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Pitting resistance equivalent number

The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) is an empirical metric used to predict and compare the susceptibility of stainless steels and certain high-alloy materials to localized pitting corrosion, particularly in chloride-containing environments, by quantifying the contributions of key alloying elements to corrosion resistance.^[1] Developed as a simple compositional index, PREN enables material selection in corrosive applications such as chemical processing, oil and gas production, and marine environments, where higher values indicate greater resistance to pit initiation and propagation.^[2]^[3] The standard PREN formula is calculated as PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo + 16 × %N, where %Cr represents the weight percentage of chromium, %Mo is molybdenum, and %N is nitrogen, reflecting their relative effectiveness in enhancing passivation and repassivation against chloride attack.^[1]^[4] For alloys containing tungsten, such as super duplex stainless steels, a modified equation accounts for its contribution: PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × (%Mo + 0.5 × %W) + 16 × %N.^[2] Alternative variants exist, including one with a higher nitrogen coefficient (PREN = %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo + 30 × %N), which may better suit specific alloy families like nickel-based superalloys, though the 16N version remains most widely adopted for stainless steels.^[3]^[5] Typical PREN values range from 17–21 for standard austenitic grades like 304 stainless steel to over 40 for super austenitic or super duplex alloys like 254 SMO or 2507, with thresholds such as PREN ≥ 32 often specified for seawater exposure and ≥ 40 for sour service in hydrogen sulfide environments.^[3]^[2] The concept of PREN originated in the 1960s from empirical correlations between alloy composition and pitting behavior, with foundational work by Lorenz and Medawar in 1969 establishing a linear relationship between pitting potential and the combined effects of chromium and molybdenum in stainless steels.^[5] Their research, published in Thyssenforschung, demonstrated that pitting resistance improves proportionally with increasing %Cr + 3.3 × %Mo, laying the groundwork for later inclusions of nitrogen as a potent enhancer due to its role in stabilizing the passive film.^[5] Subsequent refinements in the 1970s and 1980s, driven by industry needs in petrochemical and offshore sectors, incorporated nitrogen and tungsten factors, evolving PREN into a standardized tool referenced in norms like ASTM G48 for critical pitting temperature testing.^[1]^[5] While PREN provides a quick, composition-based ranking within alloy families (e.g., austenitic vs. duplex), it has limitations as a predictor, ignoring factors like microstructure, surface finish, temperature, and chloride concentration, which can lead to over-reliance in non-standard conditions.^[2]^[1] Nonetheless, it remains a cornerstone for initial screening in corrosion engineering, often complemented by laboratory tests such as ASTM G150 for pitting potential measurements.^[3]^[4]

Introduction

Definition and Purpose

The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) is a semi-empirical metric used to quantify the relative resistance of stainless steels to localized pitting corrosion, primarily based on their chemical composition, including the alloying elements chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), and nitrogen (N).^[5] This index provides a straightforward numerical value that correlates alloy content with the material's ability to withstand pitting in aggressive environments, such as those containing chlorides.^[6] Developed as an empirical tool to streamline alloy selection, PREN enables engineers and material scientists to compare the pitting corrosion performance of different stainless steel grades without relying on time-consuming and costly laboratory tests.^[2] It originated in 1969 through the work of Lorenz and Medawar at Thyssen, who established an initial correlation between composition and pitting potential for austenitic stainless steels.^[7] By reducing complex compositional effects to a single figure, PREN facilitates informed decisions in industries like chemical processing and oil and gas, where pitting resistance is critical.^[8] Typical PREN values range from approximately 18–20 for standard austenitic grades like 304, indicating moderate resistance suitable for mild conditions, to over 40 for advanced super-austenitic or duplex grades, which offer superior performance in highly corrosive chloride-laden environments.^[1] Higher PREN numbers generally signify enhanced localized corrosion resistance, though the metric is most reliable for comparisons within similar steel families.^[9] Pitting corrosion itself represents a localized form of attack that initiates small cavities or pits on the surface, potentially leading to structural failure if unchecked.^[5]

Importance in Material Selection

The pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN) serves as a composition-based index that allows engineers to rapidly rank and compare stainless steel alloys for their susceptibility to pitting corrosion in chloride-rich environments, such as seawater or chemical processing systems, thereby streamlining material selection and minimizing the reliance on expensive and time-consuming prototype testing.^[2] For instance, alloys with PREN values exceeding 35 are frequently specified for offshore oil platforms to ensure robust performance against localized corrosion in marine conditions, where lower PREN materials might fail prematurely under operational stresses.^[10] From an economic perspective, selecting higher PREN alloys, such as 254 SMO with a PREN of approximately 43, involves higher upfront costs due to elevated alloying elements but yields significant long-term savings through extended service life and reduced maintenance in aggressive media like seawater handling systems.^[11] This cost-benefit balance is particularly evident in applications where pitting failures could lead to downtime or replacements, as higher PREN materials demonstrate superior resistance that offsets initial expenses over the asset's lifecycle.^[12] PREN has been integrated into industry standards to guide compliant material choices, including ASTM G48 for pitting corrosion testing that correlates alloy performance with PREN values, and ISO 15156 for sour service environments, where duplex stainless steels require PREN thresholds of 30 to 40 with at least 1.5% molybdenum to mitigate risks in hydrogen sulfide-containing fluids.^[13] These norms ensure that selected materials meet safety and reliability criteria without necessitating exhaustive site-specific trials. In desalination plants, PREN facilitates the choice of alloys resistant to chloride-induced pitting, such as super duplex grades with PREN greater than 40, which prevent the corrosion failures commonly observed in lower PREN options like 316L (PREN approximately 24) exposed to concentrated brines.^[11]^[12] This targeted selection has proven critical in reverse osmosis systems, where inadequate resistance leads to equipment degradation and operational disruptions.^[14]

Theoretical Basis

Pitting Corrosion in Stainless Steels

Pitting corrosion is a form of localized corrosion that occurs in passive metals such as stainless steels, where the protective oxide layer breaks down under specific environmental conditions, leading to accelerated dissolution at discrete sites. In stainless steels, the passive layer primarily consists of chromium oxide (Cr₂O₃), which provides corrosion resistance by acting as a barrier to ion diffusion; however, aggressive anions like chloride ions (Cl⁻) can adsorb onto or penetrate this layer, initiating pitting by destabilizing it and creating anodic sites for rapid metal dissolution, while surrounding cathodic areas remain protected.^[15] The process unfolds in distinct stages: initiation, propagation, and potential repassivation. Initiation typically begins at surface heterogeneities, such as non-metallic inclusions (e.g., manganese sulfide, MnS) or defects like scratches, where localized breakdown of the passive film occurs under the influence of chlorides, forming metastable pits that may either grow or heal. Propagation follows as the pit interior undergoes hydrolysis of dissolved metal cations, producing hydrochloric acid that acidifies the local environment (pH dropping to 1–2) and concentrates chlorides, creating an autocatalytic process that sustains aggressive pit growth and prevents repassivation of the exposed metal surface.^[16] Repassivation can occur if environmental conditions shift, such as a decrease in potential or chloride concentration, allowing the passive film to reform and halt further growth. Several factors influence the onset and severity of pitting in stainless steels. Temperature plays a critical role, with the critical pitting temperature (CPT)—the threshold at which stable pitting initiates—typically ranging from 10°C to 100°C depending on alloy and conditions; above this temperature, pitting propensity increases exponentially. Chloride concentration exacerbates the risk, often following a logarithmic relationship, while lower pH accelerates propagation by enhancing ion solubility and film breakdown.^[16] Applied or natural electrochemical potential is also key, with pitting occurring above the pitting potential (E_p) and ceasing below the repassivation potential (E_r). Pitting is particularly prevalent in austenitic stainless steels, such as types 304 and 316, when exposed to chloride-rich environments like seawater or brine, where it can lead to catastrophic failures if not mitigated, for example, through perforation of heat exchanger tubing in industrial applications.^[17]^[18]

Role of Alloying Elements

Chromium serves as the primary alloying element responsible for the passivation of stainless steels, forming a stable chromium oxide (Cr₂O₃) layer that protects the underlying metal from corrosion.^[19] A minimum chromium content of 10.5–12% is required to classify a steel as stainless and provide basic corrosion resistance, but austenitic grades typically contain 16–18% chromium to achieve adequate pitting resistance; however, even at levels above 18% chromium, pitting can initiate in chloride environments without additional alloying elements due to localized breakdown of the passive film.^[20]^[19] Molybdenum enhances pitting resistance by stabilizing the passive film and promoting repassivation after localized breakdown, particularly in chloride-containing solutions.^[21] Additions of 2–6% molybdenum can significantly increase the critical pitting temperature (CPT) by 50–100°C in chloride media, with molybdenum proving more effective per unit weight than chromium in resisting pit propagation.^[22] Nitrogen acts synergistically with chromium and molybdenum to enrich the passive layer and inhibit pit growth, particularly in duplex stainless steels where it partitions preferentially to the austenite phase.^[23] Levels of 0.1–0.5% nitrogen markedly boost pitting resistance, reducing corrosion rates by up to 85% in aggressive environments and enhancing overall film stability.^[23]^[24] Other elements play secondary roles: tungsten exhibits effects similar to molybdenum by aiding repassivation through WO₃ formation but is less commonly used due to cost and potential for phase precipitation.^[23] Copper and nickel have minor influences, with nickel supporting passivation in the passive film and copper occasionally promoting pit nucleation if forming precipitates, though neither is central to pitting resistance enhancement.^[23] The combined addition of these elements yields synergistic effects that exceed individual contributions, as seen in duplex stainless steel 2205 (approximately 22% Cr + 3% Mo + 0.16% N), where the enriched passive film provides superior resistance to localized corrosion in chlorides.^[19]^[24]

PREN Formulas

Weight Percentage Formulas

The weight percentage formulas for the pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN) provide an empirical means to estimate pitting corrosion resistance in stainless steels by weighting the contributions of key alloying elements—chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), and nitrogen (N)—based on their mass fractions in the alloy. These formulas originated from experimental correlations, with the Cr + 3.3Mo index established by Lorenz and Medawar in 1969 and nitrogen incorporated in the 1970s, drawing on critical pitting temperature (CPT) data to quantify how each element enhances the stability of the passive film against localized breakdown in chloride environments. The coefficients in these expressions capture the relative potencies of the elements, with Mo offering roughly three times the benefit of Cr per weight percent and N providing about 16 times that benefit, reflecting their roles in repassivation and film enrichment. The full 16N formula was refined in the 1970s and 1980s based on linear regression of alloy compositions against CPT values measured in ferric chloride solutions per ASTM G48, with the 3.3 coefficient for Mo derived from the slope observed in anodic polarization curves of various stainless steels. The 16 coefficient for N accounts for its interstitial strengthening of the passive layer, based on empirical fits to low-nitrogen alloys prevalent at the time. For instance, type 316L stainless steel, typically containing 17% Cr, 2.5% Mo, and 0.03% N, yields a PREN of approximately 24 using this formula, indicating moderate resistance suitable for mildly corrosive conditions. Similarly, 904L, with 20% Cr, 4.5% Mo, and 0.05% N, achieves a PREN of about 36, supporting its use in more aggressive chloride exposures.^[1] A widely adopted variant adjusts the nitrogen weighting for better accuracy in modern alloys:

\text{PREN} = \% \text{Cr} + 3.3 \times \% \text{Mo} + 30 \times \% \text{N}.

This modification, validated through 1990s investigations into high-nitrogen (>0.2% N) compositions, elevates the N factor to reflect its amplified effectiveness in super-austenitic and duplex grades where nitrogen levels exceed traditional limits, improving correlations with CPT in extended alloy datasets. These weight-based PREN formulas are optimized for austenitic and duplex stainless steels with Mo contents below 6%, beyond which deviations from linearity may occur due to phase stability or solubility limits.^[3]

Atomic Percentage and Extended Formulas

In research contexts, adaptations of the PREN formula using atomic percentages have been proposed to better account for the molar contributions of alloying elements, particularly in precise modeling of pitting behavior in high-entropy or complex alloys. One such variant is PREN = at.%Cr + 3.3 × at.%Mo + 13 × at.%N, where the coefficient for nitrogen (13–30) reflects estimates of its effectiveness in certain high-nitrogen alloys. This atomic-based approach, emerging in studies since the 1980s, adjusts for differences in atomic weights and densities among elements, providing a more accurate representation of atomic concentrations on the alloy surface relevant to localized corrosion mechanisms.^[25] Extended formulas incorporate additional elements like tungsten (W), which enhances pitting resistance but with reduced potency compared to molybdenum. A widely adopted variant for W-bearing alloys is PREN = wt.%Cr + 3.3 × (wt.%Mo + 0.5 × wt.%W) + 16 × wt.%N, where the 0.5 factor for W stems from its approximately half effectiveness relative to Mo in stabilizing the passive film, as determined from electrochemical polarization tests on duplex stainless steels.^[1] This extension is particularly useful for advanced grades like 25Cr-7Ni duplex steels, where 1 wt.% W can yield a PREN around 40, maintaining comparable resistance to standard Mo-only alloys. Other variants tailor the PREN for specific alloy families. For superferritic stainless steels, the formula is typically PREN = wt.%Cr + 3.3 × wt.%Mo + 16 × wt.%N. In Ni-based alloys, PREN is used without N due to its low solubility: PREN = wt.%Cr + 3.3 × (wt.%Mo + 0.5 × wt.%W + 0.5 × wt.%Nb), to evaluate resistance in superalloys like Hastelloy C-276 or Inconel 625.^[5] The rationale for atomic percentage versions lies in their ability to normalize for density variations across alloys, emphasizing the number of solute atoms available for passivity enhancement rather than mass fractions, which is advantageous in computational simulations of electronic structures and adsorption sites. However, these variants, including the W extension, remain less standardized than basic weight-based formulas and are primarily confined to research and development. Electrochemical studies on duplex steels have highlighted the role of W in delaying pit propagation but underscore variability in non-standard compositions.^[2]

Validation and Measurement

Laboratory Testing Methods

Laboratory testing methods for assessing pitting resistance in stainless steels primarily involve standardized electrochemical and immersion techniques that simulate aggressive chloride environments to determine critical parameters such as the critical pitting temperature (CPT) or pitting potential (E_pit). These tests evaluate the onset of localized corrosion under controlled conditions, focusing on alloy performance without relying on theoretical predictions.^[26] The ASTM G48 standard outlines several methods using ferric chloride (FeCl3) solutions to measure pitting and crevice corrosion resistance, with Method A being the most common for pitting evaluation. In this immersion test, polished and annealed specimens—typically 25 mm diameter disks or coupons—are exposed to a 6% FeCl3·6H2O solution at a fixed temperature, such as 22–60°C, for 24–72 hours under aerated conditions at ambient pressure. Pitting initiation is assessed post-exposure via microscopic examination, with corrosion considered to have occurred if one or more pits with a depth greater than 25 μm are observed, for critical pitting temperature (CPT) determination. To find CPT, the temperature is incrementally increased (e.g., in 2.5–5°C steps) until pitting is observed after 24-hour exposures, often ranging from 25°C to 100°C depending on alloy resistance. Sample preparation involves grinding to 600-grit finish, degreasing, and annealing to standardize microstructure, ensuring reproducible results.^[27]^[28]^[29] ASTM G150 provides an electrochemical alternative for determining CPT through potentiostatic polarization in chloride media, such as 1 M NaCl or 0.1 M NaCl solutions, offering faster results than immersion tests. The procedure involves mounting the specimen as a working electrode in a three-electrode cell (with saturated calomel reference and platinum counter electrodes), applying an anodic potential (e.g., +300 mV vs. open-circuit potential) above the expected pitting range, and monitoring current density while gradually heating the solution from 0°C to 100°C at 1–2°C/min. A sharp current increase (>100 μA/cm² or 10x baseline) signals the CPT, indicating stable pit initiation; the test halts upon detection to avoid excessive damage. Specimens are prepared similarly to G48—polished to 600–1200 grit and passivated if needed—with deaerated or aerated electrolytes controlled at pH 6–7. This method enhances precision for high-alloy steels by isolating electrochemical kinetics.^[30] Additional standardized methods address specific scenarios, such as initiation and repassivation. ASTM G61 employs cyclic potentiodynamic polarization with a mechanical scratch to evaluate localized corrosion susceptibility in chloride solutions (e.g., 0.6 M NaCl), scanning potential from -200 mV to +1 V vs. SCE at 0.167 mV/s to measure E_pit (breakdown potential) and E_rep (repassivation potential) after pit initiation on the scratch site; tests last 30–60 minutes at 30°C with polished samples. For medical applications, ASTM F746 assesses pitting or crevice corrosion in surgical implant alloys using immersion in 6% FeCl3 at 37°C for 24–168 hours, examining for pits deeper than 10 μm, with samples sterilized and prepared to mimic implant surfaces. Critical crevice temperature (CCT) testing, a variant of pitting methods, uses ASTM G48 Method B or ISO 18089, where crevices are formed via washers or O-rings on specimens immersed in FeCl3, incrementally heating until crevice attack exceeds 0.1 mm depth after 24 hours, typically in the 20–80°C range.^[31] These methods originated in the 1970s–1980s as empirical tools for alloy screening, with ASTM G48 first published in 1976 and revised multiple times (e.g., 2003, 2011, and reapproved 2020) to improve accuracy for duplex and super-austenitic steels, incorporating better environmental controls and criteria for high-Mo alloys. ASTM G150, introduced in 1999 and updated through 2024, addressed limitations of immersion tests by enabling rapid electrochemical assessment, while G61 (1986, reapproved 2022) and F746 (1987, reapproved 2021) evolved to include repassivation metrics and biomedical relevance, respectively. Such standardization ensures consistent laboratory protocols across industries like chemical processing and oil & gas.^[27]

Correlation with PREN Values

The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) demonstrates a strong empirical correlation with the critical pitting temperature (CPT), serving as a reliable indicator of pitting corrosion resistance in stainless steels. This relationship is generally linear, particularly for austenitic grades containing molybdenum and nitrogen, where increases in PREN align with elevated CPT values in chloride environments. Data compilations from the late 20th century, including those by Sedriks, illustrate this trend through plots of PREN against pitting potential (E_pit), showing consistent positive associations across alloy families.^[32] Specific trends in the correlation vary by alloy type and PREN range. For austenitic and duplex stainless steels with PREN values of 20–30, CPT typically falls between 20°C and 40°C in standard ferric chloride tests (ASTM G48). Alloys exceeding PREN 40 often achieve CPTs above 80°C, reflecting enhanced localized corrosion resistance. Duplex steels exhibit a tighter correlation between PREN and CPT compared to ferritic grades, owing to their balanced austenite-ferrite microstructure, which optimizes the distribution of key alloying elements like chromium and nitrogen for pitting resistance. In contrast, ferritic steels require higher PREN thresholds (e.g., >35) to match equivalent CPT performance, highlighting phase-dependent variations in the PREN-CPT relationship.^[13]^[9] Validation through laboratory testing underscores the predictive utility of PREN. For instance, 2205 duplex stainless steel (PREN ≈ 35) yields a CPT of approximately 70°C in ASTM G48 tests, significantly outperforming type 316 austenitic stainless steel (PREN ≈ 24), which registers a CPT of about 20–25°C under comparable conditions. These examples align with broader 1990s datasets plotting PREN versus E_pit, where higher PREN consistently corresponds to nobler pitting potentials and reduced pitting susceptibility.^[13] Despite its strengths, the PREN-CPT correlation exhibits discrepancies in specific compositions. Standard PREN formulas tend to overpredict resistance in high-nitrogen alloys (>0.3 wt% N), as the weighting factor for nitrogen (typically 16) may overestimate its beneficial effect beyond solubility limits in austenite. Conversely, lean duplex steels often show underprediction, with actual CPTs exceeding expectations due to synergistic effects from lower but optimized alloying levels. Statistical models from the early 2000s, incorporating microstructural parameters like phase balance, have improved accuracy by addressing these gaps.^[1]^[8] Key foundational work on PREN correlations traces to empirical studies in the late 20th century, with Lorenz and Medawar establishing the baseline Cr-Mo relationship in 1969, later extended to include nitrogen. Reviews from the 2010s reaffirm the overall utility of PREN for alloy ranking but note inherent scatter, equivalent to ±5 PREN units in CPT predictions, emphasizing the need for complementary testing in critical applications.^[32]

Applications and Limitations

Industrial Applications

In the oil and gas industry, the pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN) serves as a critical metric for selecting corrosion-resistant alloys in subsea environments exposed to chlorides and seawater. A minimum PREN of 38 is typically required for tubulars and piping in offshore applications to ensure resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion.^[33] For instance, Alloy 254 SMO (UNS S31254), with a PREN of approximately 43–46, has been widely adopted for subsea tubing and tie-backs on North Sea platforms since the 1990s, where it has significantly reduced pitting failures compared to lower-PREN grades like 316L by tolerating aerated seawater up to 40°C without localized corrosion.^[34] In chemical processing, high-PREN austenitic stainless steels are essential for equipment handling aggressive media such as chlorides and ammonia, where conventional alloys suffer rapid degradation. AL-6XN (UNS N08367), featuring a PREN of around 42–48, is employed in process tanks, pipelines, and vessels for its superior resistance to pitting, crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking in chloride-laden streams.^[35] This alloy has proven effective in urea production facilities, where it withstands the corrosive effects of ammonium carbamate solutions containing chlorides and ammonia, extending equipment life and minimizing contamination risks in high-pressure synthesis sections.^[36] For marine and desalination applications, 6Mo super-austenitic stainless steels with PREN values exceeding 40 are specified for heat exchangers to combat pitting induced by biofouling and chlorinated seawater. These alloys resist localized corrosion up to 40°C, making them suitable for tube sheets and tubing in multi-stage flash (MSF) and reverse osmosis systems. In Middle East desalination projects during the 2000s, such as those in the Gulf region, 6Mo grades were used to specify materials against biofouling-related pitting, enabling reliable performance in high-chloride intake waters and reducing maintenance in large-scale plants handling millions of cubic meters of seawater daily.^[37] In the pulp and paper sector, duplex stainless steels like 2205 (UNS S32205) with a PREN of 35 are utilized in bleach plant components exposed to hypochlorite and chloride solutions. This grade offers enhanced resistance to pitting in alkaline bleaching stages compared to 316L (PREN ~24–26), often extending service life by up to five times in washers and filtrate piping by preventing through-wall corrosion from residual oxidants.^[38] For example, in bleach washers processing kraft pulp, 2205 has demonstrated durability beyond 10 years in chloride-concentrated environments, versus frequent replacements of 316L within 2–3 years.^[39] Since the 2010s, PREN-guided material selection has seen growing adoption in renewable energy sectors, particularly for offshore wind foundations subjected to marine corrosion. High-PREN alloys are integrated into designs per NACE and ISO standards, such as NACE SP0176 for cathodic protection and ISO 12944 for coatings, to mitigate pitting in splash zones and substructures.^[40] This trend supports the expansion of offshore wind farms in regions like the North Sea and U.S. Atlantic coast, where PREN >35 duplex grades enhance longevity against biofouling and cyclic wetting, aligning with ISO 19902 guidelines for fixed steel offshore structures.^[41]

Limitations and Alternative Approaches

While the Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) provides a useful compositional indicator for pitting corrosion resistance in stainless steels, it exhibits significant limitations by overlooking key non-compositional factors. Primarily, PREN assumes a homogeneous alloy structure and ignores microstructural influences such as inclusions, phase distributions, and grain boundaries, which can serve as initiation sites for pits. In duplex stainless steels, for instance, the ferrite-austenite balance critically affects localized corrosion, yet PREN does not differentiate pitting susceptibility based on phase-specific alloying enrichment.^[42]^[43] Processing effects further undermine its reliability; welding induces thermal cycles that alter microstructure, precipitate intermetallics, and imbalance phases, effectively reducing pitting resistance in the heat-affected zone. This can lower the critical pitting temperature (CPT) by 5–10°C compared to base metal, equivalent to a diminished effective PREN, particularly in lean duplex grades where nitrogen loss during welding exacerbates vulnerability.^[44]^[45] PREN is most valid only within similar alloy families and standard chloride environments, as it overpredicts performance in specialized conditions like sour service with hydrogen sulfide (H2S), where sulfide films and hydrogen embrittlement accelerate pitting beyond compositional expectations.^[8]^[46] Accuracy challenges compound these issues, with correlations between PREN and experimental metrics like CPT showing considerable scatter, often ±10°C, due to variations in test conditions and alloy processing. This imprecision limits PREN's utility for precise rankings, especially in non-stainless alloys or extreme environments such as high-temperature or multiphase flows. Reviews from the 2020s highlight particularly poor fits for lean duplex stainless steels (e.g., UNS S32304), where PREN fails to capture the interplay of low molybdenum and high nitrogen, leading to unreliable predictions for structural applications.^[47]^[48] PREN is unsuitable for nickel-based alloys or conditions outside chloride-dominated pitting, as its empirical basis derives from austenitic and duplex stainless steels tested in ferric chloride.^[8]^[49] To address these shortcomings, alternative and complementary approaches offer more robust assessments. Direct measurement of the critical pitting temperature (CPT) via potentiostatic or potentiodynamic tests (e.g., ASTM G150) provides environment-specific data, correlating more tightly with field performance than PREN and revealing scatter limitations in compositional models. The pitting potential (E_pit), obtained from polarization curves, quantifies initiation susceptibility under controlled potentials, serving as a sensitive indicator for alloy ranking in chloride solutions.^[50]^[51] Advanced extended PREN models incorporate additional elements like tungsten (W) and copper (Cu) for highly alloyed grades, such as PREN = Cr + 3.3(Mo + 0.5W) + 16N + Cu, improving predictions for super-austenitic steels but still neglecting microstructure. Electrochemical noise (EN) analysis enables non-destructive, real-time monitoring of pitting transients, distinguishing initiation from propagation without applied potentials, and has been validated for stainless steels in aggressive media.^[50]^[52] Recent improvements integrate PREN with other metrics for enhanced reliability, such as hybrid indices combining PREN and ferrite number (FN) to account for phase balance in duplex steels, as adopted in 2010s welding standards like ISO 17660 for better selection in corrosive structures. Finite element modeling (FEM) simulates localized corrosion by incorporating microstructural heterogeneity, environmental gradients, and mechanical stresses, enabling predictive simulations of pit growth beyond static PREN values. A notable case illustrating these limitations occurred in 2015 oilfield operations, where high-PREN duplex alloys (PREN > 35) experienced pitting failures at welds due to microstructural imbalances and inclusions, despite compositional adequacy, underscoring the need for holistic evaluation in sour and welded applications.^[53]^[54]^[23]

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https://www.astm.org/g0048-11r20e01.html
[28]
[PDF] test techniques for pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of ...
The best known test using ferric chloride as the chem- ical is ASTM Standard G48 (Ref.49). The test is straightforward, involving the immersion of the test.
[29]
Standard Test Methods for Pitting and Crevice Corrosion Resistance ...
G48 Standard Test Methods for Pitting and Crevice Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steels and Related Alloys by Use of Ferric Chloride Solution.
[30]
Ferric Chloride Weld Procedure Testing of Steel Weldments - TWI
ASTM G48-92: "Standard test methods for pitting and crevice corrosion resistance of stainless steels and related alloys by the use of ferric chloride solution".
[31]
Testing stainless steel for resistance to pitting corrosion - Outokumpu
The sample is exposed for 24 hours in a chloride-rich, oxidizing and acidic solution of 6% ferric chloride (FeCl3) with an addition of 1% hydrochloric acid (HCl) ...
[32]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7878803/
[33]
About pitting and repassivation potentials - About Corrosion
Apr 3, 2014 · Test according to ASTM G61. Current at scan reversal: 10 mA/cm2 ... Some authors argue that the pitting potential as measured by the scratch tests ...
[34]
Electrochemical metrics for corrosion resistant alloys - PMC - NIH
Feb 11, 2021 · We collect a database with an emphasis on metrics related to localized corrosion. The six sections of the database include data on various metal alloys.
[35]
[PDF] NiDi Technical Series No. 10 035 - Nickel Institute
Anyone of the 6%MO specialty stainless steels are suitable for this application, A Pitting Resistance. Equivalent, PREN 38 is required for sufficient resistance ...Missing: SMO | Show results with:SMO
[36]
[PDF] Modern stainless steels to combat chloride-induced localized ...
North Sea shows that highly alloyed grades like Avesta 254. SMO can be used in piping systems at temperatures? of up to around 40°C. Crevice-corrosion ...Missing: subsea | Show results with:subsea
[37]
[PDF] AL-6XN® Alloy - Rolled Alloys
AL-6XN is a corrosion-resistant, low carbon, high purity, nitrogen-bearing stainless alloy, designed for seawater resistance, with high strength and good ...Missing: urea | Show results with:urea
[38]
(PDF) MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY FOR FERTILIZERS INDUSTRIES
This topic presents some general guidelines in the selection of material for process equipment. In all ammonia, Urea Plants worldwide the problem of severe ...
[39]
[PDF] THE FAMILY OF DUPLEX ALLOYS IN THE DESALINATION ...
A single small plant has been built using this concept at Sirte in Libya, using 6%Mo austenitic stainless steel for the most part. However, for a large plant, ...
[40]
Comparing Duplex Stainless Steels: Grades, Properties, Selection ...
Oil and gas industry: LDX 2101 can be used in offshore platforms, pipelines, and other equipment exposed to corrosive environments in the oil and gas industry.<|separator|>
[41]
Comparison of 304, 316/L, and Duplex 2205 Stainless Steels
Aug 31, 2025 · 316L piping: lower initial cost, but injection lines failed within 2 years from corrosion → major overhaul required, costly downtime. 2205 ...Missing: pulp paper bleach washers
[42]
[PDF] Corrosion protection of offshore wind foundations
This paper presents a review of the current standards and guidelines on corrosion protection of offshore wind foundations. It also gives a review of the ...
[43]
[PDF] Nurturing offshore wind markets - IRENA
Standardisation for offshore wind technology has been influenced by two main industry sectors: offshore oil and gas, and onshore wind. These two markets have ...
[44]
Influence of the individual microstructural features on pitting ...
Pitting corrosion is one of the most dangerous forms of localized corrosion by which cavities are formed that essentially act as a precursor to stress corrosion ...
[45]
(PDF) Understanding why PREN alone cannot be used to select ...
Aug 5, 2025 · Abstract. The present work has as an objective to explain why a simple PREN calculation cannot be used to select Duplex Stainless Steels (DSS) ...Missing: original | Show results with:original
[46]
Influence of welding thermal cycles on microstructure and pitting ...
The pitting corrosion resistance of specimen was closely related to the PREN value of ferrite phase. 4. All the 2304-B specimens showed better microstructure ...
[47]
[PDF] Influence of multiple welding cycles on microstructure and corrosion ...
It has been found that CPT and PREN show the same trend. Therefore, PREN can be used as a tool to predict the pitting resistance. A problem regarding PREN.
[48]
[PDF] Prediction of H 2 S Corrosion in Upstream Applications The ...
Prediction of Corrosion in Slightly Sour Environments · Stephen N. SmithJ ... H2S have long been known to be less corrosive than similar environments without H2S.
[49]
Comparative statistical analysis of pitting in Two 2205 duplex ...
Mar 19, 2024 · The pitting resistance of stainless steel is primarily controlled by alloying content. The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) is ...
[50]
Statistical Distribution of Critical Pitting Temperature of Stainless ...
Jun 16, 2023 · The pitting resistance equivalent number (PREN = wt% Cr + 3.3 × wt% Mo + 16 × wt% N) of each alloy is also shown in Table I. The nitrogen ...
[51]
Clarifying the Applicability of PREN Equations: A Short Focused ...
Aug 5, 2025 · This enhancement significantly improves corrosion resistance through the synergistic strengthening of Mo and nitrogen ... (%N) and PREN = %Cr + % ...
[52]
An updated Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number by proportional ...
Jan 20, 2025 · The Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) is widely applied to assess pitting corrosion resistance of stainless steel, despite containing only a few ...
[53]
A comparative study of critical pitting temperature (CPT) of stainless ...
In this study critical pitting temperature (CPT) of two stainless steels is compared using EIS, potentiodynamic and potentiostatic techniques.<|separator|>
[54]
A new criterion to determine the critical pitting temperature (CPT ...
The electrochemical methods can be grouped into two categories: direct-current (DC) measurement methods and electrochemical noise (EN) method. Both the ...
[55]
Duplex Steels Used in Building Structures and Their Resistance to ...
PREN Chloride Corrosion Resistance Index. In the right of Figure 1, the values of Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number (PREN) have been given for each group of ...
[56]
Finite Element Method for Thin Film Corrosion Modelling - MDPI
Aug 19, 2020 · This paper takes into account some of the highlighted recent advances in thin film corrosion modelling based on the mentioned parameters.