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Physeter

Physeter is a genus of toothed whales in the family Physeteridae, comprising a single extant species, the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), recognized as the largest odontocete and notable for its massive head containing the spermaceti organ.^[1]^[2] The sperm whale inhabits deep waters of all major oceans worldwide, preferring areas exceeding 1,000 meters in depth, and exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism with adult males reaching lengths of up to 20.7 meters and weights of 57 metric tons, while females grow to about 12.5 meters and 20 tons.^[2]^[3] Sperm whales are specialized deep divers, capable of submerging to over 3,000 meters for more than an hour to forage primarily on cephalopods such as squid, though males also consume larger prey like fish and sharks.^[2]^[3] Socially, they form matrilineal units of females and their offspring, numbering 4 to 21 individuals, while mature males are largely solitary or associate in bachelor groups before joining breeding aggregations.^[3] Reproduction involves a gestation period of 14 to 16 months, with calves nursed for several years in a prolonged maternal care system.^[3] Historically hunted extensively for spermaceti and ambergris, the global population of sperm whales is estimated at approximately 360,000 individuals as of recent assessments, rendering the species vulnerable on the IUCN Red List and endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.^[2]^[3]^[4] Current threats include ship strikes, fisheries entanglements, and marine pollution, particularly in regions like the Mediterranean where the subpopulation numbers fewer than 200 individuals as of 2025.^[3]^[5] Conservation efforts, coordinated by organizations such as the International Whaling Commission, focus on monitoring, habitat protection, and reducing human impacts to support recovery.^[3]

Taxonomy and etymology

Classification

The genus Physeter belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Cetartiodactyla, infraorder Cetacea, parvorder Odontoceti, superfamily Physeteroidea, family Physeteridae, and subfamily Physeterinae.^[6] The type species of the genus is Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758, which represents the sole extant species and renders the genus monotypic among living taxa.^[6] Within the family Physeteridae, Physeter is phylogenetically distinct from the genus Kogia, which encompasses the pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps) and dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima); these two genera diverged approximately 22 million years ago in the late Oligocene or early Miocene.^[7] The broader Physeteroidea superfamily, including Physeteridae, separated from other odontocete lineages around 30–35 million years ago during the Oligocene, marking one of the earliest divergences among crown-group toothed whales near the Eocene–Oligocene boundary.^[8] The genus Physeter was originally established by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of Systema Naturae (1758), where the type species was described under the name Physeter catodon, a junior synonym now superseded by Physeter macrocephalus.^[6]

Etymology

The genus name Physeter derives from the ancient Greek word φυσῆτήρ (physētēr), meaning "blowpipe" or "blowhole," in reference to the prominent spout of water exhaled by the whale through its single nostril.^[9] This term originally denoted the blowhole itself but served as a pars pro toto for the whale in classical literature, emphasizing the animal's distinctive respiratory behavior.^[9] In ancient Greek texts, physētēr appeared in descriptions of spouting cetaceans; for instance, Aristotle, in his Historia Animalium (ca. 350 BCE), noted that whales and similar creatures with blowholes position them above the water surface to breathe, implying the visible spout. Roman author Pliny the Elder further elaborated on this in his Natural History (ca. 77 CE), portraying the physeter as a massive creature in the Gallic Ocean that elevates itself like an enormous column, flooding ships with water—likely an observation of the forceful blow.^[10] The name was formalized in modern taxonomy by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758), where he established Physeter as the genus for the sperm whale. An obsolete historical synonym for the genus or species is Catodon, derived from the Greek elements kata- (down) and odous (tooth), alluding to the whale's teeth embedded in the lower jaw.^[11] This nomenclature, proposed in later classifications, has been superseded in favor of Physeter macrocephalus.^[11]

Fossil record

The genus Physeter first appeared in the fossil record during the early Pliocene, with its temporal range extending from the Zanclean stage of the Pliocene epoch approximately 5.3 million years ago to the present.^[12] Fossils indicate that early members of the genus exhibited key adaptations for deep-water foraging, such as an enlarged head structure housing a spermaceti organ similar to that of the modern species, which facilitated echolocation and buoyancy control during dives.^[13] These traits suggest an evolutionary transition toward the specialized deep-diving lifestyle observed in extant sperm whales, emerging amid a broader diversification of physeteroids during the Neogene.^[14] Two extinct species have been assigned to Physeter, though both are known from limited material. Physeter antiquus, described from skull fragments in Pliocene deposits of France dating to 5.3–2.6 million years ago, preserves evidence of the characteristic spermaceti organ cavity, linking it closely to the living P. macrocephalus.^[12]^[15] Physeter vetus, based on isolated teeth from Quaternary sediments in Georgia, USA, spanning 2.6 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago, is considered potentially invalid and likely synonymous with Orycterocetus quadratidens, as the dental morphology shows no distinguishing features.^[12]^[14] The fossil record of Physeter was first documented in the 19th century, with P. antiquus named by Paul Gervais in 1849 from material collected in French Pliocene strata.^[16] P. vetus was described by Joseph Leidy in 1869 from North American specimens.^[14] Overall, the scarcity of Physeter fossils reflects preservation challenges associated with the genus's deep-ocean habitat, where remains are less likely to be deposited in coastal sediments conducive to fossilization.^[13]

Description

Physical characteristics

Physeter macrocephalus, the sperm whale, is the largest of the toothed whales and displays extreme sexual dimorphism in size and weight. Adult males typically measure 16 to 20.5 meters in length and weigh between 35 and 57 tonnes, with the largest recorded specimens approaching 20 meters and 50 tonnes or more.^[17]^[2] In contrast, adult females are considerably smaller, reaching 11 to 12.5 meters in length and 15 to 20 tonnes in weight, often about one-third the mass of males.^[18]^[17] This pronounced dimorphism is the most extreme among cetaceans, with males growing larger and more robust overall.^[19]^[20] The body is robust and barrel-shaped, tapering toward the rear, with a massive, squared-off head that constitutes approximately one-third of the total body length. The head features a blunt snout and a narrow, underslung lower jaw, while the dorsal fin is absent, replaced by a series of low humps or ridges along the posterior back. Pectoral fins are paddle-shaped and relatively small, and the broad tail flukes are triangular with a central notch.^[2]^[18]^[20] The skin is thick and wrinkled, resembling prunes in texture, particularly behind the head. Coloration is predominantly dark gray to black or brownish on the upper body, often appearing lighter or brownish in sunlight, with white or pale markings commonly present on the belly, genital area, and lower jaw. Calves are lighter in overall color than adults at birth.^[19]^[18]^[21] Males exhibit additional robustness in their larger heads and possess up to 25 conical teeth per side in the lower jaw, each up to 20 cm long, while females have smaller teeth.^[18]^[20]

Anatomy and physiology

The spermaceti organ is a large, barrel-shaped, oil-filled cavity occupying much of the sperm whale's massive head, with a capacity of up to approximately 1,900 liters in adult males. This structure enables buoyancy control by allowing the whale to modulate the density of its waxy spermaceti oil through vascular heating or cooling, facilitating neutral buoyancy during deep dives without excessive energy expenditure on swimming.^[22] Additionally, the organ functions in echolocation by focusing and directing intense sound pulses generated in the nasal passages, enhancing prey detection in the light-poor deep sea.^[23] The respiratory system features a single blowhole positioned asymmetrically on the left side of the head, connected to a complex nasal tract separate from the oral cavity. This adaptation supports efficient gas exchange during brief surface intervals between dives. Sperm whales can store sufficient oxygen to remain submerged for over 90 minutes, routinely reaching depths of 3,000 meters or more, through physiological mechanisms like bradycardia and peripheral vasoconstriction that prioritize oxygen delivery to vital organs.^[2]^[24] Skeletal adaptations include a robust, thickened skull with an asymmetrical basin that accommodates the spermaceti organ and reinforces the head against high-pressure environments. The upper jaw bears 0 to 5 vestigial teeth that typically remain embedded and non-functional, while the lower jaw houses 18 to 26 large, conical teeth per side, which emerge to grip slippery prey without requiring mastication.^[25]^[26] Sensory systems emphasize acoustic and biochemical efficiency over vision in the abyssal depths. The eyes are small, with simple spherical lenses adapted for dim underwater light but limited by the absence of a spherical cornea and reliance on a tapetum for low-light reflection. The melon, a dense fatty mass anterior to the spermaceti organ, shapes outgoing sound waves for precise echolocation, compensating for visual constraints. Muscles enriched with myoglobin—an oxygen-binding protein—act as a substantial store, allowing sustained aerobic activity during prolonged breath-holds by facilitating oxygen diffusion to mitochondria.^[27]^[28] The digestive tract comprises a multi-chambered stomach suited to breaking down tough cephalopod prey, with the first chamber featuring thick, muscular walls for initial grinding via peristalsis and acidic secretions. Subsequent chambers handle enzymatic breakdown and absorption, while indigestible remnants like squid beaks accumulate in the intestines, sometimes congealing with bile into ambergris—a rare, waxy byproduct expelled via feces.^[29]^[30]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution, inhabiting all major ocean basins from tropical to polar regions in ice-free waters deeper than 1,000 meters, though it is absent from shallow enclosed seas such as the Baltic Sea due to unsuitable depths for foraging.^[31] Populations are structured by sex and age, with females and their calves primarily residing in warm temperate and tropical waters between approximately 20° and 40° latitude year-round, forming stable social groups with site fidelity, while mature males undertake seasonal migrations to higher latitudes for feeding.^[32]^[31] Higher densities occur in equatorial regions of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, where environmental conditions support abundant prey; for instance, the northwest Atlantic continental shelf records densities of about 10.55 individuals per 1,000 km², and the eastern tropical Pacific has historically shown concentrated social groups despite post-whaling declines.^[33] Historically, the species' range prior to intensive whaling in the 18th and 19th centuries mirrored its current broad coverage across ice-free oceans, but overhunting led to substantial reductions, including up to 80% population declines in the North Pacific and substantial reductions in the North Atlantic by the mid-20th century, altering local abundances without fully contracting the overall geographic extent.^[34]^[33]

Habitat preferences

Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) are primarily pelagic species, inhabiting open ocean environments and avoiding coastal shallows where depths are less than 200 meters. They rest and socialize at the surface in vast oceanic expanses but conduct foraging dives to extreme depths, typically reaching 1,000–2,000 meters, with maximum recorded dives up to 2,987 meters.^[2]^[18] These deep dives target mesopelagic and bathypelagic prey layers, reflecting a strong preference for habitats supporting such vertical prey distributions.^[35] Females and immature whales favor warmer tropical and subtropical waters with surface temperatures exceeding 15°C, generally in the range of 15–25°C, while mature males tolerate and seek colder high-latitude regions down to near 0°C, including polar areas.^[2]^[35] At foraging depths of 200–600 meters, they encounter consistently cold waters below 11.5°C, which aligns with their prey's thermal niches.^[35] This sexual segregation in temperature preferences influences their overall habitat selection, with females remaining in lower-latitude pelagic zones.^[2] Sperm whales associate closely with oceanographic features that enhance prey availability, such as upwelling zones, steep continental slopes, submarine canyons, seamounts, and deep basins like abyssal plains.^[31]^[35] Upwellings promote nutrient-rich conditions that support high biological productivity and prey aggregations, drawing whales to these dynamic areas over static bathymetric features alone.^[31] They particularly favor regions with elevated eddy kinetic energy and variable surface temperature gradients, which concentrate squid and other cephalopods in deeper layers.^[35] Adaptations enabling habitat use include physiological traits for withstanding high pressures during prolonged deep dives, such as a flexible ribcage that allows lung collapse without injury, elevated myoglobin levels in muscles for oxygen storage, and large blood volumes with high hemoglobin concentrations to maintain aerobic metabolism.^[18] Thick blubber layers (15–30 cm) provide insulation against near-freezing deep waters while preserving core body heat.^[18] Their global nomadic patterns are closely tied to seasonal prey migrations, allowing opportunistic shifts across pelagic habitats without fixed residency.^[2]

Behavior and ecology

Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) exhibit a complex matrilineal social structure centered on stable units composed primarily of adult females and their calves. These units typically consist of 10 to 20 individuals, including related females and dependent offspring of both sexes, which remain associated for years or even decades through strong, long-term bonds. Such groups provide protection and support for calves, with stability reinforced by philopatry and kinship ties.^[36]^[37] Immature males remain integrated into these matrilineal nursery groups until approximately 10 to 20 years of age, after which they disperse to pursue a more independent lifestyle. Post-dispersal, subadult and adult males are largely solitary or form loose bachelor schools of 2 to 10 individuals, particularly in high-latitude foraging areas where associations can last an average of 2.7 years. These male groups are less stable and cohesive than female units, with sociality decreasing as males age and body size increases.^[38]^[39]^[40] Group stability is further defined by cultural elements, including vocal clans delineated by distinct coda dialects—sequences of clicks used in social communication. These dialects are transmitted culturally across generations within clans, fostering enduring social bonds and influencing association patterns, such as longer interactions in clans with homogeneous relationship structures.^[41] Within social units, aggression is rare, reflecting the emphasis on cooperation and kinship. However, groups demonstrate coordinated defense against predators like orcas (Orcinus orca), often by clustering into protective formations and producing alerting vocalizations, such as codas, to interrupt dives and facilitate group responses.^[42]

Feeding and foraging

The diet of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) consists primarily of deep-sea cephalopods, with squid comprising the majority—often estimated at around 90%—of their caloric intake, supplemented by smaller proportions of fish, sharks, and rays.^[43]^[19] Adult individuals consume approximately 1 tonne of prey daily, representing about 3% of their body mass to meet high energetic demands.^[44] Foraging occurs through extended dive cycles lasting 45–60 minutes, during which sperm whales descend to depths of 400–1,200 meters to pursue prey.^[45] They capture prey using suction feeding, retracting the tongue to generate vacuum pressure that draws squid and other targets into the mouth for swallowing whole.^[46] These cycles dominate their activity, with individuals spending more than 72% of their time submerged in foraging efforts.^[45] Prey detection relies on echolocation, enabling precise targeting in the lightless environment of deep waters.^[45] Sperm whales show a strong preference for mesopelagic zones (200–1,000 meters), where dense aggregations of squid facilitate efficient hunting.^[47] Sperm whales exhibit metabolic adaptations for energy efficiency, including a field metabolic rate that supports prolonged fasts—up to several days—between dives when prey capture is unsuccessful.^[48] Historical analyses of stomach contents from whaling operations, including logs from mid-20th-century expeditions, have revealed consistent squid dominance and quantified intake volumes, informing models of their foraging energetics.^[49]

Communication and echolocation

Sperm whales primarily communicate socially through stereotyped sequences of clicks known as codas, which consist of 3 to 20 rapid pulses arranged in specific patterns.^[50] These codas serve as acoustic signals exchanged between individuals within social units, facilitating coordination and interaction.^[50] Clan-specific dialects emerge from variations in coda repertoires, with each vocal clan exhibiting distinct usage frequencies of over 20 coda types that are maintained across generations and geographic ranges spanning thousands of kilometers.^[50]^[51] For echolocation, sperm whales produce broadband clicks with peak frequencies around 15 kHz and source levels reaching up to 236 dB re 1 μPa at 1 m, enabling detection of prey and navigation in deep, dark waters. These intense pulses allow the whales to locate squid and other prey at distances of several kilometers, with the sound beam directed forward via the spermaceti organ.^[52] It has been hypothesized that the extreme intensity of these clicks might stun prey upon close approach, though empirical evidence does not support acoustic debilitation as a hunting mechanism.^[53]^[54] Sperm whale sounds, including both codas and echolocation clicks, are generated by the vibration of specialized phonic lips located in the nasal passages, where pressurized air is forced through to produce the initial pulse.^[55] This mechanism enables dual use of the vocal apparatus for communication and sensing, with codas employing a pulsed mode and echolocation clicks using a more continuous flow-induced voicing.^[55] Additionally, sperm whales emit low-frequency slow clicks with inter-click intervals of 5–7 seconds, primarily by males, which propagate over long distances for contact between dispersed individuals.^[56] Hydrophone studies have revealed detailed patterns in click production during dives, providing insights into echolocation behavior. For instance, research on tagged sperm whales showed that regular clicks occur for approximately 81% of the total dive duration and 64% of the descent phase, with click rates increasing as whales approach deeper foraging zones.^[45] These findings, derived from deployments in the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Ligurian Sea, highlight the consistent acoustic output that supports sensory perception throughout extended submergences.^[45]

Reproduction and life history

Mating and breeding

The mating system of the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) is polygynous, with mature males competing for access to multiple females in breeding grounds primarily located in warm equatorial waters.^[57] Males employ a roving strategy, traveling long distances to form temporary associations with female social units during the breeding period, rather than maintaining permanent harems.^[57] Competition among males involves acoustic displays, such as loud, low-frequency clicks produced when approaching female groups, which may serve as signals of dominance or quality, and occasional physical confrontations including head-butting or ramming to establish mating priority.^[58]^[59] Breeding occurs year-round in tropical regions but peaks seasonally, with activity from January to August (peaking March to June) in the Northern Hemisphere and July to March (peaking September to December) in the Southern Hemisphere.^[57] Females typically enter estrus every 3–5 years, corresponding to calving intervals of about 4–6 years, aligning with the extended breeding window.^[57] Gestation lasts 14–16 months, after which females give birth to a single calf.^[9] Female choice plays a key role in mate selection, with preferences often favoring larger, more dominant males that demonstrate superior acoustic signals or physical prowess during interactions.^[57] Post-partum estrus is rare, as females generally require a recovery period before resuming reproductive cycles, contributing to the long inter-calving interval.^[60]

Growth and development

Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) exhibit a prolonged lifespan, potentially up to 70 years or more.^[31] Sexual maturity is reached earlier in females at 8-10 years of age, when they measure approximately 9 meters in length, while males attain maturity between 10 and 20 years, often not breeding until their late twenties despite physical capability.^[61] Growth during this period is characterized by sexual dimorphism, with males continuing to increase in size well into adulthood, whereas female growth slows significantly after maturity.^[62] Newborn calves measure about 4 meters in length and weigh around 1 metric ton at birth following a 14-16 month gestation period.^[61] They are nursed for several years on milk high in lipids, which supports rapid initial growth and enables calves to double their length and quintuple their weight during the nursing phase.^[63] Weaning occurs gradually, often around age 2 but can extend longer, after which juveniles begin incorporating solid food while growth remains brisk, reaching approximately 7 meters by the end of the second year.^[63] In adulthood, growth decelerates, with females approaching asymptotic length by around 20 years and males exhibiting slower increments until their 30s or later.^[62] Calf mortality is notably high, estimated at 10-20%, primarily due to predation by killer whales and starvation during periods of nutritional stress. These early-life vulnerabilities underscore the extended maternal investment required for survival in this species.^[61]

Conservation status

Population and threats

The global population of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) is estimated at approximately 845,000 individuals (95% confidence interval 482,000–1,153,000) as of 2022, based on extrapolations from visual and acoustic surveys using habitat suitability models.^[33] This represents a slow recovery following the international whaling moratorium implemented in 1986, with population growth rates limited to a maximum of about 4% annually due to the species' life history traits.^[3] Pre-whaling abundance is modeled at around 1.95 million individuals, indicating an overall historical decline of approximately 57% globally.^[33] Commercial whaling from the 18th to 20th centuries severely depleted sperm whale populations, with an estimated total of over 1 million individuals killed worldwide, including about 762,000 in the 20th century alone according to International Whaling Commission records.^[64] Bycatch in fishing gear remains an ongoing issue, with entanglements in lines, pots, and gillnets causing injuries and deaths, though exact global numbers are difficult to quantify due to underreporting.^[2] Current threats include ship strikes, which are a leading cause of mortality in high-traffic areas, as large vessels collide with surfacing whales at speeds exceeding 13 knots.^[65] Noise pollution from shipping, seismic surveys, and military activities disrupts echolocation and communication, potentially increasing stress and altering foraging behavior.^[2] Plastic pollution poses risks through ingestion, leading to internal injuries or starvation, while climate change impacts prey availability by shifting squid distributions and ocean productivity.^[66]^[67] In the North Atlantic, the population has declined to less than 5% of pre-whaling levels, with estimates of around 20,000 individuals in the central region and fewer than 4,000 in the northeast as of 2015, compared to historical abundances inferred from whaling proportions suggesting hundreds of thousands prior to exploitation.^[68]^[69]

Protection efforts

Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) receive comprehensive international protection primarily through the International Whaling Commission's (IWC) moratorium on commercial whaling, established in 1986, which prohibits the hunting of the species globally to allow population recovery. This measure has been instrumental in halting the large-scale exploitation that reduced sperm whale populations to an estimated 30-50% of pre-whaling levels. Additionally, sperm whales are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), banning international commercial trade in the species and its products, and on Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), requiring international cooperation for their conservation. In the United States, sperm whales are classified as endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 and depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) of 1972, making it illegal to hunt, harass, or harm them, with civil and criminal penalties for violations.^[2] The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) implements a recovery plan finalized in 2010, which outlines nine delisting criteria and prioritizes actions such as monitoring population trends, reducing anthropogenic threats like ship strikes and fisheries entanglements, and establishing reliable funding for rescue and necropsy efforts.^[70] Key initiatives include vessel speed regulations in high-traffic areas to mitigate collisions and gear modification programs to decrease bycatch, with ongoing research using acoustic monitoring and satellite tagging to inform habitat protections.^[71] Regionally, targeted efforts address specific threats in critical habitats. In the Mediterranean, where the subpopulation is classified as Endangered by the IUCN with fewer than 2,500 mature individuals (as of 2012), though recent estimates suggest 500–5,000 total individuals, measures include NAVTEX warnings issued by Greece in 2021 to alert vessels in the Hellenic Trench, a high-risk area for ship strikes, and collaborative monitoring under the ACCOBAMS agreement.^[72] In the Caribbean, Dominica established the world's first Sperm Whale Reserve in October 2025, covering key foraging grounds on the island's western coast; this initiative deploys whale observers on vessels, designates shipping corridors to minimize noise and collision risks, and regulates whale-watching tourism to ensure sustainable interactions while supporting carbon sequestration equivalent to 4,200 metric tons annually.^[73] Innovative technological projects further enhance protection, such as the SAvE Whales initiative (2019–2021), which uses solar-powered hydrophone buoys in the eastern Mediterranean Sea off Greece to detect sperm whale clicks and transmit real-time alerts to nearby ships.^[74] Shipping companies like DFDS have voluntarily adopted route alterations and speed reductions in the Eastern Mediterranean to avoid known sperm whale aggregation zones, demonstrating industry-led conservation. Overall, these multifaceted efforts focus on threat mitigation and population monitoring, though challenges persist from climate change, plastic pollution, and illegal fishing. The IUCN assesses the global population as Vulnerable, emphasizing the need for continued international collaboration to achieve recovery.^[72]

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### Taxonomic Information for Physeteridae Family and Physeter Genus
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Female, juvenile, and calf sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus ...
Sep 1, 2024 · Sperm whale strandings in the North Sea (involving male or unsexed individuals) showed a link with positive temperature abnormalities and may be ...
[39]
Life History Traits of Sperm Whales Physeter macrocephalus ...
Dec 25, 2022 · The sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758, is an odontocete cetacean having one of the widest global distributions among marine ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
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None
### Summary of Sperm Whale Clans from Cantor & Whitehead (2015)
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Responses of male sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) to ...
Apr 2, 2013 · Sperm whales responded to killer whale playbacks by interrupting their foraging or resting dives and returning to the surface, changing their vocal production.
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(PDF) The Diet of Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus ...
The diet of sperm whales is predominantly squid, but they eat a variety of fish as well (e.g., Kawakami 1980, Martin and Clarke 1986 , Clarke et al. 1993 , ...
[43]
How much do large whales eat? | J. Cetacean Res. Manage.
Estimates based on stomach contents also indicated average daily metabolic rates of less than four times the BMR from the Kleiber formula, but these are ...Missing: logs | Show results with:logs<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Sperm Whale Foraging Behaviour: Physeter macrocephalus
Apr 19, 2006 · The largest deep-diving toothed whale is the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus (Linnaeus), a cosmopolitan species that forages in mesopelagic ...Missing: enclosed | Show results with:enclosed
[45]
Sperm Whale Dive Behavior Characteristics - Archival Tag Data
Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) are a cosmopolitan species found in deep‐water areas (>1,000 m) of all ocean basins (Jefferson, Webber, & Pitman, 2008; ...
[46]
Sperm whales exploit pelagic and demersal habitats in the Kaikōura ...
We used the echoes of foraging sounds to estimate whales' distance to the seafloor. Sperm whales at Kaikōura foraged in distinct mesopelagic and demersal ...
[47]
Bioenergetic modelling of a marine top predator's responses to ...
Mar 24, 2024 · We estimated that sperm whales have an average daily metabolic requirement (ADMR) of 493,539 kJ/day (with a minimum and maximum of 394,425 and ...
[48]
Exploring variability in the diet of depredating sperm whales in the ...
Mar 11, 2020 · Stomach content data from scientists on whaling ships in Alaskan waters in the 1960s indicate sperm whale diets were dominated by squid in the ...Missing: efficiency | Show results with:efficiency
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Vocal clans in sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) - Journals
Feb 7, 2003 · We studied variation in the vocal output of 'codas' by sperm whale social groups. Codas are patterns of clicks used by female sperm whales in social ...
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Coda repertoire and vocal clans of sperm whales in the western ...
This study describes the coda repertoire and vocal clans of sperm whales in Brazilian waters recorded between 2011 and 2016.
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Sperm whale long-range echolocation sounds revealed by ... - Nature
Apr 12, 2017 · The presence of the Ligurian Sea sperm whales was demonstrated through the real-time analysis of audio data streamed from a cabled-to-shore deep ...
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Sperm whale predator-prey interactions involve chasing ... - Nature
Jun 24, 2016 · Echolocation periods, evidenced by production of usual clicks, lasted on average 38 (±7.6) minutes during deep foraging dives performed by the ...
[53]
The long-range echo scene of the sperm whale biosonar - Journals
Aug 5, 2020 · We conclude that the powerful biosonar of sperm whales enables long-range echolocation and selection of prey, but not acoustic debilitation.
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Toothed whales use distinct vocal registers for echolocation and ...
Mar 2, 2023 · Echolocation clicks are produced by colliding phonic lips during flow-induced voiced sound production. Identifying the physiological ...Toothed Whales Use Distinct... · Vocal Fry Powers... · Discussion
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Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) acoustic ecology at Ocean ...
ICIs include: 5–7 s ICIs for 'slow clicks', produced mostly by males; 0.5–1 s for 'usual clicks', used for echolocation during deep dives; 0.02 s for 'creaks', ...
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Sperm Whale Reproductive Strategies: Current Knowledge and ...
Sep 26, 2023 · Sperm whales' reproductive strategies are centered around their extreme sexual dimorphism, both in morphology and behavior.Missing: roaring | Show results with:roaring
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Vocalizations Associated with Reproduction
Dec 19, 2018 · Sperm whales also produce sounds that are associated with mating and reproduction. Males produce very loud, low frequency clicks when ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Architecture of the sperm whale forehead facilitates ramming combat
Apr 5, 2016 · Our modeling indicates that an impact load applied to the spermaceti organ generates lower skull stresses than the impact loads on the junk.
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Sperm whales of the Southeast Pacific. Part VII. Reproduction and ...
Mar 8, 2013 · ... post-partum ovulation rare. Female sperm whales in the Southeast Pacific may ovulate up to four and possibly five times during an oestrus.Missing: estrus | Show results with:estrus
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Sperm Whale - American Cetacean Society
Color. The sperm whale is usually a dark, brownish gray with light streaks, spots and scratches. The skin around its mouth, particularly near the corners, is ...
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Sperm Whale Fact Sheet | Blog | Nature - PBS
Feb 28, 2024 · Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus): the largest of the toothed whales. Kingdom: | Animalia Phylum: | Chordata Class: | Mammalia
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Reproduction and Growth - New Bedford Whaling Museum
Baleen whale pregnancies last 11-12 months, sperm whales 15 months. Births occur every 3-5 years. Calves nurse for 6-7 months (mysticete) or more than a year ( ...Missing: age mortality
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Emptying the Oceans: A Summary of Industrial Whaling Catches in ...
May 12, 2015 · For the entire 20th century, the largest catches were of fin, Balaenoptera physalus, and sperm whales, Physeter macrocephalus, with 874,068 and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Ship collision risk threatens whales across the world's oceans
Nov 21, 2024 · Ship strikes are now a serious threat to whales, causing higher rates of mortality than are legally permissible from anthropogenic sources for ...
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https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp1950
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The impact of climate change on whales
Jul 18, 2024 · We work to mitigate the major threats they face, including climate change, entanglement, vessel strikes, and ocean noise pollution. Learn ...Missing: current | Show results with:current
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Status of whales - International Whaling Commission
In the western North Pacific sperm whales are estimated at 10,000 individuals (2012) 35. The IWC plans to assess eastern North Pacific sperm whales.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Marine Ecology Progress Series 242:295
Oct 25, 2025 · The total number of sperm whale plots on Townsend's (1935) charts, 21 336, is from Best (1983). (3) Scaling by primary productivity. Sperm whale.
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[PDF] FINAL RECOVERY PLAN FOR THE SPERM WHALE - ECOS
Dec 5, 2010 · as large as 12 m long and weighing 200 kg has been found in a sperm whale's stomach (Berzin ... usually causes a physical blockage in the ...
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Sperm Whale: Conservation & Management - NOAA Fisheries
Sperm whales are endangered and protected. Conservation includes reducing vessel collisions, protecting habitats, reducing bycatch, and rescue efforts.
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Dominica creates the world's first Sperm Whale Reserve, a win for ...
Oct 6, 2025 · In a groundbreaking initiative, Dominica has set a global precedence by establishing the world's first Sperm Whale Reserve.
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SAvE Whales: Successful project to protect sperm whales
May 30, 2022 · SAvE Whales uses solar-powered buoys with hydrophones to locate sperm whales, transmitting their position to ships to avoid collisions.
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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary:**