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Pochteca

The pochteca were a specialized class of professional long-distance merchants in the Aztec (Mexica) Empire of central Mexico, active from around the 14th to early 16th centuries, who facilitated the exchange of luxury and exotic goods across Mesoamerica while also serving as spies, diplomats, and agents of the state.^[1]^[2] Organized into hereditary guilds centered in cities like Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco, these merchants traveled extensive trade routes on foot—without beasts of burden or wheeled vehicles—carrying goods via human porters and navigating risks such as hostility, robbery, or assassination from foreign regions.^[2]^[3] Their economic role was pivotal, as they procured high-value items like tropical feathers, cacao (used as currency), precious stones, gold, and jade from distant areas such as the Gulf Coast, Oaxaca, and even as far as Nicaragua, exchanging them for staples like obsidian tools from the Aztec heartland.^[1]^[3] These activities supported the empire's vast market system, exemplified by the bustling Tlatelolco marketplace, which attracted 25,000 to 50,000 people daily and integrated local, regional, and international commerce.^[1] Beyond trade, pochteca guilds functioned as semi-autonomous institutions with their own leaders, temples, and rituals, often acting on behalf of the tlatoani (ruler) to gather intelligence in enemy territories or negotiate alliances, which could escalate into military conflicts if merchants were harmed.^[1]^[2] Socially, the pochteca occupied an ambiguous yet elevated position as wealthy commoners who could amass fortunes rivaling the nobility, though they were barred from certain elite privileges and practiced endogamous marriages to preserve their status.^[1] Their prominence is evident in Aztec codices and ethnohistoric accounts, such as those by Bernardino de Sahagún, which depict them as essential to imperial expansion and cultural exchange, linking diverse Mesoamerican regions in a network that sustained the Aztec elite's demand for status symbols.^[2] Archaeological evidence from sites like Otumba further underscores their organizational complexity and contributions to the pre-Columbian economy.^[2]

Historical Background

Origins in Mesoamerica

The origins of the pochteca as a specialized merchant class can be traced to the robust long-distance trade networks that developed in earlier Mesoamerican civilizations, particularly during the Classic and Early Postclassic periods. In Teotihuacan, which flourished from approximately 100 BCE to 550 CE in central Mexico, extensive exchange systems connected the urban center to regions across Mesoamerica, facilitating the movement of goods such as obsidian tools from nearby sources like Pachuca and Otumba, tropical feathers from the Gulf Coast, and cacao from lowland areas. Archaeological evidence from sites like the Merchants' Barrio at Teotihuacan reveals organized trading activities, with obsidian workshops and foreign ceramics indicating the presence of traveling merchants who operated semi-independently, laying early groundwork for professional trader groups.^[4] These networks extended influence far beyond central Mexico, reaching as far as the southwestern United States and Panama, as evidenced by distributed Teotihuacan-style artifacts and obsidian tools.^[5] Following Teotihuacan's decline, the Toltec civilization (ca. 900–1150 CE) revitalized and expanded these trade routes from their capital at Tula in Hidalgo, Mexico, establishing connections to the Pacific Coast, Central America, and the Gulf region. Excavations at Tula have uncovered imported pottery such as Plumbate ware from the Pacific coast of Guatemala and Chiapas, marine shells from coastal regions, and obsidian artifacts, demonstrating a diverse exchange economy that included luxury items like feathers, cacao, and cotton textiles alongside utilitarian goods such as stone tools.^[6]^[7] This period marked the initial formation of more structured merchant activities in central Mexico, with precursors to the pochteca emerging as traveling traders who navigated these routes to procure exotic materials, often under elite patronage but with growing autonomy. Around 900–1200 CE, during the Early Postclassic, evidence from central Mexican sites indicates more structured merchant activities in handling high-value commodities like obsidian, feathers, and cacao, involving coordinated long-distance expeditions.^[4] The mobility and risk-taking ethos of these early merchants were further shaped by the influence of nomadic Chichimec groups, semi-sedentary hunter-gatherers from northern Mexico who migrated southward in the 12th–13th centuries, contributing to the cultural matrix from which the Mexica (Aztecs) emerged. As ancestors of the Mexica, the Chichimecs brought traditions of itinerant resource acquisition and adaptability to harsh terrains, which informed the pochteca's practices of undertaking perilous overland journeys through unfamiliar territories.^[1] These foundational elements in pre-Aztec trade systems provided the template for the pochteca's later institutionalization.

Evolution in the Aztec Empire

The pochteca, originally informal trader groups from earlier Mesoamerican traditions, underwent significant formalization following the formation of the Aztec Triple Alliance in 1428 CE, when Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan united under the leadership of Itzcoatl to expand imperial control. As state-supported traders, the pochteca were integrated into the alliance's economic framework, serving as professional long-distance merchants who facilitated the flow of exotic goods across Mesoamerica and beyond the empire's borders. This integration transformed them from localized bands into a structured corps essential to imperial expansion, with their activities directly tied to the political and military objectives of the alliance.^[8] Under rulers such as Itzcoatl (r. 1427–1440 CE) and later Moctezuma II (r. 1502–1520 CE), the pochteca evolved into an elite institution, benefiting from increased state patronage that encouraged their growth amid rising population demands and elite consumption of luxury items. Trade networks expanded dramatically during this period, with pochteca guilds organizing large-scale expeditions that supported the empire's economic vitality and imperial reach. Their role extended to funding military campaigns through the collection and transport of tribute, often in the form of valuable commodities like cacao, feathers, and metals, which were gathered from provinces and redirected to Tenochtitlan to sustain warfare and royal expenditures. Additionally, pochteca acted as spies during these expeditions, gathering intelligence on potential conquests and rival powers to inform strategic decisions.^[8] A key aspect of this evolution was the establishment of pochteca enclaves in conquered or frontier territories, which secured trade routes and asserted Aztec influence. Notable examples include settlements like Quauhtochco near the Tarascan borders, where Mexica-style temples and garrisons indicate a blend of commercial and military outposts designed to procure resources such as copper while countering threats from the rival Tarascan Empire. These enclaves exemplified how pochteca operations intertwined with imperial growth, enabling sustained access to distant markets even in hostile regions.^[8]

Position Within Aztec Hierarchy

The pochteca constituted a semi-autonomous group within the Aztec social hierarchy, positioned below the pipiltin nobility yet above the macehualtin commoners, particularly farmers, due to their specialized economic roles and organizational autonomy.^[9]^[1] This elevated standing among non-nobles stemmed from their essential contributions to imperial trade and intelligence, granting them a distinct identity separate from typical agrarian laborers.^[10] In Tenochtitlan, the pochteca maintained access to dedicated calpulli wards, such as the Pochteca quarter, which functioned as self-governing communities fostering their guild-based cohesion.^[1] They practiced endogamous marriages to preserve their status and wealth within the class.^[1] Aztec law afforded the pochteca specific protections, enabling them to prioritize long-distance expeditions over some communal work duties.^[9] They paid tribute in the form of rare goods acquired through trade, distinguishing their contributions from the labor or produce of ordinary macehualtin.^[1] In pictorial records such as the Codex Mendoza, the pochteca appear as a delineated class apart from commoners, often illustrated through symbols of trade and mobility that emphasize their unique societal function.^[11] Despite their prominence, the pochteca navigated tensions with the nobility through intermarriages that occasionally bridged class divides, allowing ambitious merchants to elevate their lineage.^[12] To mitigate envy and preserve hierarchical boundaries, they adhered to sumptuary laws prohibiting lavish displays, such as cotton garments, gold ornaments, or litters, which were reserved for nobles—restrictions enforced to prevent any overt challenge to noble privilege.^[10] This careful balance reinforced their intermediary role, where wealth accrued through trade did not fully eclipse noble birthrights.^[9]

Privileges, Duties, and Rituals

The pochteca enjoyed certain privileges that distinguished them from other commoners in Aztec society, including exemptions from routine military drafts and manual labor obligations, allowing them to focus on their specialized trade and diplomatic roles. In lieu of frontline military service, they often undertook espionage duties, such as disguising themselves to gather intelligence in unconquered territories like the Tarascan frontier, scouting potential trade routes, alliances, and enemy strengths to inform imperial strategies. These roles positioned the pochteca as vital agents of the state, sometimes receiving rewards like gold or amber lip plugs and rabbit-fur capes from the emperor, which they wore exclusively during feast days. Additionally, the empire provided them with dedicated houses and hostels along key routes, such as in Tochtepec, to support their long-distance travels.^[13] Their duties extended beyond commerce to include significant responsibilities in market oversight and state service. Esteemed pochteca leaders acted as judges in marketplace disputes and regulated pricing to maintain economic order, enforcing internal guild rules with severe penalties, including death, for violations like revealing trade secrets. During wartime preparations, they scouted enemy territories, such as those of rival city-states, providing reconnaissance that facilitated Aztec military campaigns without requiring their direct participation in combat. These obligations underscored their dual function as economic operatives and informants, often conducting diplomatic trade missions on behalf of the ruler to secure exotic goods and political leverage.^[13] Religious rituals formed a core aspect of pochteca life, centered on devotion to their patron deity, Yacatecuhtli, the "Lord Who Guides," whom they honored through elaborate ceremonies to ensure safe journeys and prosperous trades. Before expeditions, merchants performed offerings at shrines, wrapping paper around their walking staves as symbolic effigies of the god, accompanied by incense, quail sacrifices, and fasting to invoke protection. Annual festivals dedicated to Yacatecuhtli involved communal feasts where pochteca were seated according to rank, featuring ritual dances, mock battles to simulate trade perils, and offerings of goods like cacao and feathers; these events reinforced guild solidarity and divine favor. Human sacrifices, often conducted by affiliated slave dealers or ritual bathers, were integral to major ceremonies, believed to sustain the gods and secure the merchants' success. Upon returning from trips or during funerals, they held cremation rites with painted faces mimicking Yacatecuhtli, burning personal belongings to honor the deceased and maintain spiritual continuity.^[13]^[14] Family and inheritance customs emphasized the perpetuation of trade expertise within the guild, though membership was not strictly hereditary. Parents could petition for their sons to enter apprenticeship as youths, typically organized under a designated leader who trained them in practical skills, route navigation, and the imperative of trade secrecy to protect guild interests. This education instilled a lifelong commitment to the pochteca way of life, with sons learning to uphold the internal codes that governed their operations. Identity markers, such as distinctive hairstyles and attire reserved for merchants, further symbolized their status, though specific tattoos were not universally documented as formal identifiers.^[13]

Organizational Structure

Guild Systems and Urban Bases

The pochteca operated within specialized guild structures known as calpulli, which served as communal organizations integrating residential, economic, and social functions in Aztec urban centers. In Tenochtitlan, these calpulli were concentrated in the Pochteca quarter, a designated district that housed members of the guilds and facilitated their operations alongside the broader city layout. This quarter included collective housing arrangements for the approximately 12 pochteca guilds, each tied to specific urban centers in the Basin of Mexico, such as Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco, allowing merchants to maintain exclusive barrios for living and conducting business.^[13] A key component of the pochteca's urban framework was the Tlatelolco market, a vast dedicated marketplace adjacent to Tenochtitlan that functioned as the primary hub for guild activities, where principal merchants oversaw the exchange of diverse goods ranging from local produce to exotic imports. Guild membership was highly selective and largely hereditary, restricted to the sons of existing pochteca, though exceptions could be granted by guild headmen with the approval of city leaders; entry required demonstrating professional aptitude through apprenticeship, often beginning with parental petitions to guild elders. Initiation rites emphasized communal obligations, including ritual offerings to deities like Yacatecutli before trade expeditions, which were timed to auspicious days in the calendar to ensure success and divine favor.^[13] Urban infrastructure supporting the guilds included warehouses for storing exotic imports and tribute items, such as bins in Tlatelolco for maize, cotton, and prestige goods acquired through long-distance trade, managed collectively to safeguard communal assets. Training for apprentices occurred primarily through on-the-job immersion during supervised trade journeys, where novices learned negotiation, route navigation, and cultural protocols under the guidance of senior members, reinforcing the guild's internal cohesion and operational secrecy. These elements underscored the pochteca calpulli's role as semi-autonomous enclaves, exempt from standard agricultural duties and subject to their own judicial systems overseen by headmen.^[15]

Internal Leadership and Training

The pochteca guilds maintained internal cohesion through a structured leadership system headed by the pochteca tlatoque, or merchant chiefs, selected from the elder ranks of experienced traders who no longer undertook journeys themselves, as described in early accounts of their origins in Tlatelolco.^[16] These leaders directed guild operations from urban bases and ensured alignment with imperial interests.^[9] A council of fellow elders, known as the pochteca tlatoque collectively, supported the primary leader by adjudicating internal disputes, coordinating large-scale expedition planning, and regulating marketplace activities to prevent conflicts among members.^[17] Young pochteca underwent rigorous training regimens under the guidance of these elders, beginning as apprentices or "neophytes" who accompanied seasoned traders on initial expeditions to learn practical expertise.^[18] This education emphasized survival skills essential for perilous long-distance travel, including self-defense tactics akin to warrior training, navigation through hostile territories, and logistical management of caravans to evade attacks or ambushes.^[9] Additionally, trainees acquired knowledge of regional dialects and customs to negotiate effectively with distant trade partners, fostering diplomatic relations that doubled as intelligence gathering for the empire.^[9] Ethical codes governed pochteca conduct to preserve guild integrity and state loyalty, strictly prohibiting ostentatious displays of wealth that could provoke noble envy or excessive profiteering that undermined fair exchange.^[9] Violations, such as betrayal through revealing trade secrets or engaging in unauthorized dealings, triggered severe disciplinary measures enforced by the council, ranging from public reprimands to expulsion from the guild to deter disloyalty. Succession planning reinforced hereditary ties, with leadership roles preferentially passing through family lines within the guild to safeguard specialized knowledge and maintain exclusivity.^[9]

Merchant Types and Specializations

Categories of Pochteca

The pochteca comprised diverse professional roles differentiated by the commodities they handled, the distances they traveled, and their methods of operation, as documented in ethnohistorical accounts from the Aztec period. Primary types included the oztomeca, specialized long-distance traders who focused on procuring luxury items essential for elite consumption and imperial tribute; these merchants were known for their expertise in navigating trade routes and transporting high-value goods like jade and quetzal feathers, which were sourced from distant regions to adorn nobility.^[19]^[20] Another key category was the naualoztomeca, or "disguised merchants," who operated covertly to acquire rare and exotic commodities, often in unfriendly territories; they adopted local attire, languages, and customs to avoid detection while trading items such as precious feathers, amber ornaments, and obsidian tools, reporting valuable intelligence on foreign regions back to Aztec rulers as part of their expeditions.^[21] Historical records, including those compiled by early colonial chroniclers based on indigenous testimonies, describe their role in sourcing such goods from areas like the Guatemalan highlands before formal conquests, highlighting their dual function as traders and scouts.^[21] Role overlaps were common, with generalist pochteca managing everyday local market exchanges of staples like cotton textiles in urban centers, while specialists like the oztomeca and naualoztomeca concentrated on imperial demands for prestige goods, blurring lines during large-scale expeditions where teams combined retail and elite procurement tasks.^[19]

Hierarchies and Divisions of Labor

The pochteca operated within a highly structured hierarchical system that emphasized experience, specialization, and communal oversight, as detailed in the ethnographic accounts compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún. At the apex were the principal merchants (puchtecatzintli), elder leaders who oversaw guild operations, judged internal disputes, and represented the group in diplomatic capacities with the Aztec state; these veterans typically earned their status through decades of successful long-distance voyages and demonstrated reliability. Below them ranked general merchants (pochtecatl), who handled core trading activities, followed by specialized roles such as vanguard merchants (oztomecatl) tasked with scouting routes and leading expeditions—positions restricted to experienced traders from five key cities like Tlatelolco. Lower tiers included slave dealers (tecoani), exchange dealers (tlaptlac), and slave bathers (tealtiani), with novices or youths starting at the base as apprentices carrying lighter loads during caravans to build endurance and knowledge. Promotions within this tiered system were merit-based, hinging on the completion of successful trading voyages that proved a merchant's acumen in navigation, negotiation, and survival amid perils like ambushes; apprenticeships often began in youth, initiated by family ties, and advanced only after years of supervised participation in expeditions, ensuring loyalty and skill before full guild membership. This progression fostered a clear chain of command, where elder leaders mentored subordinates and allocated resources for voyages, reinforcing the pochteca's role as a semi-autonomous yet state-aligned entity. Seating arrangements at communal feasts and meetings further symbolized these ranks, with principals at the head and novices at the periphery, underscoring the value placed on accumulated expertise. Divisions of labor extended across age and gender lines, integrating family networks into the guild's operations while maintaining distinct roles to optimize efficiency. Younger members, often boys from pochteca families, served as porters or assistants on local or short-haul trips, gradually transitioning to full traders as they aged and gained proficiency; elders, conversely, focused on strategic planning, dispute resolution, and ritual leadership rather than physical travel. Women participated as merchant members (pochtecacioa), managing ancillary trades like textile production or market exchanges tied to the men's networks, though they were barred from vanguard scouting roles due to the dangers involved; some took on specialized tasks such as preparing slaves for sale, blending domestic skills with guild economics. This gendered and age-based allocation allowed the pochteca to sustain continuous operations across urban bases and remote routes. Internal conflicts arose from competition over lucrative routes and trade privileges, with principal merchants acting as judges to impose severe penalties—such as fines, expulsion, or even death—for infractions like theft or betrayal during voyages; these rulings maintained order within the guild's hostels (calli) across twelve affiliated cities. Collaborations were equally vital, as pochteca from different urban guilds united in large caravans for mutual protection against bandits and rival traders from other polities, sharing intelligence and resources under the patronage of their deity Yacatecuhtli to ensure safe passage and collective success. Such dynamics highlighted the pochteca's balance between rivalry and solidarity, essential for their economic and espionage functions in the Aztec Empire.

Economic Contributions

Traded Goods and Trade Routes

The pochteca, as professional long-distance merchants in the Aztec Empire, specialized in exchanging high-value commodities that were not locally abundant, facilitating the flow of luxury and essential goods across Mesoamerica. Key imports included cacao beans from the tropical lowlands of the Gulf Coast and Soconusco region, vanilla from southern Veracruz and the Guatemalan highlands, and turquoise sourced from Mesoamerican deposits, including regions in central and southern Mexico such as the Mixteca.^[22]^[23] These merchants also brought back other prestige items like quetzal feathers, jadeite, marine shells, and gold, which were highly prized by Aztec nobility for adornment and ritual use.^[22] In exchange, pochteca exported Basin of Mexico products such as finely woven textiles, prismatic obsidian tools from sources like Otumba, and intricate goldwork crafted by specialized artisans.^[22] According to Bernardino de Sahagún's accounts in the Florentine Codex, early trade focused on feathers but expanded to include embroidered clothing, precious stones, animal skins, and chocolate, underscoring the diversification of pochteca commerce. Pochteca traversed extensive overland routes, often spanning hundreds of miles, to connect the Aztec heartland with peripheral regions, navigating challenging terrain and political boundaries. A primary path was the approximately 200-mile journey from Tenochtitlan to the Gulf Coast, passing through key waypoints like Xocotla in the Tochpan province to access ports for acquiring tropical goods such as cacao and feathers.^[22] Western routes extended to Michoacán, where merchants traded for metals and other resources despite resistance from Tarascan polities, involving arduous overland travel through mountainous areas.^[22] These expeditions, conducted in large, armed caravans for protection, faced significant risks including tolls or tariffs imposed by local rulers along the way and ambushes by bandits or hostile groups, which could result in the loss of goods or even assassination of traders.^[22] Trade was predominantly conducted through barter systems, with no standardized coinage, relying on negotiated exchanges based on relative scarcity and demand. Cacao beans served as a de facto currency equivalent, used to price and settle transactions for both bulk and luxury items, with their value reflecting their role in beverages, rituals, and as a store of wealth—often equivalent to small denominations of copper or cloth.^[22] This mechanism allowed pochteca to balance loads on their journeys, carrying lightweight, high-value exports southward and returning with bulky imports, thereby optimizing the efficiency of their circuits despite the absence of wheeled transport or draft animals.^[22]

Impact on Aztec Economy and Expansion

The pochteca significantly bolstered the Aztec economy by importing luxury goods such as feathers, cacao, jade, and exotic textiles from distant regions, which sustained elite consumption and reinforced social hierarchies. These imports complemented the tribute system, providing the nobility with symbols of status and power that were not readily available through local production or standard tribute levies. Additionally, as market overseers and judges in major marketplaces like Tlatelolco, the pochteca facilitated the collection of taxes on transactions, generating supplemental revenue that supported imperial administration and infrastructure.^[24]^[25] Beyond commerce, the pochteca played a pivotal role in Aztec territorial expansion by functioning as intelligence gatherers during their travels. Disguised as merchants, they mapped routes, assessed provincial defenses, and reported on potential allies or enemies, enabling strategic military campaigns. This espionage was instrumental in conquests such as the Aztec incursions into Mixtec territories in the 1450s, where gathered information on local resources and weaknesses facilitated the extension of imperial control into Oaxaca.^[26]^[27] The Aztec economy's dependence on pochteca for long-distance imports exposed key vulnerabilities, particularly during periods of famine when local agriculture faltered due to drought or crop failure. Pochteca caravans brought in essential foodstuffs like maize, beans, and salt from surplus regions, providing critical relief to Tenochtitlan's population and preventing widespread starvation. However, this reliance underscored the empire's fragility, as interruptions in trade—due to warfare, banditry, or political unrest—could intensify shortages and destabilize urban centers.^[28]^[29]

Post-Conquest Developments

Immediate Effects of Spanish Arrival

The arrival of Hernán Cortés and his forces in 1519 initiated a period of profound disruption for the pochteca, as the conquest campaign directly targeted the Aztec capital where their guilds were centered. During the Siege of Tenochtitlan from May to August 1521, the pochteca's operational networks were severely disrupted by blockades and defection of allied city-states, contributing to starvation and supply shortages within the city.^[30] The fall of Tenochtitlan on August 13, 1521, marked the collapse of the pochteca's operational base, with Spanish forces razing much of the city, including the vital Tlatelolco marketplace—a sprawling hub that facilitated daily exchanges of goods handled by pochteca caravans and local vendors. This destruction severed long-distance trade routes that had extended across Mesoamerica, halting the flow of luxury items like feathers, cacao, and jade that the pochteca specialized in transporting. Starvation, disease, and combat within the besieged city claimed countless lives, including many merchants trapped inside.^[31] In the aftermath, colonial rule eroded the pochteca guilds' formal structures and political autonomy, as indigenous economic systems were subordinated to Spanish priorities. While the encomienda system redirected much indigenous labor toward tribute extraction, mines, and agriculture, professional merchants like the pochteca adapted by shifting to private trade in colonial commodities such as cacao. Traditional guild hierarchies, which had regulated training, routes, and dispute resolution, diminished under colonial oversight.^[32]

Decline and Cultural Legacy

Following the Spanish conquest, the structured guilds of the pochteca rapidly disintegrated as colonial authorities imposed trade monopolies and reoriented economic systems toward Spanish interests. The pochteca class, which had previously dominated long-distance commerce in luxury goods like cacao, was effectively replaced by European merchants who integrated indigenous products into a cash-based economy, relegating surviving indigenous traders to informal peddling in the following decades.^[33] This transition marked the end of the pochteca as a formalized institution, with their roles absorbed or marginalized within the broader colonial framework. Despite this suppression, traces of pochteca traditions persisted in everyday Mexican culture, particularly in market practices that echoed pre-Columbian commerce. Nahuatl terms for markets, such as tianguis (from tianquiztli, meaning "marketplace"), continue to describe vibrant open-air markets across modern Mexico, where informal vendors sell goods in a manner reminiscent of Aztec-era exchanges.^[34] These enduring linguistic and spatial elements highlight the resilience of indigenous economic customs amid colonial disruption and later modernization. In the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars rediscovered the pochteca through ethnohistorical analysis of colonial codices, archaeological findings, and ethnographic records, reshaping perceptions of Mesoamerican trade as sophisticated and integral to empire-building. Pioneering works, such as those by Frances F. Berdan, synthesized these sources to emphasize the pochteca's roles in diplomacy, espionage, and cultural exchange, influencing contemporary views of pre-Columbian economies as dynamic networks rather than mere tribute systems.^[35] This scholarly revival, grounded in interdisciplinary methods, has informed broader narratives of indigenous agency and economic innovation in the Americas.

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The Pulque Trade of Late Colonial Mexico City* | The Americas
Dec 11, 2015 · ... pochteca class of merchants which had controlled its distribution. ... Building a Colonial Resource Monopoly: the Expansion of Sulphur ...
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Why Indigenous Slavery Continued in Spanish America after the ...
Aug 7, 2023 · The New Laws of 1542 put an end to further enslavement of indios (Indigenous people of the Spanish Indies, a category invented by Europeans) in Spanish America.
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tianquiztli. - Nahuatl Dictionary - Wired Humanities Projects
marketplace. most often seen in locative, tiānquizco. originally a -liztli noun from tiāmiqui. James Lockhart, Nahuatl as Written: Lessons in Older Written ...
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Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory
This book provides an up-to-date synthesis of Aztec culture, applying interdisciplinary approaches (archaeology, ethnohistory and ethnography) to ...