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Process simulation

Process simulation is a computational technique in chemical engineering that involves creating mathematical models to represent and predict the behavior of physical, chemical, and biological processes, typically by decomposing complex systems into interconnected unit operations such as reactors, separators, and heat exchangers.^[1] These models solve material and energy balances, along with thermodynamic and kinetic equations, to forecast key variables like flow rates, compositions, temperatures, pressures, and equipment sizing under various operating conditions.^[1] By simulating real-world scenarios virtually, process simulation reduces the need for costly physical experiments and enables engineers to test "what-if" analyses for process design, troubleshooting, and optimization.^[2] The roots of process simulation trace back to the early 20th century, when chemical engineers manually performed design calculations for unit operations as part of the emerging profession.^[3] Significant advancements occurred in the 1960s with the development of computer-based tools, including the SPEED-UP simulator in 1964, which introduced systematic flowsheet computation, and the 1972 GEMCS system, an early sequential modular approach.^[4] The 1980s marked a commercial breakthrough with Aspen Plus in 1982, a widely adopted steady-state simulator that integrated rigorous thermodynamic models for industrial applications.^[4] Subsequent innovations, such as equation-oriented simulators like gPROMS in 1994, expanded capabilities to handle dynamic and nonlinear optimizations.^[4] In modern practice, process simulation plays a central role in process systems engineering, supporting industries including petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, and energy production.^[4] It facilitates steady-state analyses for initial design and economic evaluations, as well as dynamic simulations to study transient behaviors like startups, shutdowns, and control responses.^[2] Key applications encompass optimizing energy efficiency, ensuring safety through hazard identification, and integrating sustainability metrics like life-cycle assessments.^[2] Popular software tools, such as Aspen HYSYS and CHEMCAD, rely on extensive databases of physical properties and reaction kinetics to deliver accurate predictions, though results are highly sensitive to input data quality.^[1] Overall, process simulation has evolved into an indispensable tool for innovation, enabling faster development cycles and more robust industrial operations.^[3]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Process simulation is a model-based computational technique used to replicate real-world chemical, physical, biological, or industrial processes through software implementations, often visualized via flow diagrams or block representations that connect unit operations with material and energy streams. This approach enables engineers to predict process behavior without physical experimentation, focusing on variables such as flow rates, temperatures, pressures, and compositions by solving interconnected mathematical models.^[5] At its core, process simulation operates on fundamental principles derived from conservation laws, including the iterative solution of mass, energy, and momentum balances to achieve equilibrium or dynamic states within the modeled system. These balances account for inputs, outputs, accumulations, generations, and consumptions across process elements, allowing for the prediction of steady or transient conditions. Mathematical models representing thermodynamic properties, reaction kinetics, and transport phenomena are integrated to simulate how changes in one part of the process propagate throughout. For biological processes, models may incorporate population balance equations to describe cell growth and interactions.^[6]^[7]^[8] The typical workflow begins with specifying system inputs, such as feed stream properties including composition, flowrate, pressure, and temperature, alongside definitions of unit operations like reactors, separators, heat exchangers, and pumps. Convergence algorithms, such as Newton-Raphson or sequential modular methods, are then employed to iteratively solve the system of equations until balances are satisfied, yielding outputs like product streams and equipment performance metrics. For steady-state simulations, a basic mass balance equation exemplifies this principle:

\sum (\text{inflows} - \text{outflows} + \text{generation} - \text{consumption}) = 0

This equation enforces mass conservation under non-accumulating conditions, forming the basis for broader energy and momentum analyses.^[6]^[7] To handle real-world complexities, process simulation incorporates approximations, particularly through interpolation and extrapolation of physical and thermodynamic properties for unmeasured or extreme conditions, enabling reliable predictions within defined limits while acknowledging model assumptions. These techniques extend databanks of known properties to broader operating ranges, though accuracy diminishes beyond validated domains.^[7]

Importance and Applications

Process simulation plays a pivotal role in engineering by enabling the design, optimization, troubleshooting, safety analysis, and cost reduction of complex processes without the need for costly physical experiments, thereby significantly reducing trial-and-error during development.^[9]^[10] This approach allows engineers to virtually test scenarios, identify potential issues early, and refine systems iteratively in a controlled digital environment.^[11] Key benefits of process simulation include its ability to predict process behavior under diverse operating conditions, such as varying temperatures, pressures, or feed compositions, which supports informed decision-making and enhances overall system reliability.^[12] It also aids in achieving regulatory compliance by facilitating environmental impact assessments and ensuring adherence to safety standards, while enabling seamless scalability from laboratory prototypes to full industrial operations.^[13] These advantages collectively contribute to substantial reductions in development time and operational expenses across industries.^[14] In chemical engineering, process simulation is essential for refinery optimization, where it models unit operations to maximize throughput and product quality while minimizing waste.^[12] The pharmaceutical sector employs it to simulate drug manufacturing processes, ensuring consistent quality, batch reproducibility, and compliance with stringent regulatory requirements.^[13] Food processing benefits from simulations of fermentation modeling, which optimize microbial growth, substrate utilization, and product yields to improve consistency and energy efficiency.^[15] In the energy sector, it enhances power plant efficiency by analyzing heat and mass transfers to reduce fuel consumption and emissions.^[14] Environmental engineering leverages process simulation for waste treatment designs, predicting pollutant removal rates and treatment efficacy to mitigate ecological impacts.^[16] A representative case is the simulation of distillation columns in oil refining, where rigorous modeling has achieved energy minimization and yield maximization; for example, optimization studies have demonstrated reductions in fired heat demand by up to 20% through integrated tray-by-tray simulations and heat recovery adjustments.^[17] Emerging applications of process simulation are increasingly focused on sustainability, particularly in designing carbon capture processes to meet global emission reduction targets, where simulations optimize absorber configurations and solvent performance to lower energy penalties and achieve capture rates such as the U.S. DOE target of 90%.^[18]^[19]

Modeling Approaches

Mathematical Foundations

Process simulation relies on mathematical modeling to represent physical, chemical, and biological processes through systems of equations derived primarily from fundamental conservation laws, including those for mass, energy, and momentum. These laws form the basis for constructing models that describe how materials and energy flow within units such as reactors, heat exchangers, and pipelines, enabling predictions of system behavior under various conditions.^[20]^[21] The conservation of mass, often expressed as the continuity equation, states that the rate of change of mass within a control volume equals the net mass flow in minus the net mass flow out, plus any generation or consumption due to reactions: \frac{dM}{dt} = \sum \dot{m}_{in} - \sum \dot{m}_{out} + \dot{G} - \dot{C}, where M is the total mass, \dot{m} denotes mass flow rates, and \dot{G} and \dot{C} represent generation and consumption rates. For open systems, the energy balance is derived from the first law of thermodynamics and typically takes the rate form \frac{dU}{dt} = \dot{Q} - \dot{W} + \sum \dot{m}_{in} h_{in} - \sum \dot{m}_{out} h_{out}, where U is the internal energy, \dot{Q} and \dot{W} are heat and work rates, and h is the specific enthalpy of inlet and outlet streams (neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes for simplicity in many process applications). Momentum conservation, crucial for fluid dynamics in process equipment like pipes, is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations, which for incompressible flow in a pipe can be simplified to \rho \left( \frac{\partial \mathbf{v}}{\partial t} + \mathbf{v} \cdot \nabla \mathbf{v} \right) = -\nabla p + \mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{v} + \mathbf{f}, where \rho is density, \mathbf{v} is velocity, p is pressure, \mu is viscosity, and \mathbf{f} represents body forces. These equations capture the balance between inertial, pressure, viscous, and external forces in fluid motion.^[22]^[23]^[20]^[24] Solving these systems, which are often nonlinear due to coupled phenomena like reaction kinetics and phase equilibria, requires numerical techniques. The Newton-Raphson method is widely used for iteratively solving sets of nonlinear algebraic equations by linearizing around an initial guess and updating via \mathbf{x}_{k+1} = \mathbf{x}_k - \mathbf{J}^{-1} \mathbf{F}(\mathbf{x}_k), where \mathbf{J} is the Jacobian matrix and \mathbf{F} represents the residual equations from the balances. For linear systems arising in network flows, such as mass or energy balances across interconnected units, matrix methods like Gaussian elimination or sparse solvers are employed to solve \mathbf{A} \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{b}, where \mathbf{A} encodes the network topology and coefficients from conservation laws.^[25]^[26] Process models vary in complexity, with lumped-parameter approaches assuming uniform conditions within a unit (e.g., average temperature and composition), leading to ordinary differential or algebraic equations suitable for large-scale simulations. In contrast, distributed-parameter models account for spatial variations, resulting in partial differential equations that better capture phenomena like concentration gradients in reactors or velocity profiles in pipes, though at higher computational cost.^[25]^[27] To handle uncertainties in parameters such as reaction rates or transport coefficients, sensitivity analysis quantifies how variations in inputs propagate to outputs, often using local methods like partial derivatives \frac{\partial y}{\partial \theta} (where y is a model output and \theta a parameter) or global techniques such as variance-based decomposition to apportion total output uncertainty. This assessment is essential for model validation and identifying critical parameters influencing simulation reliability.^[28]^[29]

Data and Property Modeling

In process simulation, accurate representation of thermophysical properties such as vapor pressure, viscosity, and heat capacity is essential for reliable model predictions. These properties are typically sourced from established databases like the DIPPR 801, which provides critically evaluated data for over 2,000 pure components, including temperature-dependent correlations derived from experimental measurements. Experimental data from laboratory measurements complement these databases, particularly for proprietary or novel compounds where database coverage is limited.^[30] Modeling techniques for these properties include empirical correlations and group contribution methods. Empirical correlations, such as the Antoine equation for vapor pressure, express properties as functions of temperature using fitted parameters:

\log P = A - \frac{B}{T + C}

where P is vapor pressure, T is temperature, and A, B, C are substance-specific constants obtained from regression of experimental data.^[31] Group contribution methods, like UNIFAC for estimating activity coefficients in nonideal mixtures, decompose molecules into functional groups and sum their contributions based on interaction parameters, enabling predictions without direct experimental data for the mixture.^[32] Fitted models, which regress parameters directly against available laboratory data, offer high accuracy within narrow temperature or composition ranges but require substance-specific measurements. In contrast, predictive models, such as group contribution approaches, estimate properties for untested compounds solely from molecular structure, providing broader applicability at the cost of slightly reduced precision for well-studied systems.^[33] Challenges arise in handling multicomponent mixtures and phase equilibria, where interactions between components complicate property estimation. Equations of state like the Peng-Robinson model address this by incorporating mixing rules for parameters a and b:

P = \frac{RT}{V - b} - \frac{a \alpha}{V(V + b) + b(V - b)}

yet they often require binary interaction parameters to improve accuracy for nonideal behaviors in complex mixtures, and convergence issues can occur in highly asymmetric systems.^[34] Validation of these models involves systematically comparing predictions against independent experimental data to quantify deviations, often using metrics like average absolute relative error to ensure reliability within specified conditions before integration into process simulations.^[30]

Types of Simulation

Steady-State Simulation

Steady-state simulation in process engineering involves modeling chemical or industrial processes under conditions where all variables remain constant over time, focusing on solving material, energy, and component balances at equilibrium without accumulation terms. This approach assumes the system has reached a stable operating point, where inputs equal outputs, and no transient effects occur. Such models are particularly suited for continuous processes operating at steady conditions, enabling engineers to predict performance without considering time-dependent changes.^[35] Key features of steady-state simulation include its computational efficiency, as it requires solving algebraic equations rather than differential ones, often yielding results orders of magnitude faster than dynamic methods. It is primarily used for initial process design, equipment sizing, and optimization of continuous operations, such as determining flow rates, temperatures, and pressures in a flowsheet to minimize energy use or maximize yield. For instance, in chemical plant design, steady-state models facilitate heat and material balance calculations to ensure economic viability and compliance with specifications. These simulations have evolved since the 1960s, transforming process design from empirical methods to a data-driven engineering practice, with significant impacts on energy optimization and productivity.^[36]^[37] The simulation process typically employs one of two main strategies: the sequential modular approach, which solves unit operations and recycle streams one at a time in a predefined sequence, converging iteratively for loops; or the equation-oriented approach, which formulates and solves the entire system of nonlinear algebraic equations simultaneously using numerical methods like Newton-Raphson. The sequential modular method, widely adopted in early simulators, offers intuitive flowsheet construction but can struggle with complex recycles, while the equation-oriented method excels in optimization and sensitivity analysis by treating all variables holistically. A seminal review highlights how these approaches addressed challenges in accurate mathematical modeling and thermodynamic correlations by the mid-1970s.^[38] An illustrative example is the steady-state simulation of a heat exchanger network, where the model balances temperatures and flows across multiple units to achieve target heating or cooling without transient fluctuations. Using matrix-based methods grounded in graph theory, such simulations evaluate heat transfer coefficients and account for property variations, enabling fouling analysis or performance predictions under stable conditions. This application demonstrates how steady-state tools support retrofit designs or operational assessments in refining and petrochemical industries.^[39] Despite its advantages, steady-state simulation has limitations, as it cannot capture behaviors during startups, shutdowns, or disturbances where time-varying dynamics are critical, such as in control system design or safety analyses. These models provide a snapshot of equilibrium but overlook path-dependent effects, necessitating complementary dynamic simulations for comprehensive process evaluation.^[37]

Dynamic Simulation

Dynamic simulation in process engineering involves modeling the time-dependent behavior of chemical processes, incorporating transient phenomena through differential equations that account for accumulation over time. At its core, it extends the fundamental mass, energy, and momentum balances by including time derivatives, such as the accumulation term in the mass balance equation \frac{dM}{dt} = \dot{m}_{\text{in}} - \dot{m}_{\text{out}} + r , where M represents the mass in the system, \dot{m} denotes flow rates, and r is the rate of generation or consumption.^[40] This approach captures how processes evolve from initial conditions toward equilibrium or in response to disturbances, contrasting with steady-state methods that assume constant conditions. Key features of dynamic simulation include the numerical solution of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) or partial differential equations (PDEs) derived from these balances, typically using integration methods like Runge-Kutta algorithms to advance the system state over discrete time steps. These integrators adapt step sizes based on process dynamics—ranging from milliseconds for fast transients like valve responses to minutes for slower batch operations—ensuring numerical stability and accuracy.^[41] Compared to steady-state simulation, dynamic models impose higher computational demands due to the iterative time-stepping and inclusion of dynamic elements such as holdups, lags, and feedback loops, but they provide insights into system stability and response trajectories. Dynamic simulation finds essential applications in analyzing transient operations, including process startups and shutdowns, where it models evolving flows, temperatures, and pressures to optimize sequences and minimize risks. It supports operator training simulators by replicating plant behavior in virtual environments, allowing practice of normal, upset, and emergency scenarios without operational hazards. Additionally, it enables real-time model predictive control (MPC) by forecasting process responses to disturbances and optimizing control actions for improved yield and efficiency.^[2]^[42] A representative example is the modeling of pressure buildup in a nuclear research reactor during a sudden feed surge or valve malfunction, such as a spurious opening of a safety flapper valve leading to a loss-of-flow accident. Using thermal-hydraulic codes like RELAP5, which couple neutron kinetics and fluid dynamics via ODEs, simulations predict rapid power excursions and pressure rises—potentially reaching critical levels within seconds—while evaluating safety features like scram systems to ensure nucleate boiling and prevent fuel damage.^[43] One key development in dynamic simulation is the use of hybrid steady-dynamic modes (as of the 2010s), which initialize with steady-state solutions for efficiency before switching to dynamic integration for transient analysis, reducing computational overhead in online optimization and control applications. These hybrids facilitate seamless integration with real-time data systems, enhancing predictive capabilities for complex processes.^[2] As of 2025, emerging trends include integration with artificial intelligence and machine learning for surrogate modeling to accelerate simulations, as well as digital twins for real-time predictive maintenance in industries such as energy and pharmaceuticals.^[44]

Historical Development

Early History

The origins of process simulation trace back to the pre-computer era, where empirical equations formed the basis for predicting physical properties essential to chemical processes. In 1888, French chemist C. Antoine proposed a semi-empirical correlation relating vapor pressure to temperature for pure substances, providing a foundational tool for distillation and evaporation calculations that remains in use today.^[45] This equation built on earlier vapor pressure models and enabled engineers to estimate phase behavior without direct experimentation. Complementing such developments, the 1923 publication Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances by Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall established rigorous principles for phase equilibria, including activity coefficients and fugacities, which were critical for modeling multicomponent systems in separation processes.^[46] These works shifted process analysis from purely experimental trial-and-error toward quantitative predictions, laying the groundwork for systematic simulation. In the early 20th century, process simulation relied on manual calculations for unit operations, such as heat transfer and mass balances, performed using slide rules, log tables, and nomograms. Warren K. Lewis, a professor at MIT, played a pivotal role in advancing distillation modeling through his theoretical analyses of rectification columns and multicomponent separations, publishing key papers in 1909 and 1922 that quantified vapor-liquid equilibria and tray efficiencies.^[47] His co-authorship of Principles of Chemical Engineering in 1923 further formalized unit operations as modular components of processes, facilitating manual design of interconnected systems. Concurrently, process flow diagrams emerged in the 1920s, pioneered by industrial engineer Frank Gilbreth in 1921 as "flow process charts" to visualize material and energy flows, aiding in the planning of complex plants without computational aids.^[48] Following World War II, analog computers in the 1940s and 1950s enabled rudimentary simulations of simple material and energy balances in chemical engineering, particularly for dynamic systems like reactor control and distillation dynamics, by solving differential equations through electrical analogs.^[49] Companies such as DuPont and Exxon (formerly Esso) contributed to early industrial applications, adapting these tools for process optimization in petroleum refining and polymer production. The transition to digital methods began in chemical engineering labs during the late 1950s, with the first batch-oriented simulations developed by oil companies using precursors to Fortran, such as early assembly languages on IBM machines, to perform iterative calculations for steady-state flowsheets.^[3] This period saw the development of pioneering digital simulators, including the SPEED-UP system in 1964 by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), which introduced systematic flowsheet computation, and the GEMCS system in 1972, an early sequential modular approach.^[4] Fortran's release in 1956 marked a milestone, allowing more accessible programming of equilibrium-based models and paving the way for broader adoption in process design.

Modern Evolution

The advent of mainframe computers in the 1970s facilitated the development of the first commercial process simulation software, enabling more sophisticated modeling of chemical and industrial processes beyond manual calculations.^[50] Pioneering tools like Aspen Plus, released in 1982 by Aspen Technology, marked a significant milestone by providing steady-state simulation capabilities for process design and optimization in the chemical industry.^[51] During the 1980s, the field advanced with additional developments, while packages such as PRO/II from Simulation Sciences, under development since the early 1980s and released in 1990, leveraged mainframe power to simulate complex unit operations and flowsheets with greater accuracy and efficiency.^[52] The integration of personal computers in the 1990s democratized access to process simulation, shifting from centralized mainframes to desktop environments and accelerating adoption in engineering workflows. This era included the introduction of equation-oriented simulators like gPROMS in 1994, expanding capabilities for dynamic and nonlinear optimizations.^[4] Software like Aspen HYSYS, introduced in 1996 by Hyprotech (later acquired by Aspen Technology), was specifically designed for Windows-based PCs, allowing dynamic simulations of oil and gas processes with user-friendly interfaces and reduced computational costs. This era saw widespread implementation in industries, as PCs enabled iterative modeling without reliance on expensive hardware. From the 2000s onward, high-performance computing (HPC) revolutionized process simulation by supporting larger-scale and more intricate models, particularly for multiphase and reactive systems in chemical engineering.^[53] HPC clusters allowed simulations to handle millions of grid points, improving resolution for phenomena like turbulence and heat transfer that traditional methods struggled with.^[54] Concurrently, the incorporation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) into process simulators enhanced detailed flow analysis, enabling hybrid models that couple 1D process flowsheets with 3D CFD for equipment-level predictions in reactors and separators. Post-2010 developments have increasingly integrated artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to create surrogate models, such as neural networks, that approximate expensive physics-based simulations with high fidelity while reducing runtime.^[55] These surrogates, often trained on simulation data, facilitate rapid optimization in chemical processes like distillation and polymerization.^[55] Digital twins, virtual replicas updated in real-time with sensor data, have emerged as a key application, enabling predictive maintenance and control in manufacturing plants through ML-enhanced process models.^[56] Key trends shaping modern process simulation include the shift to cloud-based platforms for scalable, collaborative computing and the rise of open-source tools like DWSIM, which promote accessibility and customization for academic and small-scale industrial use.^[52] A growing emphasis on sustainability drives simulations for green process optimization, such as minimizing energy use in carbon capture and biofuel production.^[57] In the 2010s, process simulation saw broad adoption in renewables, modeling solar thermal systems and biomass conversion to support efficient design and scale-up.^[58] By the 2020s, AI-hybrid approaches have achieved significant computation time reductions in surrogate-assisted workflows, accelerating innovation in sustainable energy transitions.

Tools and Implementation

Software Packages

Process simulation software packages are essential tools for modeling and analyzing chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and other industrial processes. These packages generally fall into two categories: commercial proprietary software, which often provides robust support, extensive validation, and industry-specific features at a significant cost, and open-source alternatives, which offer flexibility and no licensing fees but may require more user expertise for customization and validation. Commercial tools dominate in enterprise settings due to their reliability and integration capabilities, while open-source options are popular in academia and research for prototyping. Capabilities vary by package, supporting steady-state simulations for equilibrium-based designs, dynamic simulations for transient operations, and sometimes 1D or 3D modeling for spatial distributions in reactors or pipelines. Key commercial packages include Aspen Plus and Aspen HYSYS from AspenTech, widely used for steady-state and dynamic simulations in oil and gas, refining, and pharmaceuticals. Aspen Plus excels in process design and optimization with over 37,000 built-in components and thermodynamic models like Peng-Robinson for hydrocarbon systems, enabling flowsheet simulations for distillation and reaction units.^[59] Aspen HYSYS extends this to dynamic modeling, particularly for upstream oil and gas operations such as reservoir-to-refinery integration, and includes safety analysis tools like flare system design. gPROMS from Process Systems Enterprise (now Siemens) specializes in advanced dynamic modeling for process control, optimization, and nonlinear model predictive control, supporting custom equation-oriented models for complex phenomena like crystallization or polymerization. COMSOL Multiphysics integrates process simulation with finite element analysis for multiphysics problems, such as heat transfer coupled with chemical reactions in 3D geometries, making it suitable for electrochemical or catalytic processes. Open-source packages provide accessible alternatives, with OpenModelica standing out as a free dynamic simulator based on the Modelica language for object-oriented modeling of physical systems. It supports equation-based simulations for processes like heat exchangers or control systems, with libraries for chemical engineering components, and is extensible via Python integration for data analysis. Other open-source tools like DWSIM offer steady-state capabilities with thermodynamic property calculations, though they lack the comprehensive validation of commercial suites. These tools facilitate collaborative development and are often used in educational settings to teach process dynamics without financial barriers. Common features across these packages include built-in property databases for pure components and mixtures, such as NIST-based thermophysical data for accurate vapor-liquid equilibrium predictions, and graphical user interfaces for drag-and-drop flowsheet construction. Many support export functionalities to optimization tools like MATLAB or gAMS for advanced parameter estimation and economic analysis, enhancing workflow efficiency in design iterations. For instance, Aspen packages integrate with Excel for sensitivity analysis, while COMSOL allows coupling with external solvers for hybrid simulations. Selection of a software package depends on several factors, including industry-specific libraries—such as electrolyte models in Aspen Plus for pharmaceutical applications involving ionic solutions—and scalability for large-scale simulations handling thousands of units. Cost is a major consideration, with commercial licenses like AspenTech's often exceeding $10,000 annually per user, plus maintenance fees, whereas open-source options like OpenModelica incur no direct costs but may require investment in training or hardware for computational demands. Users prioritize packages with validated models against experimental data, strong technical support, and compatibility with standards like OPC for real-time plant integration. In the oil and gas sector, for example, Aspen HYSYS is frequently selected for its proven accuracy in debottlenecking refinery operations, where simulations have identified significant throughput increases by optimizing crude distillation units.^[60]

Best Practices and Challenges

In process simulation, effective implementation relies on rigorous best practices to ensure model reliability and usability. Model validation against experimental or operational data is essential, involving comparisons of simulated outputs with real-world measurements to quantify discrepancies and refine parameters, such as adjusting thermodynamic models until predictions align within acceptable error margins. Modular building approaches, where simulations begin with simple components and progressively incorporate complexity, facilitate easier debugging and scalability, as seen in structured workflows that start with basic unit operations before integrating full systems.^[61] Thorough documentation of assumptions, including parameter sources and boundary conditions, supports reproducibility and team collaboration, reducing errors in iterative development.^[61] Managing uncertainty is critical for robust simulations, particularly in handling variability from input parameters like physical properties or operating conditions. Monte Carlo simulations propagate uncertainties by sampling random values from probability distributions of inputs, generating statistical distributions of outputs to assess risk, such as variability in reactor yields due to feed composition fluctuations.^[62] Sensitivity studies complement this by systematically varying individual parameters to identify influential factors, enabling prioritization of data refinement efforts, for instance, in distillation column designs where feed temperature impacts significantly more than minor impurities.^[63] Despite these practices, process simulation faces notable challenges. Computational intensity is a primary hurdle, especially for dynamic models that solve differential equations over time, often requiring hours or days on standard hardware for large-scale systems like refinery operations due to the need for fine time steps and iterative solvers.^[64] Trade-offs between model fidelity and simulation speed are inherent, as high-fidelity representations with detailed kinetics increase accuracy but escalate resource demands, necessitating simplified approximations for real-time applications like operator training.^[65] Integration with legacy systems poses additional difficulties, as older plant control architectures may lack compatible interfaces, complicating data exchange and leading to inconsistencies in hybrid simulations for retrofitting processes.^[66] Ethical considerations underscore the responsibility to mitigate overlooked risks in simulations. Simulations must account for rare events to avoid underestimating hazards, such as in nuclear processes where probabilistic modeling of low-frequency accidents like coolant failures is vital to prevent catastrophic oversights, ensuring public safety aligns with engineering codes.^[67] Looking ahead, addressing simulation gaps involves emerging technologies like quantum computing, which promises to handle ultra-complex molecular interactions intractable for classical systems, potentially revolutionizing simulations of catalytic reactions or polymer formations by solving quantum mechanical equations at unprecedented scales.^[68] Additionally, as of 2025, AI-supported simulation is gaining traction, enabling faster optimization and predictive capabilities in tools like Aspen HYSYS.^[69]

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Historical development of the vapor pressure equation from dalton to ...
The vapor pressure of a pure liquid or of a solution is a property that has been observed since antiquity. Here, we trace the different equations that have.
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Thermodynamics - Gilbert Newton Lewis, Merle Randall
Since its first publication in 1923, this volume has been considered one of the great books in the literature of chemistry. In the early 1960s, ...
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Warren Kendall Lewis | Biographical Memoirs: Volume 70
Lewis published thirteen papers on distillation and nine on evaporation; nineteen of his eighty-one patents were on distillation. The movement of underground ...
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What is a Process Flow Diagram - Lucidchart
This type of diagram has its roots in the 1920s. In 1921, industrial engineer and efficiency expert Frank Gilbreth, Sr. introduced the “flow process chart” to ...
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Analog Computer - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
In the early 1940s and 1950s, analog computers were commonly used to simulate continuous dynamic systems, mainly, automatic control systems, mechanical systems ...
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Fortran - Wikipedia
Fortran was originally developed by IBM with a reference manual being released in 1956; however, the first compilers only began to produce accurate code two ...Intel Fortran Compiler · Fortran 95 language features · GNU Fortran · Speedcoding
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[PDF] Introduction - JUST
Commercial process simulators first appeared in the 1970's. Currently ... commercial (and one open source) software applications for process simulation.Missing: history 1990s
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[PDF] The Development of Chemical Process Simulation Software ... - Aidic
In history Borland C++ and Visual Basic 6.0 are the first language for GUI designing, then Visual C++ MFC becomes the tendency, and now days C# and JAVA ...
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Aspen Plus | Leading Process Simulation Software - AspenTech
Applications · Adsorption & Chromatography Improvement. Optimize separation processes. · Batch Process Improvement. Simplify batch process development. · Energy ...
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Aspen HYSYS - Wikipedia
Aspen HYSYS (or simply HYSYS) is a chemical process simulator currently developed by AspenTech used to mathematically model chemical processes.
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What is Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)? - Ansys
Apr 24, 2024 · High-Performance Computing (HPC) (2000s-Present):. With advancements in HPC, running larger, more complex CFD models in less time is possible.
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(PDF) High-Performance Computing to Accelerate Large-Scale ...
This study paper presents an in-depth review of the function of high-performance computing (HPC) in enhancing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations on ...
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Computational fluid dynamics - Wikipedia
Recently CFD methods have gained traction for modeling the flow behavior of granular materials within various chemical processes in engineering. This ...<|separator|>
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A machine learning approach for the surrogate modeling of ...
This paper explores the capability of different machine learning techniques for modeling different chemical process with different non-linear behavior.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Digital twins in process engineering: An overview on computational ...
A digital twin (DT) is an automation strategy that combines a physical plant with an adaptive real-time simulation environment.Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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Computational Processes → Term - Sustainability Directory
Mar 14, 2025 · Term → Computational processes aid sustainability through data-driven analysis, optimization, and the modeling of complex environmental ...
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Impacts of digitalization on smart grids, renewable energy, and ...
Oct 26, 2024 · Common applications of AI include load forecasting, renewable energy production forecasting, detecting power quality issues, and identifying ...
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AI-Based Surrogate Models for the Food and Drink Manufacturing ...
Surrogate models provide virtual representations that mirror physical objects or processes, serving distinct purposes in simulations and digital ...3. Surrogate Modelling · 3.2. Surrogate Modelling... · 4.3. 2. Gaussian Process...<|separator|>
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Seven Golden Rules of Process Modelling - SysCAD
Dec 19, 2023 · 1. Clearly Define your Scope and Objectives. Before starting any simulation, it is essential to define the scope and objectives of the model.
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Simultaneous Process and Economic Uncertainty Analysis - AIChE
In the early stages of technology development, process simulators such as Aspen Plus and Aspen HYSYS enable engineers to quickly evaluate new processes. However ...
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The Monte Carlo driven and machine learning enhanced process ...
Jun 9, 2019 · This paper presents a methodology that integrates property uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis in commercial process simulators.
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What Is Dynamic Simulation? Engineering Applications & Methods
Dynamic simulation evaluates stability, control performance, and emergency response. A hybrid approach combines steady-state optimization with dynamic analysis, ...
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Dynamic Scheduling: A Comparison of High-Fidelity Models with ...
Oct 29, 2025 · This work investigates the trade-off between model fidelity and optimization complexity in dynamic scheduling under integrated dynamic ...
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The role of process engineering in the digital transformation
This paper examines several challenges specific to how process simulation limits the transformation of process engineering.
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Duck, Duck, Black Swan: How the Brain Can Simplify Rare, High ...
The human brain tends to simplify high-consequence, low-frequency events, which can be particularly dangerous in process hazard analysis (PHA) development.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Quantum Computing: An Emerging Tool for Chemical Engineers
May 18, 2021 · Quantum computing technology has been shown to be especially useful when solving problems involving chemistry, artificial intelligence, simulation tasks.