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Polaroid

Polaroid Corporation is an American technology company best known for inventing and commercializing instant photography, a process that allows users to produce self-developing photographs within seconds of exposure.^[1] Founded in 1937 by physicist and inventor Edwin H. Land, the company initially focused on polarizing light filters for applications like sunglasses and optical equipment before pivoting to photography innovations.^[2]^[3] The concept of instant photography emerged in 1943 when Land, inspired by his daughter's question during a family vacation, envisioned a one-step system that would develop both a negative and a positive image in a single, dry process using silver halide chemistry and reagent pods.^[4] This led to the public demonstration of the technology on February 21, 1947, during a meeting of the Optical Society of America in New York City, and the launch of the first Polaroid Land Camera, Model 95, in 1948, which produced sepia-toned prints requiring manual development.^[1] Black-and-white instant film followed in 1950, transforming photography into an immediate, accessible medium that eliminated the need for darkrooms.^[5] Key advancements included the introduction of Polacolor, the first one-step color instant film, in 1963, which used dye developers and acid polymers for stabilization, and the SX-70 camera in 1972, featuring integral, peel-apart-free film that developed in under a minute.^[1]^[3] These innovations propelled Polaroid to dominate the market, capturing two-thirds of U.S. instant photography sales by 1977, and influencing cultural practices from artistic expression to scientific imaging, including contributions to U.S. spy satellite programs.^[5]^[3] Despite setbacks, such as the commercial failure of Polavision instant movie film in the late 1970s amid competition from video formats, Polaroid's influence persisted until the digital revolution eroded demand for film-based products.^[3] The company ceased instant film production in 2008 but was revived through initiatives like The Impossible Project, which preserved the technology, leading to the modern Polaroid brand's relaunch with contemporary products like the compact Polaroid Go, the manual-control I-2 camera, and the Polaroid Flip.^[2]^[6] Today, Polaroid continues as a symbol of analog creativity, emphasizing instant photography tools for a digital age.^[2]

History

Founding and early development

The Polaroid Corporation was founded in 1937 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by inventor Edwin H. Land and Harvard physics instructor George Wheelwright III as a successor to their earlier Land-Wheelwright Laboratories, which had been established around 1932 to commercialize Land's polarizing technology; the company was officially incorporated under the name Polaroid Corporation that year to reflect its focus on polarizing materials.^[7]^[1] Land, who had left Harvard without completing his degree, had already filed for his first patent on synthetic polarizing material in 1929, which was granted in 1933; this material consisted of tiny iodoquinine sulfate crystals aligned within a polymer matrix, such as polyvinyl alcohol, to selectively transmit or block light waves.^[8]^[9] Commercial production began in the mid-1930s, with initial applications in products like J.H. Dallmeyer polarizing filters sold through Eastman Kodak starting in 1934, followed by broader consumer uses such as sunglasses and optical devices by 1936.^[8]^[10] Early commercialization extended to entertainment and scientific tools, including polarizing sheets for 3D movies demonstrated at the 1939 New York World's Fair, where Polaroid's Vectograph process created three-dimensional images without glasses.^[1] However, the company faced significant financial hurdles in the late 1930s and early 1940s, incurring losses of about $100,000 in 1940 amid slow market adoption and production scaling issues, which nearly led to bankruptcy.^[11] These challenges were alleviated by World War II government contracts, which boosted sales to $1 million by 1941 through supplies of polarized visors for pilots to reduce glare, infrared filters for night-vision devices, and other military optics; such wartime demand provided crucial stability and funding for further research.^[11]^[12] A pivotal shift occurred in 1947 when Land, inspired by a question from his three-year-old daughter about why photographs could not develop instantly during a 1943 family vacation, demonstrated a working prototype of one-step instant photography to the Polaroid board and later publicly at a meeting of the Optical Society of America in New York City on February 21.^[1]^[13] This black-and-white process used a peel-apart film pack where diffusion of developers through a pod created a positive image in about 60 seconds, marking the transition from polarization to instant imaging as Polaroid's core innovation. The enthusiasm from the demonstration prompted rapid commercialization, culminating in the release of the first product, the Polaroid Land Camera Model 95, on November 26, 1948, at a Boston department store; priced at $89.95, it included an initial film pack and produced sepia-toned prints measuring 3.25 by 4.25 inches.^[1]^[11] Over 1.5 million units of the Model 95 were sold by 1953, establishing instant photography as a viable consumer technology.^[14]

Growth and innovations

In the 1960s, Polaroid significantly expanded its operations and technological capabilities, most notably with the introduction of instant color film in 1963 through the Polacolor process, which utilized dye diffusion transfer to produce vibrant color prints in under a minute.^[15]^[16] This breakthrough built on earlier black-and-white instant systems and propelled the company into broader market dominance, as color photography became a key driver of consumer demand. By the late 1960s, Polaroid had established international subsidiaries, including in Frankfurt, Germany, for Europe and Nippon Polaroid Kabushiki Kaisha in Japan for Asia, facilitating global distribution and sales growth.^[11] The company's workforce reflected this period of rapid scaling, reaching a peak employment of nearly 21,000 globally by 1978, underscoring its transformation into a major industrial player.^[17] A pivotal milestone came in 1972 with the launch of the SX-70 camera, Polaroid's first fully integral one-step instant system that eliminated the need for separate negative and positive sheets, featured automatic exposure control, a compact folding design, and a development time of just 10 seconds. The SX-70's innovative engineering and sleek aesthetics captured widespread acclaim, with sales exceeding 415,000 units in 1973 alone as national distribution ramped up following initial limited releases in late 1972.^[18] Subsequent innovations aimed to extend Polaroid's instant technology beyond still photography, though with mixed results. In 1977, the company introduced Polavision, an instant movie system that processed 8mm color film cartridges in minutes for immediate playback on a dedicated viewer, but it was discontinued by 1979 after selling only about 60,000 units due to its high cost, lack of sound, and short recording time.^[19] Building on earlier autofocusing experiments, Polaroid integrated its Sonar ultrasonic rangefinder technology into the 600 series cameras starting in 1981, enhancing user-friendliness with automatic focus for sharper images in the integral film format.^[20] These developments contributed to sustained market leadership in instant photography, culminating in peak annual revenue of $3 billion by 1991.^[21] Corporate leadership underwent a significant transition during this era of innovation and expansion. Founder Edwin Land resigned as CEO in 1980 amid challenges from ventures like Polavision and growing pressure to diversify beyond core photography products, fully departing the board in 1982 as the company shifted toward broader technological applications.^[22]^[23]

Decline and diversification

Beginning in the 1980s, Polaroid faced intensifying competition from 35mm film cameras, disposable cameras, and emerging digital imaging technologies, which eroded its dominance in the instant photography market.^[24] The company's revenue, which had peaked at $3 billion in 1991, declined sharply to approximately $1.8 billion by 2000 as consumer preferences shifted toward faster and cheaper alternatives like one-hour photo processing and digital capture.^[25] This downturn was exacerbated by economic challenges, including a severe contraction in the Russian market from $200 million in sales in 1995 to just $25 million in 1998.^[26] A significant legal victory provided temporary relief amid these pressures: in 1976, Polaroid sued Eastman Kodak for patent infringement related to instant film technology, a case that dragged on for 15 years until Kodak agreed to a $925 million settlement in 1991, including $873 million in damages and $52 million in interest.^[27] The settlement forced Kodak to withdraw its competing instant products from the market, bolstering Polaroid's position briefly. However, ongoing market erosion prompted aggressive workforce reductions; from a peak of 21,000 employees in 1978, the company cut 1,570 jobs (15% of staff) in 1995, another 1,500 (15%) in 1997, and 600 to 700 in 1998, shrinking to about 6,700 by 2001.^[28] These measures reflected failed attempts to acquire or integrate other imaging firms and broader diversification missteps that failed to offset core business losses. To counter its reliance on instant film, Polaroid pursued diversification in the 1980s and 1990s, entering markets like floppy disks—launching its own brand of 5¼-inch disks in 1985 and later 3.5-inch versions—and LCD screens for consumer electronics such as televisions.^[26] It also invested heavily in medical imaging, introducing the Helios system in 1993 for recording diagnostic images via laser printing on instant film media, but abandoned the venture in 1996 after sinking around $800 million with minimal market traction, eventually selling the unit at a loss.^[26] These efforts, while innovative, yielded limited success and diverted resources from core competencies. As bankruptcy loomed in the late 1990s, Polaroid shifted toward digital technologies, allocating 42% of its research and development budget to digital imaging by 1989 and developing prototypes like a 1-megapixel digital camera as early as 1992, though commercial release was delayed until 1996.^[29] By the late 1990s, it had become a leading seller of digital cameras, but the transition faltered due to a strategic emphasis on preserving profitable analog film sales, which management viewed as irreplaceable for delivering physical prints to consumers.^[29] This hesitation, rooted in the enduring success of products like the SX-70, ultimately undermined the company's ability to adapt fully to the digital era.

Technology

Polarizing filters

The H-sheet polarizer, a foundational invention of Polaroid Corporation founder Edwin H. Land, was developed in 1938 as an improved synthetic material for polarizing light. This polarizer consists of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer sheets that are mechanically stretched to align the molecular chains, then impregnated with iodine to create a dichroic structure capable of selectively absorbing light waves. The aligned iodine molecules within the PVA form a transmission axis that allows light vibrations parallel to it to pass through while blocking those perpendicular, effectively reducing glare from reflected light by filtering out horizontally polarized components.^[30]^[31] Polaroid's polarizing technology debuted commercially in 1935 with the introduction of Polaroid J sunglasses, which utilized the J-sheet polarizer. The improved H-sheet polarizer was developed in 1938. During World War II, the company ramped up production of polarizing filters for military applications, including periscopes, rangefinders, binoculars, and infrared night-viewing devices, where the filters enhanced visibility in low-light conditions and reduced distracting reflections in optical systems. By 1944, these filters were integrated into every U.S. fire-control instrument, and protective polarizing goggles were issued to combatants and even military animals like dogs and mules.^[8]^[12]^[1] Beyond consumer and military uses, Polaroid's polarizing sheets found extensive industrial applications in scientific instruments, such as optical microscopes, where they enabled precise control of light polarization for detailed imaging and analysis. In engineering, the sheets were essential for photoelasticity, a technique that visualizes stress distributions in transparent models by placing them between crossed polarizers; under polarized light, stressed regions produce colorful interference fringes revealing principal stress directions and magnitudes, aiding in the design of structures like bridges and aircraft components. Additionally, polarizing materials were explored for automotive windshields and headlights to mitigate nighttime glare, with Land proposing systems where perpendicular polarizers on opposing vehicles could extinguish incoming light beams, though widespread adoption was limited by alignment challenges.^[7]^[32]^[33] In the 1950s, Polaroid advanced its technology with the development of neutral-density polarizers, which combined polarization with uniform light reduction to serve as photographic filters, allowing photographers to control exposure without altering color balance or manage reflections in landscape and portrait shots. Production of polarizing sheets scaled dramatically during the 1940s, driven by wartime demands, reaching millions of units annually to supply optical components for military and civilian needs. The name "Polaroid" originated from the concept of polarizing light, derived from the company's early focus on sheet polarizers, and by 1980, the firm had amassed over 500 patents related to polarization technologies, reflecting Land's extensive innovations in the field.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37]

Instant film processes

Polaroid's instant film processes rely on diffusion transfer reversal, a chemical mechanism where unexposed silver halide grains are solubilized and migrate to form a positive image while exposed grains develop in place to create the negative.^[38] The peel-apart process, introduced in 1948 with the Model 95 camera and Type 40 roll film, uses a pod of viscous reagents spread between a negative sheet and a receiving sheet by camera rollers.^[38] This alkaline developer, containing potassium hydroxide, reduces exposed silver halide to metallic silver on the negative while dissolving unexposed halide with a silver solvent like hypo, allowing it to diffuse to the receiving sheet for reduction into the positive image.^[38] Black-and-white peel-apart films, such as Type 41 from 1950, typically required about 60 seconds of development before peeling, while early color versions like Polacolor from 1963 needed around 60 seconds due to the complexity of dye transfer.^[38] The integral film process, launched in 1972 with SX-70 film, eliminated peeling by incorporating all layers into a single unit that self-processes after ejection.^[38] An opaque pod bursts to spread reagents evenly, including potassium hydroxide as the alkaline developer and titanium dioxide as a white pigment for opacity.^[39] Development occurs in about 10 seconds for initial visibility, with full image formation in 60 seconds, facilitated by an opacification layer of dyes like naphthalein that block light at high pH and clear upon neutralization.^[38] A timing layer, a dissolving plastic spacer, delays the reagent's contact with an acid polymer layer, controlling the pH drop to halt development and fix the image by insolubilizing remaining silver halide.^[39] In both processes, color image formation involves cyan, magenta, and yellow dye developers that migrate differentially based on exposure: in unexposed areas, they diffuse to a mordant layer to form the image, while exposed areas immobilize the dyes via silver halide reduction.^[40] The reagent pod's potassium hydroxide activates these dyes, with titanium dioxide providing the opaque backing needed for light-sensitive processing in integral films.^[39] Fixation prevents further development by the pH shift in integral films or physical separation in peel-apart types, ensuring image stability.^[38] Key formats include Type 100 peel-apart film, measuring 3.25 by 4.25 inches overall with a 2.9 by 3.7-inch image area, used from the 1960s onward.^[41] Type 600 integral film, introduced in the 1980s for 600-series cameras, features a 4.2 by 3.5-inch format with a 3.1 by 3.1-inch square image area.^[42] The modern i-Type format, launched in 2017 as a battery-free evolution of Type 600 chemistry, shares the same dimensions and supports newer cameras without integrated power sources.^[42] Technical challenges in these processes include achieving uniform reagent spread across wide temperature ranges, as development slows below 13°C (55°F) or accelerates above 28°C (82°F), potentially causing uneven opacification or color shifts.^[43] Fixation timing must precisely balance to avoid overdevelopment, particularly in integral films where the timing layer's dissolution rate varies with environmental conditions.^[38]

Products

Instant cameras

Polaroid's instant cameras began with the Model 95, introduced in 1948 as the company's first commercial instant photography device. This bellows-style folding camera featured a fixed-focus lens and manual exposure controls, requiring users to pull a film tab after each shot and peel apart the layers after a 60-second development time to reveal sepia-toned images.^[1] Priced at $95, it marked the debut of one-step photography and sold out rapidly upon launch at a Boston department store.^[44] The lineup evolved in the 1950s and 1960s with the Model 100 series, which introduced pack film and automatic features for broader appeal. The Automatic 100 Land Camera, released in 1963, incorporated an electric eye light meter and transistorized electronic shutter for simplified exposure adjustments, transitioning from roll film to more convenient square pack film formats.^[44] These models emphasized portability and ease of use, setting the stage for consumer-focused designs while maintaining manual elements like rangefinder focusing in some variants. Folding cameras reached a pinnacle with the SX-70 in 1972, a single-lens reflex model with a lightweight plastic body, motorized film ejection, and fully automatic exposure that produced square prints developing in about 8 seconds without peeling.^[1] Its innovative integral film and compact folding mechanism made it a design icon, with over 700,000 units sold in the first 18 months alone. To enhance accessibility, the 1977 OneStep model simplified operations further with a fixed-focus plastic body and built-in flash, retailing for $39 to target everyday consumers.^[45] In the 1980s and 1990s, the 600 series expanded the integral film era with built-in electronic flash units standard across models, while advanced variants like the 660 incorporated Sonar autofocus using ultrasonic sensors for sharper results at distances from 3 feet to infinity.^[46] The Spectra/Image system, launched in 1986, shifted to rectangular widescreen prints measuring approximately 4.0 x 4.1 inches overall with a 3.6 x 2.9-inch image area, featuring improved Quintic optics in a 125mm f/10 lens for enhanced clarity and a more cinematic aspect ratio.^[47] Modern revivals under Polaroid Originals and later the Polaroid brand breathed new life into analog instant photography after the discontinuation of original production in 2008. The 2016 OneStep 2 paid homage to the classic with manual exposure controls, a USB-rechargeable battery, and compatibility with i-Type film for creative adjustments like light painting.^[48] The 2020s Now series introduced autofocus via dual-lens switching for near and far subjects, along with USB-C charging for up to 15 film packs per full charge, blending vintage aesthetics with contemporary conveniences like app integration in the Now+ model.^[49] The Polaroid I-2, released in 2023, was the first analog instant camera with built-in manual controls, including aperture and focus adjustments, paired with a sharp 93mm f/8 lens.^[50] In 2025, the Polaroid Now Generation 3 added enhanced autofocus and improved battery life. Production of compatible analog cameras and film resumed in 2010 through partners like The Impossible Project (now Polaroid Originals), ensuring the format's survival amid digital dominance.^[51]

Film and accessories

Polaroid's instant film began with the black-and-white Type 40 roll film in 1948, which produced sepia-toned prints measuring approximately 3.25 x 4.25 inches and required manual development by spreading a reagent between negative and positive sheets.^[52] This was followed by the introduction of color capabilities with Polacolor Type 108 pack film in 1963, a peel-apart format offering 75 ISO color prints in the same size, marking the first widely available instant color film from the company.^[53] Peel-apart films, including Types 100 and 600 series variants, dominated Polaroid's offerings through the late 20th century but were discontinued in 2008 as the company shifted focus to more user-friendly integral formats.^[54] Integral films, which self-develop without peeling, persisted and evolved, starting with the SX-70 format in 1972 and continuing in modern lines. In 2017, Polaroid launched i-Type film, a battery-free integral format compatible with new i-Type and select vintage 600 series cameras, available in both color and black-and-white variants with 8 exposures per pack and an ISO of 640.^[55] Each i-Type pack typically retails for around $19, producing square 3.1 x 3.1-inch images on a 4.25 x 3.5-inch card with white borders, emphasizing vibrant, nostalgic aesthetics.^[56] For smaller formats, Polaroid introduced Go Generation film in 2021 alongside the compact Go camera, featuring 16 miniature square exposures per double pack (image size 1.85 x 1.85 inches) at ISO 640, designed for portable, on-the-go photography without built-in batteries.^[57] Accessories for Polaroid films and cameras include neutral density filters to reduce light exposure in bright conditions, enabling better results in sunny environments, and close-up lenses that attach to the camera lens for macro-style instant shots as near as 1.5 feet.^[58] Early flash options, such as the 1977 GE Flash Bar II for SX-70 models, provided 20 electronic flashes per disposable unit, enhancing low-light performance with automatic exposure coordination.^[59] Contemporary creative kits offer add-ons like color frames, stickers, and mounting borders to customize prints post-development, fostering artistic experimentation. Film packaging has diversified with the square i-Type format since 2017, maintaining the classic 4.25 x 3.5-inch card size for broad compatibility, while Go film uses a smaller 2.6 x 2.1-inch format for pocketable output.^[56] Limited-edition variants, such as duotone Duochrome films in colors like green or yellow, have been released annually since around 2010 by the Impossible Project (now Polaroid) to revive expired chemistry experiments, offering split-tone effects for artistic applications; metallic-effect films, like silver-shimmer editions, provide enhanced sheen for special collections.^[60] By the 2020s, Polaroid's annual film pack production and sales exceeded 20 million units, reflecting sustained demand amid the instant photography revival.^[61] Large-format films, such as 8x10 integral sheets, remain compatible with third-party backs like those from GrafiPack or Toyo, allowing integration with view cameras for professional studio use.^[58]

Other technologies

In addition to its core imaging technologies, Polaroid ventured into consumer electronics and data storage during the late 20th century. One notable foray was Polavision, an instant movie system launched in 1977 that aimed to extend instant photography principles to motion pictures. The system utilized 8mm film cartridges capable of recording up to 40 seconds of color footage, which developed automatically upon exposure and could be viewed immediately through a self-contained projector or player without the need for separate processing equipment. Priced at around $699 for the basic camera kit—equivalent to over $3,000 in today's dollars—it featured no audio recording, grainy image quality, and limited cartridge length, which hindered its appeal for home use. Despite heavy investment exceeding $200 million in research, development, and marketing, Polavision achieved poor sales, prompting retailers to slash prices by up to 60% by late 1979; the company wrote off $68 million in inventory and commitments that year, leading to production cessation by early 1980 amid rising competition from videotape formats like Betamax and VHS.^[62]^[63]^[64] Polaroid also diversified into magnetic media storage in the 1980s, producing its own line of branded floppy disks to capitalize on the growing personal computer market. These included 5.25-inch double-sided/double-density (DSDD) and high-density (HD) variants, as well as 3.5-inch disks, marketed for data backup and software distribution in DOS-based systems. The disks were manufactured during a period of rapid PC adoption, remaining in use for computing applications into the early 2000s before optical and solid-state storage rendered them obsolete. This effort represented Polaroid's attempt to leverage its precision manufacturing expertise beyond photography, though it did not become a major revenue driver.^[65] In the scientific and medical fields, Polaroid applied its polarizing filter technology to specialized instruments starting in the mid-20th century. During the 1950s, the company's sheet polarizers were integral to polarizing microscopes used for analyzing birefringent materials in geology, biology, and materials science, enhancing contrast in crystalline structures without chemical stains. By the 1990s, Polaroid contributed to display technologies through polarizing films for active-matrix liquid crystal displays (LCDs), supporting advancements in flat-panel screens for professional and consumer applications. These efforts underscored Polaroid's role in optical components for precision equipment.^[66] Polaroid's innovations extended to news media transmission in the mid-20th century, where its instant film facilitated rapid photo sharing via wire services. In the 1950s and 1960s, journalists used Polaroid cameras to capture on-site images that were immediately developed and scanned for Wirephoto transmission— an analog facsimile system sending pictures over telephone lines to news agencies like the Associated Press. This allowed real-time dissemination of breaking news visuals, such as event coverage, before digital methods emerged, with examples including 1957 transmissions of Polaroid shots from press events. The technology bridged instant photography with telegraphy, accelerating photojournalism workflows until satellite and digital alternatives supplanted it in the 1970s.^[67] Post-bankruptcy, Polaroid's intellectual property, including its polarizing lens patents, sustained non-photographic product lines through licensing agreements. The sunglasses division, operated independently via Polaroid Eyewear (a Swiss-based subsidiary unaffected by the 2001 U.S. filing), continued producing frames with integrated polarized lenses that reduce glare by filtering horizontal light waves. These lenses, originally invented by Polaroid founder Edwin Land in 1929, remain available today in various styles for men, women, and children, emphasizing UV protection and enhanced visual clarity for outdoor activities. Licensing has ensured the brand's persistence in eyewear, generating steady revenue outside core imaging.^[68]^[69]^[70]

Corporate changes

Bankruptcy proceedings

In October 2001, Polaroid Corporation filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the U.S. Bankruptcy Court for the District of Delaware, citing approximately $950 million in debt amid a sharp decline in instant film sales driven by the rise of digital photography and the expiration of key patents that had previously protected its technology from competitors.^[70]^[71] The filing listed assets valued at about $1.81 billion, including intellectual property and manufacturing facilities, but the company's inability to adapt to digital imaging had eroded its market position, with quarterly losses reaching $109.9 million in the period ending July 2001.^[71]^[72] Under court oversight, Polaroid sought to reorganize by selling assets to pay creditors, culminating in a 2002 auction where its core operations were acquired by One Equity Partners, a private equity arm of JPMorgan Chase, for $255 million in cash plus a 35 percent equity interest to unsecured creditors and assumption of certain liabilities.^[73] The film division and brand continued under this ownership, but financial pressures persisted; in 2005, One Equity sold the company to Petters Group Worldwide for $426 million, relocating headquarters from Waltham, Massachusetts, to Minnetonka, Minnesota, to integrate it into Petters' consumer brands portfolio.^[74]^[75] The bankruptcy severely impacted employees, with approximately 3,000 layoffs announced in the lead-up to and during the filing—representing about 35% of the workforce—as the company closed facilities and streamlined operations to reduce costs.^[71]^[76] This apparent rescue under Petters proved short-lived; in December 2008, amid revelations of a massive Ponzi scheme by Petters Group founder Thomas J. Petters—who was later convicted of fraud involving billions in fictitious deals—Polaroid filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy again, blaming the parent's collapse for compromising its finances.^[77]^[78] The case converted to Chapter 7 liquidation in September 2009, leading to the sale of remaining assets for $88 million to a joint venture of Hilco Consumer Capital and Gordon Brothers Brands, which focused on liquidating inventory while separating the brand and intellectual property from manufacturing.^[79]^[80] A key outcome was the cessation of all U.S.-based instant film production in 2008, as Polaroid shuttered its domestic factories in response to plummeting demand, effectively ending in-house manufacturing of its signature product in America.^[17]

Brand revival and ownership

Following the cessation of instant film production by the original Polaroid Corporation in 2008, The Impossible Project was founded by Austrian entrepreneur Florian Kaps, along with creatives Marwan Saba and André Bosman, to preserve the technology.^[81] In October 2008, the group acquired Polaroid's last remaining factory in Enschede, Netherlands, for $3.1 million and leased the facility to resume manufacturing compatible instant film.^[82] By 2010, they had reverse-engineered and relaunched film for Type 600 cameras under the PX series, marking the initial revival of instant analog photography production.^[83] In 2017, PLR IP Holdings LLC, which had held the Polaroid brand and intellectual property since its acquisition from bankruptcy proceedings in 2009, was purchased by a investor group led by Polish businessman Wiaczesław "Slava" Smołokowski, the majority shareholder of The Impossible Project.^[84] This merger prompted The Impossible Project to rebrand as Polaroid Originals, integrating the legacy brand while continuing film production in Enschede.^[82] Under the new identity, the company introduced i-Type instant film, designed for modern cameras without built-in batteries to reduce costs and environmental impact, alongside the OneStep 2 instant camera to commemorate Polaroid's 80th anniversary.^[85] By 2020, Polaroid Originals underwent a full rebrand to simply "Polaroid," simplifying its identity to emphasize the core legacy of instant photography amid growing demand for analog experiences.^[86] The company launched the Polaroid Lab, an app-connected instant printer that exposes smartphone images onto i-Type or 600 film using a three-lens system for authentic chemical development. Ownership remained under the investor group led by Smołokowski, with Polaroid B.V. established as the operating entity headquartered in Amsterdam, Netherlands.^[87] As of 2025, Polaroid continues to focus on instant film and cameras, with manufacturing of film primarily at the Enschede facility in Europe and licensed camera production in Asia, particularly China, to support global distribution.^[87] The core team comprises approximately 200-500 employees worldwide, enabling partnerships with major retailers such as Target for widespread availability of products.^[87] The brand's revival has sustained annual revenues in the range of hundreds of millions, driven largely by film sales amid a resurgence in analog photography.^[88]

Impact and legacy

Cultural significance

Polaroid's instant photography has profoundly influenced the art world, serving as a medium for experimentation and expression among prominent artists. In the 1970s, Andy Warhol extensively used Polaroid cameras to create intimate portraits of celebrities and himself, often as studies for his silkscreen paintings, valuing the medium's ability to flatten features and produce immediate, wrinkle-free results.^[89] Similarly, David Hockney pioneered "joiners" in the early 1980s by assembling multiple Polaroid snapshots into composite images, challenging traditional notions of photographic perspective and time, as seen in works like his portraits of family members.^[90] The SX-70 camera, with its foldable design and self-developing film, became a staple in 1980s fine art practices, enabling manipulations such as emulsion lifts and transfers by artists like Maripol, who documented New York City's underground scene.^[91] This adoption extended into contemporary contexts, where an analog revival amid the Instagram era has seen younger artists embrace Polaroid for its tactile, imperfect aesthetic as a counterpoint to digital perfection.^[92] In popular culture, Polaroid emerged as a symbol of spontaneity during the 1970s counterculture, capturing unscripted moments at parties and protests with its instant gratification, aligning with the era's emphasis on authenticity and immediacy.^[93] The medium's cultural footprint expanded in media, appearing in films like The Devil Wears Prada (2006), where Polaroid proofs from a fashion shoot underscore the fast-paced world of magazine production.^[94] Music videos further amplified its icon status, notably OutKast's "Hey Ya!" (2003), whose lyric "shake it like a Polaroid picture" popularized the gesture of developing prints and inadvertently boosted interest in the brand among millennials unfamiliar with it.^[95] Polaroid's social impact lies in its empowerment through instant sharing, allowing users to document and distribute personal narratives without delay, fostering connections in diverse settings. Journalists during the Vietnam War, such as Associated Press photographer Neil Ulevich, relied on Polaroid pack-film cameras from 1972 to 1975 to create on-the-spot portraits of soldiers and civilians, providing immediate visual records amid chaotic conditions.^[96] In therapeutic contexts, the "Polaroid technique" in art therapy, developed in the 1970s, uses instant prints to elicit spontaneous dialogues and unconscious insights, offering patients immediate feedback to explore emotions and identity.^[97] The modern legacy of Polaroid reflects a hipster-driven revival since the 2010s, sparked by the Impossible Project's 2010 relaunch of instant film, which sold over 500,000 packs in its first year and sustained a niche community of enthusiasts.^[98] This resurgence has led to high-profile collaborations, such as Jacquemus's Spring/Summer 2020 campaign, shot entirely on Polaroid to evoke nostalgic, sun-drenched Provençal vibes.^[99] Recognition of Polaroid's contributions includes Edwin Land's receipt of the National Medal of Science in 1967 for advancements in polarized light and instant photography, and the inclusion of Polaroid works in the Museum of Modern Art's permanent collection, such as Lucas Samaras's Auto Polaroid series (1969–71).^[100]^[101]

Legal and environmental issues

Polaroid Corporation engaged in significant patent litigation to protect its instant photography technology. In 1976, Polaroid sued Eastman Kodak Company for infringing on multiple patents related to instant film and camera processes, including diffusion transfer mechanisms and pod structures. The case, one of the longest patent disputes in U.S. history, culminated in a 1990 federal court ruling in Boston that found Kodak liable for willful infringement on ten patents, issuing a permanent injunction against Kodak's instant products and awarding Polaroid $909.5 million in damages—the largest patent verdict at the time.^[102]^[103]^[104] In 1991, the parties settled for $925 million, with Kodak exiting the instant photography market entirely. Polaroid also pursued claims against Fuji Photo Film in the 1980s, alleging infringement of integral instant film patents; a 1986 settlement resolved disputes by having Polaroid agree not to proceed against Fuji for infringement of Polaroid's Japanese patents, allowing limited market coexistence without further U.S. litigation details emerging until later decades.^[105] Environmental concerns arose from the composition and disposal of Polaroid's instant film pods, which encapsulate non-biodegradable plastics and processing chemicals, including potential reproductive toxins.^[106] By the 2000s, critics highlighted the waste generated by millions of annually discarded pods, exacerbating plastic pollution as the self-developing films resisted natural decomposition.^[107] Polaroid launched recycling initiatives in the 1990s aimed at reclaiming materials from returned film packs and cameras, but these programs faced limitations in scale and participation, recovering only a fraction of the volume amid growing e-waste challenges.^[108] Labor disputes marked Polaroid's operations in the 1980s, particularly at its Waltham, Massachusetts plant, where union negotiations over wages and conditions led to tensions and work stoppages.^[109] The 2001 bankruptcy filing exacerbated issues for retirees, as the underfunded pension plan—valued at $657 million against $981 million in liabilities—resulted in shortfalls affecting approximately 11,000 former employees, prompting federal intervention by the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation to assume coverage.^[110]^[111] Additional controversies included allegations of insider trading against Polaroid executives in the late 1980s and 1990s. A 1987 class-action suit found the company liable for damages after officials sold stock ahead of adverse financial disclosures, leading to multimillion-dollar claims from affected employees and shareholders.^[112] In 2005, the acquisition of Polaroid by Petters Group Worldwide—financed partly through fraud proceeds—unraveled in a massive Ponzi scheme exposed by the SEC in 2008, resulting in investigations and a significant devaluation of the brand as assets were frozen.^[113] In response to these issues, Polaroid shifted toward sustainable practices in the 2010s, introducing I-Type film with refined chemistry that eliminated battery integration per pack, indirectly reducing material waste compared to prior formats.^[56] Earlier, the company settled employee-related class actions, including pension and stock disputes, providing partial compensation to claimants.^[114]

References

[1]
Edwin Land and Instant Photography - American Chemical Society
Edwin H. Land (1909–1991) was the innovative inventor responsible for conceiving of and perfecting instant photography. Known simply as Polaroid.Invention of Polaroid instant... · Advancing Polaroid color...
[2]
About Us - Polaroid Newsroom
Polaroid was founded in 1937 by Edwin Land as an icon of innovation and engineering. The company's launch of the Polaroid Land camera in 1947, which marked ...
[3]
Image of innovation: Edwin H. Land, developer of instant photography
Sep 1, 2025 · In 1937, he founded Polaroid Corporation and made his first million dollars by selling polarized lenses for sunglasses, filters, and other ...
[4]
The Idea of Instant Photography - Edwin H. Land & Polaroid
Land envisioned a one-step photographic system that would develop both a negative and a positive sheet in a single process and produce a stabilized, dry print.
[5]
The Polaroid Era | DPLA - Digital Public Library of America
The inventor and founder of the Polaroid Corporation, Edwin H. Land, developed the first instant camera as a hobby during World War II.
[6]
Edwin Herbert Land | Polaroid Founder, Inventor & Physicist
With George Wheelwright III, a Harvard physics instructor, Land founded the Land-Wheelwright Laboratories, Boston, in 1932. He developed and, in 1936, began to ...
[7]
Invention of the Polarizer - Edwin H. Land & Polaroid - Baker Library
In 1933, they formed Land-Wheelwright Laboratories, and Land received patent #1,918,848, for "Polarizing Refracting Bodies," the first of more than 500 patents ...
[8]
Edwin H. Land (1909 – 1991) - Rowland Institute at Harvard
On 21 February 1947, Edwin Land demonstrated his one-step instant camera and film at a meeting of the Optical Society of America. Less than two years later ...
[9]
Polaroid Corporation | History, Founder, Film, & Technology
Polaroid Corporation, American manufacturer of cameras, film, and optical equipment founded by Edwin Herbert Land (1909–91), who invented instant photography.<|control11|><|separator|>
[10]
Polaroid Corporation - Company-Histories.com
With the help of George Wheelwright III, a young Harvard physics instructor, Land obtained access to a laboratory and began producing small sheets of polarizing ...
[11]
Innovation & the War Effort - Edwin H. Land & Polaroid - Baker Library
As head of the Office of Scientific Research and Development during World War II, Bush enlisted Polaroid in the cause, and the company entered into a contract ...Missing: financial difficulties government
[12]
Introducing One-Step Photography - Edwin H. Land & Polaroid
On Friday, February 21, 1947, at a meeting of the Optical Society of America in New York City, Edwin Land introduced the one-step photography process.Missing: board | Show results with:board
[13]
Polaroid Land Model 95 - Camera-wiki.org
May 17, 2025 · The Model 95 is the first of Edwin Land's instant picture cameras. Starting in 1948 the Polaroid Corporation in Rochester made at least 1.5 million of the ...
[14]
Dye Developers - ResearchGate
The first instant color film based on the chemistry of dye developers was placed on the market under the name Polacolor in 1963 from Polaroid Corporation.
[15]
Dye Diffusion Transfer - Graphics Atlas: Identification
The 1963 release of Polacolor-the first instant color film-utilized and tailored this method to fit its new system known as dye development. Color coupler ...
[16]
Polaroid Ends Instant Film Production - WIRED
Feb 13, 2008 · Concord headquarters and a site in the nearby Boston suburb of Waltham, down from peak global employment of nearly 21,000 in 1978." This is ...
[17]
'73 SALES AT 415,000 FOR POLAROLD SX‐70 - The New York Times
Jan 8, 1974 · Polaroid Corp repts sales of SX‐70 camera totaled 415000 units in '73, short of 1‐million goal; repts production problems delayed ...<|separator|>
[18]
The Rise, Fall, and Revival of Polaroid: The Instant Photography Icon
Aug 25, 2021 · Although Polaroid sales reached $400 million in the late 1960s, Land wanted to go a step further and find a way to create an even more compact ...Missing: Europe Asia
[19]
Polaroid Integral 600 Series - Camera-wiki.org
May 17, 2025 · The Impulse models introduced in 1989 have sharp edges, diagonal lines and a tough rubber hand-grip. They do not fold up. Standard Impulse ...Models with curved corners · Impulse Series · Modern (round top) Models
[20]
After 60 years, Polaroid quits instant film business
Feb 9, 2008 · Polaroid's overall revenue from instant cameras, film and other products peaked in 1991 at nearly $3 billion. The company went into bankruptcy ...
[21]
Polaroid's Land to Quit Chief Executive Position - The New York Times
Mar 7, 1980 · Polaroid's Land to Quit Chief Executive Position; Land to Give Up a Post Billon-Dollar Business. Share full article.Missing: resignation | Show results with:resignation
[22]
ERA ENDS AS LAND LEAVES POLAROID - The New York Times
Jul 28, 1982 · What surprised some analysts was Mr. Land's decision to leave Polaroid's board of directors even though he, his immediate family and foundations ...
[23]
An Analysis - University of Washington
Polaroid's instant cameras have continually lost market share to disposable, 35mm, video, and digital cameras. The company also continues losing market share ...
[24]
The rise and fall of Polaroid | Amateur Photographer
Oct 2, 2021 · What began in 1937 as the Polaroid Corporation (as a company that produced polarised sunglasses), hit a revenue peak of $3 billion by 1991 ...
[25]
History of Polaroid Corporation – FundingUniverse
Polaroid Corporation History ; Fax: (781) 386-3924 ; Incorporated: 1937 ; Employees: 10,011 ; Sales: $1.85 billion (1998) ; Stock Exchanges: New York Pacific
[26]
Kodak Settles Polaroid Case for $925 Million - Los Angeles Times
Jul 16, 1991 · Ending the largest patent infringement case in history, Eastman Kodak Co. on Monday paid Polaroid Corp. $925 million to settle a 15-year-old ...
[27]
Polaroid Corporation Files for Bankruptcy - The Harvard Crimson
Oct 16, 2001 · Headquartered on Memorial Drive past Peabody Terrace, Polaroid employs 6,700 employees worldwide, more than half of whom work in eastern ...
[28]
What was Polaroid thinking? | Yale Insights
Nov 4, 2009 · By the 1960s and early '70s, Polaroid held a monopoly in the instant photography market, and its sales accounted for about 20% of the overall ...Missing: Europe Asia<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
Polaroid (polarizer) - Wikipedia
Polaroid is a type of synthetic plastic sheet which is used as a polarizer or polarizing filter. A trademark of the Polaroid Corporation, the term has since ...Missing: first date
[30]
Some Aspects of the Development of Sheet Polarizers*
The H polarizer is made by absorbing iodine in a stretched sheet of polyvinyl alcohol. The various dye polarizers are made by absorbing dyes in stretched ...
[31]
Edwin Herbert Land | Memorial Tributes: Volume 7
During World War II Land invented the "H-sheet" light polarizer made by staining oriented polyvinyl alcohol with iodine. H-sheet is still the most widely-used ...
[32]
Photoelasticity | Harvard Natural Sciences Lecture Demonstrations
To use birefringence in stress analysis, the sample is placed between two crossed Polaroids. The first Polaroid produces a linearly polarized light source for ...
[33]
The Glare in the Eyes of Edwin Land - Polarization.com
Edwin Land's anti-glare headlights used polarizers to extinguish oncoming car headlights by rotating the polarizers to be perpendicular to the facing driver.
[34]
History lesson: The inventor of Polaroid also invented polarizers and ...
May 14, 2020 · The Steve Jobs of his era, Edwin Land didn't just invent Polaroid – he also invented polarizers and neutral density filters.
[35]
Commercialization of the Polarizer - Edwin H. Land & Polaroid
In 1936, the young entrepreneur introduced his synthetic light polarizing discs at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York.<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Polaroid - Etymology, Origin & Meaning of the Name
Originating as a 1936 proprietary name from Sheet Polarizer Co., the word means a thin sheet material causing strong plane polarization of light and also a ...
[37]
Polaroid Corporation Collection | Harvard Library
From the company's start, founder Edwin H. Land fostered invention and creativity within the culture of a small, science-based research and manufacturing ...
[38]
None
### Summary of Polaroid Peel-Apart and Integral Instant Film Processes
[39]
Land Achieves His Dream With New Polaroid SX‐70
Oct 30, 1972 · The chief ingredients, an alkali (potassium hydroxide), and a white pigment (titanium dioxide), put down the dark curtain that prevents light ...
[40]
Polaroids and the Chemistry of Instant Pictures
The film is then covered in the developing chemical, potassium hydroxide, which reacts with each of the dyes within the film. These dyes fill in the areas ...
[41]
[PDF] R oll Film s Pack Films Sheet Films - Graphics Atlas
ISO 100, Peel-apart. Whiter base, faster, more contrast than Polacolor ER ... Type 100. 2007?-2008. Pack. 3 1/4 x 4 1/4. Specialty Film. ISO 80, Peel-apart.
[42]
Color 600 Film | Polaroid US
In stock Free delivery over $75Our Color 600 Film uses Polaroid's unique chemistry to bring your shots to life in rich textures, colors, and tones. 8 photos per pack, all finished in a white ...Missing: reagent pod potassium hydroxide titanium dioxide dyes
[43]
How does temperature affect Polaroid film?
Aug 20, 2020 · When shooting with Polaroid film, keep in mind that our film works best in moderate temperature, between 13 – 28°C (55 – 82°F).
[44]
A Polaroid Timeline 1932–1977 | Baker Library
Polaroid launches Land Camera, Model 95, and Land Polaroid Film, Type 40, at the Jordan Marsh department store in Boston on Black Friday, November 26, 1948.
[45]
Polaroid's The Button is a Surprisingly Good Instant Camera
May 1, 2022 · It was cheap to build, simple to use, and pleasantly priced at just $40. The One Step 1000 became the best-selling camera of the 1977 holiday ...
[46]
https://retrospekt.com/products/polaroid-600-camera-sun660-autofocus
[47]
Going Spectra! The Polaroid Spectra! - The Film Photography Project
Nov 29, 2011 · The Spectra System feature wider “Image”-series films (much like the upgrade to16:9 television from 4:3), a 'Quintic' 125mm f/10 3-element lens, self-timer, ...Missing: 1986 9x7. 5 inch
[48]
Polaroid's OneStep2 Is a Vintage Camera for the Digital Age | WIRED
Sep 14, 2017 · The $99 OneStep 2 takes after the original in plenty of ways. It has a compact, molded plastic body available in either black or white.Missing: introduction | Show results with:introduction
[49]
Polaroid Now Review - PCMag
Rating 2.5 · Review by Jim FisherSep 2, 2020 · It still requires power—an internal battery charges via micro USB and is rated for 20 packs of film per charge. ... The Polaroid Now adds ...
[50]
Polaroid film manufactured once again - The Telegraph
Mar 22, 2010 · Owners of Polaroid's SX-70 and 600 format cameras will be able ... 10 million a year. Florian Kaps, one of the founders of Impossible ...
[51]
Polaroid Type 47 (1955 – 1992) - Museum of Obsolete Media
The 40 series was Polaroid's first type of film and was introduced with the Type 40 film in 1948 along with the Model 95 Polaroid Land camera, ...
[52]
The Land List -- Film Index
Jan 17, 2008 · NOTE: This is the original Polaroid film as introduced with the Model 95 camera. Was replaced with Type 41. --> Type 41: Produced: 1950-1959 / ...
[53]
Vintage vibes of peel-apart film charm Chinese youths - CNA
Jun 7, 2025 · Major producers Polaroid and Fujifilm discontinued their peel-apart film in 2008 and 2016 respectively. This means all existing stock is limited ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[54]
New Polaroid camera and instant film format
Sep 19, 2017 · According to their website, the estimated release date for the OneStep 2 camera is October 16, 2017. Polaroid i-Type Instant Film. There are ...
[55]
Color i-Type Film | Polaroid US
In stock Free delivery over $75When the rich colors of real life mix with Polaroid's one-of-a-kind film chemistry, you get our color i-Type film. 8 instant photos per pack that'll bring ...Missing: specifications | Show results with:specifications
[56]
Polaroid Go Color Film Double Pack
In stock Free delivery over $754 times smaller than the i-Type classic format; Battery-free; ASA: 640; Produced in the EU. Dimensions. Format: 66.6mm x 53.9mm (2.623" x 2.122"); Image area ...
[57]
Unsupported Polaroid cameras and film formats
Oct 29, 2024 · Polaroid currently produces 5 distinct integral film formats: Go Film · 600 type Film · i-Type Film · SX-70 Film · 8x10 Integral Film. Below is ...Missing: types evolution 40 Polacolor 108 discontinuation 2002
[58]
Vintage Camera GE Flash Bar II Polaroid SX-70 Unopened 20 ...
Rating 5.0 (1) Vintage Camera GE Flash Bar II Polaroid SX-70 Unopened 20 Flashes Total ; Breathe easy. Returns accepted. ; Est. delivery. Fri, Sep 26 - Wed, Oct 1. From San ...
[59]
Limited edition Polaroid Duochrome Green 600 film
Jul 8, 2022 · Available now for $15 a pack, Duochrome Green 600 is compatible with vintage Polaroid 600 and modern I-type cameras.<|control11|><|separator|>
[60]
Polaroid Market Size, Share, Forecast, 2034 - Industry Research
Oct 13, 2025 · Professional usage in photo booths and events accounts for 28% of domestic demand. Sales of Polaroid film packs exceeded 21 million units, ...
[61]
[PDF] Instant Failure: Polaroid's Polavision, 1977–1980
Apr 12, 1979 · 3 Though Polavision footage can now be transferred to video, as of March 1979. Polaroid reported being incapable of duplicating its cassettes ( ...Missing: discontinuation | Show results with:discontinuation
[62]
Polaroid Writes Off $68 Million - The New York Times
Sep 13, 1979 · Polaroid Corp, shaken by poor sales of its Polavision instant movie system, discloses that it will take $68 million write-down in 3d quarter ...<|separator|>
[63]
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[64]
The Making of the First Polaroid Camera - Learning History
Feb 7, 2023 · Polaroid would sell these floppy disks throughout the late 1980s but would eventually cease production in the year 1991 due to diminishing ...
[65]
Polaroid Corp | Encyclopedia.com
Although sales rose to $1 million in 1941, the company's 1940 losses had reached $100,000, and it was only World War II military contracts that saved Land and ...
[66]
industry directory - Morreale - 1990 - SID-Wiley online library
Jul 1, 1990 · ... Polaroid Corp. DIGITAL VIDEO SYSTEMS. □ Aydin Computer ... PE-CVD, plasma-etching) for production of active-matrix LCD and color displays.
[67]
Murray Becker: A Photographer's Photographer — AP Photos
Oct 20, 2021 · On the cover of the Spring 1957 issue of AP World, Murray Becker is seen handing a Polaroid photo to Cle Emerson for Wirephoto transmission.
[68]
https://www.polaroideyewear.com/pages/polarization
[69]
Polaroid's Bankruptcy Has No Impact For Now On Its Healthy ...
Oct 24, 2001 · Swiss-based Polaroid Eyewear and other non-US subsidiaries of Polaroid Corp. are not involved in the Chapter 11 bankruptcy of their US-based ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
Deep in Debt Since 1988, Polaroid Files for Bankruptcy
Oct 13, 2001 · The Polaroid Corporation, once one of American industry's technological lights, filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection yesterday.
[71]
Polaroid Files For Chapter 11 - CBS News
Oct 12, 2001 · Buyers could acquire equity for free and possibly get a discount on Polaroid debt if the purchase came out of bankruptcy proceedings.
[72]
Polaroid, Once a Creative Star, Files for Bankruptcy Protection
Oct 13, 2001 · Polaroid Corp., known to generations of consumers for its instant cameras and film, filed Friday for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[73]
Polaroid Agrees to Unload Most Assets - Los Angeles Times
Apr 19, 2002 · The price represents less than 15% of the value of Polaroid's assets when the company filed for Chapter 11 protection in October. Advertisement.
[74]
Rebound - Forbes
Mar 28, 2005 · In January, two and a half years after buying it in a bankruptcy auction, One Equity sold Polaroid for $426 million to Petters Group Worldwide, ...
[75]
$$426M sale of Polaroid approved - SouthCoast Today
Apr 28, 2005 · Petters Group, headed by Minnesota entrepreneur Tom Petters, has said it plans to absorb Polaroid into its consumer brands business, which ...
[76]
Polaroid to lay off 2,000 employees: Digital Photography Review
Jun 13, 2001 · Approximately 2,000 positions, or 25 percent of the global workforce of 8,000, will be phased out over the next 18 months.
[77]
Fraud case leads Polaroid to bankruptcy protection - CNET
Dec 19, 2008 · "Polaroid's financial condition was compromised by the apparent fraudulent acts perpetrated by the founder of Petters Group Worldwide, ...
[78]
Polaroid files for bankruptcy protection | Business - The Guardian
Dec 19, 2008 · Polaroid is one of several subsidiaries of Petters Group to have filed for protection since the fraud fiasco unfolded. Court-appointed receiver ...
[79]
Bankruptcy Court Approves Sale of Polaroid Assets
Apr 17, 2009 · Polaroid won bankruptcy court approval to sell itself for $88 million to a joint venture led by two liquidation firms.Missing: patents Intellectual 2008
[80]
[PDF] United States Bankruptcy Appellate Panel - U.S. Court Of Appeals
voluntarily converted to Chapter 7 on September 1, 2009. John R. Stoebner was appointed as the Chapter 7 trustee of the Polaroid Bankruptcy Estates. Two ...
[81]
The Impossible Project: Bringing back Polaroid - WIRED
Nov 4, 2009 · Kaps bought an original Polaroid SX-70 camera on eBay. "I got this ... 10 million to build. So the ten machines remaining in the ...
[82]
Polaroid Acquired by The Impossible Project's Largest Shareholder
May 12, 2017 · The Impossible Project purchased the last remaining Polaroid factory in Enschede, Netherlands, in October 2008 for $3.1 million after ...
[83]
History :: polaroidmemories
Polaroid reached peak employment with 21,000 employees in 1978 and achieved record revenue of $3 billion in 1991. However, the company declared bankruptcy ...
[84]
Polaroid Acquired by New Ownership Group | Gordon Brothers
May 15, 2017 · PLR IP Holdings, LLC, the owner of the Polaroid brand and related intellectual property, has been acquired by a group of investors led by the Smolokowski ...
[85]
Polaroid Originals Launches with New OneStep 2 Camera and i ...
Sep 13, 2017 · Along with the new brand comes a new OneStep 2 camera and the debut of a new film type called i-Type. This surprising launch comes on the 80th ...
[86]
The “impossible” story behind Polaroid's rebrand - Design Week
Mar 26, 2020 · Instant camera pioneer Polaroid has been rebranded with the aim of strengthening the company for the decade ahead.
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https://www.linkedin.com/company/polaroid
[88]
Polaroid | LinkedIn
Website: http://www.polaroid.com. External link for Polaroid ; Industry: Photography ; Company size: 201-500 employees ; Headquarters: Amsterdam, Nederlands ; Type ...Missing: Europe | Show results with:Europe
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Polaroid Corporation: Revenue, Competitors, Alternatives - Growjo
Polaroid Corporation's estimated annual revenue is currently $750M per year.(i) · Polaroid Corporation's estimated revenue per employee is $723,938 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[90]
Andy Warhol | Self-Portrait in Drag - Guggenheim Museum
From the 1970s until his death, Warhol made tens of thousands of Polaroid prints, a method that appealed to him because of its speed, ease, and flattening ...
[91]
Exploring David Hockney's Joiners | MyArtBroker | Article
Jul 28, 2025 · This piece consisted of multiple Polaroid shots arranged to form a single, cohesive image of his mother sitting in the Yorkshire countryside.
[92]
Polaroid Queen and 80s icon Maripol on capturing NYC's downtown ...
Polaroid Queen and 80s icon Maripol on capturing NYC's downtown movement ... When Polaroid released their now legendary SX-70 model in 1972, the camera's compact, ...
[93]
The History of Polaroid Photography - Instant Film Society
Nov 30, 2024 · It all began in 1948, when Edwin Land, an inventor and scientist, introduced the first Polaroid camera—the Model 95. This innovation ...Missing: key | Show results with:key
[94]
Why Was The Polaroid Camera A 70s Icon? - I'm a 70s Baby
Oct 22, 2025 · The Polaroid camera did in the 1970s it was more than just a gadget it became a symbol of how people captured their lives back then.
[95]
YARN | Pick up the Polaroids from the lingerie shoot. | a6edd037 | 紗
The Devil Wears Prada (2006) clip with quote Pick up the Polaroids from the lingerie shoot. Yarn is the best search for video clips by quote.
[96]
“Shake it”: did Outkast's 'Hey Ya!' help revive the Polaroid camera?
Apr 24, 2024 · Back in 2003, most millennials had never even heard of Polaroid. ... Ironically, Polaroid had to put out a disclaimer when Outkast released 'Hey ...
[97]
Reporting From Vietnam, With a Land Camera - Polaroidland
Jul 21, 2012 · Neil Ulevich was a photographer working for the AP in Vietnam from 1972 to 1975. He brought a pack-film Polaroid camera with him, ...
[98]
The Polaroid technique: Spontaneous dialogues from the ...
Describes the use of Polaroid photography in art therapy with adolescents, which is used to facilitate access to unconscious material and thus facilitates ...
[99]
Ex-Polaroid staff defy odds with big film sales - The Irish Times
Dec 13, 2010 · A GROUP of former Polaroid employees who revived its discontinued instant film have sold more than 500,000 packs in their first year of ...
[100]
Jacquemus SS20 on Polaroid - Pairs Project
Jacquemus Spring Summer 2020 shot on Polaroid by Allan Hamitouche. June belongs to lavender and for the 10th anniversary of Jacquemus, Simon presented in ...Missing: fashion | Show results with:fashion
[101]
Edwin H. Land | NSF - National Science Foundation
For many discoveries and inventions in the field of polarized light, rapid photography, including quick processing of the final photograph, for the development ...Missing: 1969 | Show results with:1969
[102]
Lucas Samaras. Auto Polaroid. 1969-71 - MoMA
Lucas Samaras. Auto Polaroid. 1969-71. Black and white instant prints. each 3 3/4 × 2 15/16" (9.5 × 7.4 cm) overall 14 1/2 × 24 1/4" (36.8 × 61.6 cm).
[103]
Polaroid Wins $909 Million From Kodak - Los Angeles Times
Oct 13, 1990 · Polaroid sought trebled damages of $12 billion, claiming it suffered severely at Kodak's hands through loss of market share and unfair price ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[104]
The Case that Launched 10000 Patent Suits - IPWatchdog.com
Aug 23, 2015 · Polaroid, which once had 27,000 employees, filed for bankruptcy twice, once in 2001 and then again in 2008 (aka “Chapter 22”), and Kodak ...Missing: Ventures | Show results with:Ventures
[105]
PATENTS: Snap Decision, 14 Years Later - Time Magazine
Oct 22, 1990 · A federal court in Boston has ordered Eastman Kodak to pay Polaroid $910 million in damages in the largest patent- infringement award in history ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[106]
Polaroid and Fuji Photo Settle Dispute Over Patent
Jul 25, 1986 · Polaroid agreed not to proceed against Fuji for infringement of Polaroid's Japanese patent for integral instant film, upheld by the Japanese ...Missing: lawsuits 1980s 1990s
[107]
Proposition 65 Warning - | Polaroid US
This product can expose you to chemicals including lead, which is known to the State of California to cause cancer and reproductive harm.
[108]
Fighting electronic waste: How Polaroid made it into the 21st century
Sep 27, 2021 · Polaroid photography enthusiasts' campaign to keep their cameras out of the landfill reveals how we can keep using obsolete tech.
[109]
US Social Responsibility - Polaroid
Polaroid has an ongoing objective to protect the environment and we encourage all of our customers to recycle their used consumer electronic items and batteries ...Missing: 1990s limitations
[110]
Born to high iron, Stephen Lynch forged his own way
Apr 13, 2013 · Stephen F. Lynch worked on the Polaroid building in Waltham in the 1970s.Robert E. Banks/Handout ... But a broiling union dispute made him three ...
[111]
Polaroid's pension plan taken over by government insurer - Boston ...
Sep 12, 2002 · Polaroid's pension plan had liabilities of $981 million, leaving a shortfall of $324 million on July 31 when it stopped contributing to the ...Missing: retirees | Show results with:retirees<|separator|>
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PBGC Picks Up Polaroid's Pension Plan - plansponsor
Dec 9, 2002 · PBGC officials said they seized the bankrupt Cambridge, Massachusetts company's pension after its July 31 plan termination.Missing: shortfalls | Show results with:shortfalls
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COMPANY NEWS; Polaroid Found Liable in Suit - The New York ...
Jul 4, 1987 · The Polaroid Corporation has been found liable for damages in a class action suit involving allegations that company officials sold stock ...
[114]
[PDF] Complaint: Thomas J. Petters, Gregory M. Bell, and Lancelot ...
Jul 7, 2009 · operated as a fraud and deceit upon purchasers and sellers and prospective purchasers and sellers of securities. 178. Petters, Bell, and ...
[115]
IN RE POLAROID ERISA LITIGATION | 362 F. Supp. 2d 461 | S.D.N.Y.
The Complaint alleges that in the late 1990s, as Polaroid's debt increased ... alleged a sufficiently precipitous decline in the price of Polaroid stock.