calculations during World War II.^[40] This was followed by the invention of the transistor in December 1947 by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories, a semiconductor device that replaced bulky vacuum tubes, enabling smaller, more reliable electronics and fueling the growth of consumer devices like radios and televisions.^[41] Networking innovations culminated in ARPANET, the precursor to the internet, with its first connection established in September 1969 between UCLA and the Stanford Research Institute, funded by the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), facilitating packet-switched data communication across research institutions.^[42] These modern advancements accelerated information processing, global connectivity, and automation, profoundly influencing post-World War II economies and daily life.

Major Branches

Information and Communication Technology

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) encompasses the technologies that facilitate the creation, processing, storage, and exchange of information through electronic means, forming the backbone of the digital era. At its core, ICT integrates hardware components such as central processing units (CPUs) for computation and memory systems for data retention, which enable the physical execution of digital operations. Software elements, including algorithms for problem-solving and operating systems (OS) for resource management, provide the logical framework to direct these hardware resources efficiently. Networks, exemplified by the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite first proposed in 1974 by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn, allow for the interconnection and data transmission across devices.^[43] These components collectively support the manipulation and flow of digital data in binary form, where information is represented using only two states—0 and 1—corresponding to the off and on states of electronic switches in computing hardware.^[44] The evolution of ICT traces from large-scale mainframe computers, which dominated early computing for centralized data processing in the mid-20th century, to the advent of personal computers that democratized access to computational power. A pivotal milestone was the release of the IBM Personal Computer (Model 5150) in 1981, which standardized hardware architecture and spurred widespread adoption of personal computing. This shift was further accelerated by mobile devices, such as the first iPhone introduced by Apple in 2007, which integrated computing, communication, and multimedia capabilities into portable form factors. Underpinning this progression is Moore's Law, articulated by Gordon Moore in 1965, which observed that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit—key to CPU performance—doubles approximately every two years, driving exponential improvements in processing speed and cost reduction.^[45]^[46] Key applications of ICT span computing for data analysis and simulation, telecommunications for voice and video exchange, and the internet as a global network infrastructure. The World Wide Web (WWW), invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 while at CERN, revolutionized information access by enabling hypertext-linked documents over TCP/IP networks, transforming how knowledge is shared and retrieved worldwide. Early innovations like the ENIAC computer in 1945 laid foundational groundwork for programmable electronic computation, influencing subsequent ICT developments. Overall, ICT's emphasis on efficient data handling has enabled scalable systems that support diverse sectors, from business operations to scientific research.^[47]^[48]

Materials and Engineering Technology

Materials and engineering technology encompasses the development and application of physical materials and mechanical systems to create structures, devices, and processes that enable construction, manufacturing, and energy utilization. This field integrates materials science, which studies the properties and performance of substances like metals, polymers, and composites, with engineering disciplines such as civil, mechanical, and chemical engineering to design robust systems under various loads and environmental conditions. Advances in this area have driven infrastructure growth, from bridges to engines, by leveraging principles like stress-strain relationships and basic thermodynamics to ensure durability and efficiency. In materials science, metals have been foundational, with the Bessemer process revolutionizing steel production in 1856 by enabling mass manufacturing of high-quality steel through air-blown conversion of pig iron, reducing costs and impurities for widespread use in construction and machinery.^[49] Polymers emerged as versatile synthetic materials, beginning with the invention of Bakelite in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, the first fully synthetic plastic thermosetting resin made from phenol and formaldehyde, which provided heat resistance and electrical insulation for early electrical components and consumer goods.^[50] Composites, combining materials like fibers embedded in a matrix, build on ancient techniques such as straw-reinforced mud but advanced significantly in the 20th century with glass fiber-reinforced polymers in the 1930s, offering superior strength-to-weight ratios for aerospace and automotive applications.^[51] Civil engineering applies these materials to large-scale structures, exemplified by the Burj Khalifa, completed in 2010 as the world's tallest building at 828 meters, utilizing high-strength concrete and a buttressed core system to withstand wind and seismic forces through innovative piled foundations and outrigger trusses. Mechanical engineering focuses on engines and robotics, where internal combustion engines evolved from 19th-century designs to power modern vehicles, guided by thermodynamic principles like the Carnot cycle proposed in 1824 by Sadi Carnot, which defines the maximum efficiency of heat engines as \eta = 1 - \frac{T_c}{T_h}, where T_h and T_c are the absolute temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs, respectively, establishing limits for energy conversion in piston-based systems.^[52]

\eta = 1 - \frac{T_c}{T_h}

Robotics in mechanical engineering advanced with the deployment of the Unimate arm in 1961 by General Motors, the first industrial robot for automated welding and material handling, enhancing precision and productivity in manufacturing lines.^[53] Chemical engineering contributes through processes like plastics production, expanding from Bakelite to diverse thermoplastics that enable lightweight, corrosion-resistant components in pipelines and packaging.^[50] Key innovations include additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, pioneered in the 1980s by Chuck Hull's invention of stereolithography in 1983, which layers liquid photopolymer cured by UV laser to fabricate complex prototypes, transforming custom part production across industries.^[54] In renewable energy technology, solar panels rely on the photovoltaic effect discovered in 1839 by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel, where light generates electron flow in semiconductor materials, enabling efficient conversion of sunlight to electricity in modern silicon-based cells.^[55] Fundamental principles underpin these technologies, such as the stress-strain relationship in materials, where stress \sigma is linearly proportional to strain \epsilon within the elastic limit according to Hooke's law, \sigma = E \epsilon, with E as the Young's modulus, allowing engineers to predict deformation and failure in structures like beams and composites.^[56]

\sigma = E \epsilon

Basic thermodynamics for engines, rooted in the Carnot cycle, ensures optimal energy extraction while minimizing waste heat, influencing designs from steam engines during the Industrial Revolution's factory expansions to contemporary efficient turbines.^[52]

Societal and Economic Impacts

Benefits to Society

Technology has profoundly enhanced societal well-being across multiple domains, including health, education, economy, environment, and poverty alleviation, by improving access, efficiency, and outcomes for billions worldwide. In health, advancements have extended lifespans and reduced disease burdens; in education, they have democratized knowledge; economically, they have driven growth through productivity gains; environmentally, they have mitigated climate impacts; and globally, they have empowered marginalized communities with financial tools. In the realm of health, technological innovations have revolutionized disease prevention and diagnostics. The development of the smallpox vaccine by Edward Jenner in 1796 marked a pivotal advancement, demonstrating that inoculation with cowpox could confer immunity to the deadly smallpox virus, ultimately leading to its global eradication in 1980.^[57] Similarly, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), pioneered in the early 1970s by Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield through the application of magnetic field gradients and echo-planar techniques, has enabled non-invasive visualization of internal body structures, aiding in the early detection of conditions like tumors and strokes without radiation exposure.^[58] Telemedicine, which emerged in the mid-20th century but expanded significantly with digital communication in the 1990s, allows remote consultations and monitoring, improving access to care for rural and underserved populations while reducing travel burdens and healthcare costs.^[59] Education has benefited immensely from technology's ability to broaden access to learning resources. E-learning platforms, such as those offering interactive courses and virtual classrooms, have made high-quality education available to non-traditional students, including working adults and those in remote areas, by providing flexible, self-paced instruction that accommodates diverse schedules and reduces geographical barriers.^[60] The internet further amplifies this by granting global access to vast repositories of information, enabling learners worldwide to explore topics from scientific research to cultural histories instantaneously, thereby fostering lifelong learning and bridging educational divides between developed and developing regions.^[61] Economically, automation technologies have boosted productivity and contributed to sustained GDP growth, particularly following the Industrial Revolution. Since the late 18th century, mechanized processes in manufacturing and agriculture have exponentially increased output per worker, with historical data showing correlations between automation adoption and annual GDP per capita rises of up to 2-3% in industrialized nations during the 19th and 20th centuries, laying the foundation for modern economic expansion.^[62] Environmental technologies have played a crucial role in mitigating human impact on the planet. Wind turbines, whose modern large-scale adoption began in the early 1980s with installations in California driven by federal incentives, generate clean electricity without fossil fuel combustion, significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions; for instance, global wind capacity has since grown to over 1,170 gigawatts as of 2025, displacing millions of tons of CO2 annually compared to coal-based power.^[63]^[64] On a global scale, technology has aided poverty reduction, exemplified by mobile banking services in Africa. Launched in Kenya in 2007, M-PESA enabled millions to conduct financial transactions via basic mobile phones, increasing household consumption by about 5% and lifting nearly 2% of the population—around 194,000 households—out of poverty by 2014 through easier remittances, savings, and access to credit in unbanked rural areas.^[65]

Challenges and Risks

Technology presents numerous challenges and risks that span privacy, environmental sustainability, social equity, ethical dilemmas, and regulatory frameworks. These issues arise from the rapid proliferation of digital systems, resource-intensive production processes, and the integration of advanced tools like artificial intelligence (AI) into daily life and governance. Addressing these requires balancing innovation with safeguards to mitigate harm. Privacy and security vulnerabilities remain a core concern in technological ecosystems. The 2017 Equifax data breach exposed sensitive personal information, including Social Security numbers and credit histories, of approximately 147 million individuals due to unpatched software vulnerabilities, leading to widespread identity theft risks and a $575 million settlement by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission.^[66] Surveillance technologies exacerbate these risks by enabling mass data collection without adequate consent, posing threats to intellectual privacy and increasing susceptibility to coercion or blackmail.^[67] Public surveys indicate that a majority of Americans perceive personal data as less secure amid rising surveillance, with data collection often viewed as carrying more risks than benefits.^[68] Environmental impacts from technology production and disposal contribute significantly to global ecological strain. Electronic waste generation reached a record 62 million tonnes in 2022, equivalent to the weight of 800,000 humpback whales, with only 22.3% formally recycled, leading to hazardous leaks of toxins like lead and mercury into soil and water systems.^[69] Mining for rare earth elements, essential for electronics and renewable energy devices, depletes non-renewable resources and generates toxic tailings; for instance, processing one ton of rare earths can produce up to 2,000 tons of toxic waste, including around 75 tons of contaminated wastewater with acids and heavy metals, causing long-term soil and aquatic pollution in regions like China and Myanmar.^[70]^[71] Social challenges amplify inequalities through uneven access and behavioral dependencies. The digital divide persists, with an estimated 2.2 billion people—about 27% of the global population—remaining offline as of 2025, particularly in low-income countries where internet penetration is below 30%, hindering education, economic opportunities, and civic participation.^[72] Excessive device use has also fueled concerns over technology addiction, characterized by compulsive behaviors toward social media and gaming that impair psychological well-being; the American Psychological Association discusses these patterns as potentially involving behavioral components similar to addictions, with studies linking prolonged screen time to neurological changes and social isolation.^[73] Ethical concerns in technology, particularly AI, include systemic biases and the weaponization of tools. AI systems often perpetuate discrimination when trained on skewed datasets, as evidenced in recruitment algorithms that disadvantage women and minorities due to historical hiring biases embedded in training data.^[74] The deployment of weaponized drones in warfare since the early 2000s has raised moral hazards, lowering the threshold for lethal force and increasing civilian casualties through remote operations that distance decision-makers from consequences, with ethical analyses highlighting violations of international humanitarian law principles like proportionality.^[75] Regulatory gaps further compound these risks, especially in post-2020 AI ethics debates. In the European Union, the AI Act of 2024, which entered into force on August 1, 2024, with full applicability by August 2, 2026, aims to classify and mitigate high-risk AI applications but faces criticism for incomplete enforcement mechanisms and delays in addressing emerging biases in generative models.^[76] Similarly, U.S. approaches rely on sector-specific guidelines rather than comprehensive legislation, creating inconsistencies in oversight for AI-driven surveillance and bias mitigation, as noted in congressional reports urging harmonized federal standards.^[77] These fragmented frameworks underscore the need for international coordination to close loopholes in ethical governance, with ongoing developments as of 2025 including phased implementation of the EU AI Act and calls for U.S. federal AI policy harmonization.^[78]

Innovation and Future Directions

Processes of Technological Innovation

Technological innovation follows a structured yet dynamic process that transforms ideas into practical applications, encompassing stages from initial research to widespread adoption. The primary stages include research and development (R&D), where scientific inquiry and experimentation generate foundational knowledge; prototyping, which creates tangible models to validate concepts; and testing, involving iterative evaluation for functionality, safety, and scalability. These stages culminate in diffusion, the process by which innovations spread through societies and markets, as outlined by Everett Rogers in his seminal 1962 book Diffusion of Innovations. Rogers' model describes adoption as progressing along a curve, with innovators (2.5% of the population) leading, followed by early adopters (13.5%), the early majority (34%), late majority (34%), and laggards (16%), influenced by factors such as relative advantage, compatibility, and observability.^[79] Two prominent models frame these processes: the linear model and the interactive model. The linear model, articulated by Vannevar Bush in his 1945 report Science, the Endless Frontier, envisions innovation as a unidirectional sequence from basic research to applied research, development, production, and market diffusion, emphasizing the role of government-funded science in driving progress. In contrast, the interactive model, proposed by Stephen J. Kline and Nathan Rosenberg in their 1986 paper "An Overview of Innovation," portrays innovation as a chain-linked system with bidirectional feedback loops between research, design, testing, and production, allowing for adjustments based on market needs and technical challenges. This interactive approach better accounts for the non-sequential nature of modern innovation, where problems in later stages often loop back to refine earlier ones. Key drivers propel these processes forward, including intellectual property protections, financial mechanisms, and collaborative platforms. Patents serve as a cornerstone by granting exclusive rights to inventors, fostering investment in novel technologies; the United States issued its first patent in 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for a potash production method under the Patent Act of 1790.^[80] Venture capital plays a critical role by funding high-risk R&D and scaling efforts in startups, enabling breakthroughs in sectors like biotechnology and software, though it is selective and often prioritizes scalable technologies. Open-source collaboration accelerates diffusion through community-driven development; GitHub, launched in 2008, has hosted over 630 million repositories as of 2025, democratizing code sharing and enabling rapid iteration on projects like Linux and TensorFlow.^[81] Innovation processes are measured through various indices and indicators that gauge efficiency and outcomes. The Global Innovation Index (GII), published annually by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) since 2007, evaluates 139 economies using 78 indicators across inputs like R&D expenditure and outputs such as patents and high-tech exports, with Switzerland consistently ranking first for its robust ecosystem.^[82] Despite these drivers, the processes carry high risks, evidenced by startup failure rates of approximately 90%, primarily due to market misalignment, funding shortages, and execution challenges, as analyzed in longitudinal studies of entrepreneurial ventures.^[83] For instance, the steam engine's innovation in the 18th century traversed these stages, from James Watt's R&D improvements to widespread industrial diffusion.

Emerging Technologies

Emerging technologies in the field of tech encompass innovations that leverage advanced computational paradigms, biological engineering, and environmental engineering to address complex global challenges. These developments, building on foundational processes of technological innovation such as iterative research and interdisciplinary collaboration, are expected to drive transformative changes across industries by the mid-2020s and beyond. Key areas include advancements in artificial intelligence, quantum systems, biotechnology, and sustainable energy solutions, often converging to amplify their impact.^[84] Artificial intelligence and machine learning have advanced significantly through neural networks, which are computational models inspired by the human brain's structure, consisting of interconnected nodes organized in layers to process data and identify patterns.^[85] These networks enable applications such as autonomous vehicles, exemplified by Tesla's Autopilot system introduced in 2014, which uses cameras, radar, and ultrasonic sensors to allow the vehicle to steer within lanes, change lanes, and adapt speed to traffic conditions.^[86] Neural networks power these systems by analyzing real-time sensor data to make predictive decisions, enhancing vehicle safety and efficiency.^[85] Quantum computing represents a paradigm shift from classical computing, where traditional bits represent either 0 or 1, to qubits that exploit quantum superposition and entanglement to exist in multiple states simultaneously, enabling exponentially faster processing for certain problems.^[87] This capability holds potential to disrupt cryptography, as quantum algorithms like Shor's could efficiently factor large numbers and break widely used encryption methods such as RSA.^[87] A landmark demonstration occurred in 2019 with Google's Sycamore processor, a 53-qubit superconducting quantum computer that performed a specific random circuit sampling task in 200 seconds—a computation estimated to take the world's fastest supercomputer 10,000 years.^[88] In biotechnology, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing, discovered in 2012, allows precise modification of DNA sequences using a guide RNA to direct the Cas9 enzyme to specific genomic locations for cutting and repair.^[89] This tool has revolutionized personalized medicine by enabling tailored treatments based on an individual's genetic profile, such as customizing therapies for cancer or genetic disorders to improve efficacy and reduce side effects.^[90] For instance, CRISPR facilitates the development of patient-specific drugs by editing disease-causing mutations, shifting from one-size-fits-all approaches to precision interventions.^[90] Sustainability technologies are advancing to combat climate change, with direct air capture (DAC) emerging as a method to extract CO2 directly from the atmosphere using chemical sorbents or solvents, independent of emission sources.^[91] In the 2020s, pilot projects have scaled up, such as Climeworks' Orca plant in Iceland operational since 2021, capturing up to 4,000 tons of CO2 annually, and subsequent facilities demonstrating modular deployment for broader adoption.^[91] Complementing this, fusion energy research through the ITER project, initiated in 2006 as an international collaboration, aims to demonstrate net energy gain from deuterium-tritium fusion reactions in a tokamak reactor, potentially providing a clean, limitless energy source.^[84] Trends in emerging technologies highlight the convergence of Internet of Things (IoT) devices with AI, creating intelligent ecosystems where IoT sensors collect vast data streams that AI algorithms analyze in real-time for predictive maintenance and automation, as seen in smart manufacturing.^[92] This integration enhances efficiency across sectors like healthcare and energy by enabling proactive decision-making.^[92] Addressing ethical concerns, frameworks such as the EU AI Act, which entered into force on August 1, 2024, classify AI systems by risk levels and impose regulations on high-risk applications to ensure transparency, accountability, and human oversight.^[93]

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[18]
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[19]
International Classification for Standards updated to reflect ... - ISO
Oct 31, 2016 · The system used to classify ISO standards has changed in order to better reflect new fields of work and industrial, technical and scientific progress.
[20]
[PDF] Revision of the High- Technology Sector and Product Classification
• First, the technology intensity of electrical machinery has declined while scientific instrument intensity increased and has in fact, from 1986 onwards ...<|separator|>
[21]
The origins of stone tool technology in Africa: a historical perspective
Nonetheless, the first unmistakable evidence of tool-making dates to 2.6 Ma, the period in which Oldowan assemblages first appear in the East African record.
[22]
Oldowan and Acheulean Stone Tools | Museum of Anthropology
Oldowan ~2.5 to 1.2 million years ago. The Oldowan is the oldest-known stone tool industry. · Acheulean ~1.6 million to 200,000 years ago. The Acheulean ...
[23]
The acheulean handaxe: More like a bird's song than a beatles' tune?
Acheulean handaxes from the site of Boxgrove, England, which dates to about 500 Ka. The handaxes are made of flint and are between 12 and 14.5 cm in length.
[24]
Neolithic Revolution
The Neolithic Revolution was the critical transition that resulted in the birth of agriculture, taking Homo sapiens from scattered groups of hunter-gatherers ...
[25]
Big Era 3 - World History for Us All - UCLA
About 10,000 BCE (12,000 BP) some human communities began to move in a new direction. For the first time, they began to produce food in a systematic way rather ...
[26]
History of Agriculture - Food System Primer
From as early as 11,000 BCE, people began a gradual transition away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle toward cultivating crops and raising animals for food. The ...Missing: Neolithic | Show results with:Neolithic
[27]
Egypt in the Old Kingdom (ca. 2649–2130 B.C.)
Feb 1, 2019 · 2490–2472 B.C.), who built the other two pyramids at Giza, there seems to have been great interest in royal statuary, as both kings had many ...
[28]
Ancient Mesopotamia - Forces of Change - Smithsonian Institution
In Ancient Mesopotamia Irrigation brought water to fields faster than it could drain out. As salt-rich groundwater rose and surface water evaporated, mineral ...
[29]
Water Systems - Ancient Engineering Technologies
Ancient Greece was one of the first countries to build aqueducts to have clean water in civilizations and irrigate crops, just as it invented the sewage system ...
[30]
Smith College Museum of Ancient Inventions: Archimedes' Screw
Named for its inventor, the Greek mathematician Archimedes (237-212 BCE), the Archimedes screw is a device for raising water. Essentially, it is a large ...
[31]
[PDF] Cultural Innovations and Demographic Change
If human populations can grow freely, then a population-technology-population positive feedback should occur such that human societies reach a stable growth ...
[32]
Cerf & Kahn Publish TCP: A Protocol for Packet Network ...
May 5, 1974 · In May 1974 Vinton Cerf Offsite Link and Robert Kahn Offsite Link published “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication Offsite Link ...
[33]
Binary number system | Definition, Example, & Facts - Britannica
Oct 29, 2025 · Binary number system, in mathematics, positional numeral system employing 2 as the base and so requiring only two different symbols for its digits, 0 and 1.
[34]
1981 | Timeline of Computer History
The first IBM PC, formally known as the IBM Model 5150, was based on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor and used Microsoft´s MS-DOS operating system. The IBM ...
[35]
Moore's Law - Intel
Observing these trends, Moore published a paper entitled "Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits" in the April 19, 1965 issue of the trade journal ...
[36]
The birth of the Web - CERN
Tim Berners-Lee, a British scientist, invented the World Wide Web (WWW) in 1989, while working at CERN. The web was originally conceived and developed to ...
[37]
ENIAC - CHM Revolution - Computer History Museum
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer), built between 1943 and 1945—the first large-scale computer to run at electronic speed without being slowed ...
[38]
Henry Bessemer - Lemelson-MIT
In 1856, Bessemer patented his refinery process and created huge furnaces that could handle it. Shortly after introducing the Bessemer Converter, Bessemer ...
[39]
Bakelite® First Synthetic Plastic - American Chemical Society
By the early summer of 1907, Baekeland changed his focus from trying to create a wood coating to trying to strengthen wood by actually impregnating it with a ...
[40]
(PDF) History of Composites and Polymers - ResearchGate
Aug 12, 2021 · Towards 1500 A.D., Romans developed concrete by mixing volcanic ash, lime, and stones. The Industrial Revolution took place after the ...
[41]
June 12, 1824: Sadi Carnot Publishes Treatise on Heat Engines
May 26, 2009 · The so-called Carnot cycle draws energy from temperature differences between a “hot” and “cold” reservoir.
[42]
Evolution of Mechatronics and Robotics
Apr 21, 2025 · The modern era of Robotics began in the mid-20th century. In 1961, General Motors deployed the first industrial robot, “Unimate,” to automate ...
[43]
Charles W. Hull | epo.org
In the early 1980s, Charles W. Hull set out to improve the tedious process of creating small plastic parts for prototyping involved in testing new product ...
[44]
Efficiency of solar PV, then, now and future - Sites at Lafayette
Solar photovoltaics were first used in 1839 when a French physicist, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, discovered that light can be converted into electricity ...
[45]
[PDF] Stress – Strain Relationships
The resulting stress-strain curve or diagram gives a direct indication of the material properties. Note: Stress-strain diagrams are typically based upon the ...
[46]
A Brief History of Vaccination - World Health Organization (WHO)
In May 1796, English physician Edward Jenner expands on this discovery and inoculates 8-year-old James Phipps with matter collected from a cowpox sore on the ...History of smallpox vaccination · History of polio vaccination
[47]
Perspectives: A chance attraction - NobelPrize.org
In 1971 computer power was not advanced enough, so Lauterbur had to invent a hand-written procedure that could convert the NMR signals into a magnetic ...
[48]
Telemedicine: Past, present, and future
Dec 1, 2018 · In this commentary, we discuss the history of telemedicine, current uses and challenges, and areas of future growth. DEFINITION AND HISTORY.
[49]
The 10 Benefits of Online Learning - School of Education
Virtual education allows you to enjoy a more flexible schedule, can reduce the cost of your degree, and can allow you to more easily develop your career.Drexel University School Of... · Advantages Of Online... · 2. Reduced Costs
[50]
Internet And Education: Transforming Learning In The Digital Age
Mar 11, 2025 · The internet has revolutionized education, transforming learning in the digital age through enhanced access to knowledge and new learning opportunities.
[51]
The revolution need not be automated - The World Economic Forum
Apr 3, 2019 · To be sure, automation has been an engine of productivity growth since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, when, starting in the ...Missing: GDP post
[52]
History of wind power - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)
Apr 20, 2023 · In the early 1980s, thousands of wind turbines were installed in California, largely because of federal and state policies that encouraged the ...Missing: adoption | Show results with:adoption
[53]
What is wind power? - Eurelectric
Jul 19, 2024 · The production, transportation, and installation of wind turbines result in much lower emissions and resource consumption compared to other ...
[54]
[PDF] Mobile Payments go Viral: M‐PESA in Kenya - World Bank Document
M-PESA was developed by mobile phone operator Vodafone and launched commercially by its Kenyan affiliate Safaricom in March 2007. M-PESA (“M” for mobile and “ ...
[55]
Equifax to Pay $575 Million as Part of Settlement with FTC, CFPB ...
Jul 22, 2019 · Equifax to Pay $575 Million as Part of Settlement with FTC, CFPB, and States Related to 2017 Data Breach | Federal Trade Commission.
[56]
The Dangers of Surveillance - Harvard Law Review
Fourth, we must recognize that surveillance is harmful. Surveillance menaces intellectual privacy and increases the risk of blackmail, coercion, and ...Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[57]
Americans and Privacy: Concerned, Confused and Feeling Lack of ...
Nov 15, 2019 · Majorities think their personal data is less secure now, that data collection poses more risks than benefits, and believe it is not possible to go through ...Missing: credible | Show results with:credible
[58]
Global e-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five Times ...
Mar 20, 2024 · A record 62 million tonnes (Mt) of e-waste was produced in 2022, Up 82% from 2010;; On track to rise another 32%, to 82 million tonnes, in 2030; ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[59]
China Wrestles with the Toxic Aftermath of Rare Earth Mining
Jul 2, 2019 · But the removal of these elements from the earth's crust, using a mix of water and chemicals, caused extensive water and soil pollution. Today, ...
[60]
Myanmar's rare earth boom | Global Witness
May 23, 2024 · Unregulated mines in Myanmar had become an essential source of heavy rare earth elements (HREE), vital ingredients for the magnets used in electric vehicles ( ...
[61]
Facts and Figures 2023 - Internet use - ITU
Oct 10, 2023 · The number of people offline in 2023 decreased to an estimated 2.6 billion people, representing 33 per cent of the global population. Internet ...Missing: 1/3 | Show results with:1/3
[62]
What is Technology Addiction? - Psychiatry.org
Technology addiction can potentially involve various forms of online activity including social media, gaming, gambling, problematic use of online pornography, ...
[63]
Ethics and discrimination in artificial intelligence-enabled ... - Nature
Sep 13, 2023 · This study aims to address the research gap on algorithmic discrimination caused by AI-enabled recruitment and explore technical and managerial solutions.Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[64]
Full article: The legal and ethical implications of drone warfare
Feb 24, 2015 · From an ethical vantage point, the Obama administration argues that the drones programme is humane in that it kills relatively few civilians, ...
[65]
[PDF] The ethics of artificial intelligence: Issues and initiatives
This report deals with the ethical implications and moral questions that arise from the development and implementation of artificial intelligence (AI) ...
[66]
[PDF] Regulating Artificial Intelligence: U.S. and International Approaches ...
Jun 4, 2025 · Stakeholders in the United States have debated how to approach AI innovation and regulation in order to harness the opportunities of AI.
[67]
Diffusion of Innovations - Everett M. Rogers - Google Books
Title, Diffusion of Innovations ; Author, Everett M. Rogers ; Publisher, Free Press of Glencoe, 1962 ; ISBN, 0598411046, 9780598411044 ; Length, 367 pages.
[68]
Anniversary of the First Patent Issued in the United States - GovInfo
Jul 29, 2022 · On July 31, 1790, they first opened their doors and issued the first patent to Samuel Hopkins of Vermont for a process of making potash, an ingredient used in ...
[69]
90% Of Startups Fail: Here's What You Need To Know About The 10%
Jan 16, 2015 · I've also noticed that startups with co-founders have a higher success rate than companies with a single founder. ... WATCH – FAIL ACADEMY: Top ...
[70]
History - ITER
Nearly 30 years ago, a group of industrial nations agreed on a project to develop a new, cleaner and more sustainable source of energy. ... Fusion Energy.
[71]
What is a Neural Network? - Amazon AWS
A neural network is an AI method that teaches computers to process data inspired by the human brain, using interconnected nodes in a layered structure.
[72]
Tesla unveils all-wheel drive Model S, 'autopilot' features | Reuters
Oct 10, 2014 · Tesla Motors Inc on Thursday took its first step toward automated driving, unveiling features that will allow its electric sedan to park ...
[73]
What Is Quantum Computing? | IBM
While classical computers rely on bits (zeros and ones) to store and process data, quantum computers process data differently by using quantum bits (qubits) in ...
[74]
Quantum supremacy using a programmable superconducting ...
Oct 23, 2019 · ... Quantum supremacy is demonstrated using a programmable superconducting processor known as Sycamore, taking approximately 200 seconds to ...
[75]
A Programmable Dual-RNA–Guided DNA Endonuclease ... - Science
Jun 28, 2012 · Our study reveals a family of endonucleases that use dual-RNAs for site-specific DNA cleavage and highlights the potential to exploit the system for RNA- ...
[76]
Personalized Medicine - National Human Genome Research Institute
Personalized medicine is an emerging practice of medicine that uses an individual's genetic profile to guide decisions made in regard to the prevention, ...
[77]
Direct Air Capture - Energy System - IEA
Direct air capture (DAC) technologies extract CO2 directly from the atmosphere at any location, unlike carbon capture which is generally carried out at the ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[78]
Navigating the nexus of AI and IoT: A comprehensive review of data ...
Using the PRISMA guidelines, we systematically identified and categorised emerging trends in AI-driven IoT, ensuring high transparency and reproducibility.
[79]
AI Act enters into force - European Commission
Aug 1, 2024 · On 1 August 2024, the European Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act) enters into force. The Act aims to foster responsible artificial intelligence development ...