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Programmed fuel injection

Programmed fuel injection (PGM-FI) is a proprietary electronic fuel injection system developed by Honda Motor Company for optimizing fuel delivery in internal combustion engines across automobiles, motorcycles, all-terrain vehicles (ATVs), and scooters.^[1] It employs a computer-controlled Powertrain Control Module (PCM) that processes inputs from various sensors—such as throttle position, engine temperature, crankshaft position, intake manifold pressure, atmospheric pressure, exhaust-gas oxygen content, and intake air temperature—to activate fuel injectors precisely, ensuring an ideal air-fuel mixture for combustion.^[1] Honda's development of PGM-FI traces back to the company's early adoption of fuel injection technology, with the first production motorcycle featuring it being the 1982 CX500 Turbo model.^[2] Originating from road racing applications, the system was refined for street-legal vehicles, ATVs, and eventually smaller engines, marking a milestone in 2003 with the world's first electronically controlled PGM-FI for a 4-stroke 50cc scooter.^[2] By integrating advanced components like a 32-bit CPU that combines alternator control with fuel management, and compact elements such as two-hole injectors and ultra-miniature step-motor air valves, PGM-FI achieves functional efficiency with fewer parts—reducing the component count to eight in small-displacement models compared to 15 in larger ones.^[2] The system's key benefits include enhanced engine power and driveability, superior fuel economy (up to 10% improvement in urban conditions for certain models), and significantly reduced emissions, meeting or exceeding stringent regulations like halving CO and HC outputs in 50cc applications.^[1]^[2] Additionally, it facilitates easier maintenance through stored diagnostic trouble codes and supports reliable cold starts and battery-independent operation via kick-start compatibility.^[1] PGM-FI is applied in select Honda models worldwide, from compact scooters transitioning fully in Japan by 2007 to high-performance ATVs and motorcycles, underscoring Honda's commitment to efficient, low-emission mobility.^[2]

Overview

Definition and Principles

Programmed fuel injection (PGM-FI) is a proprietary electronic fuel injection (EFI) system developed by Honda, in which an electronic control unit (ECU), also known as the powertrain control module (PCM), calculates and delivers precise quantities of fuel at optimal timing based on real-time data from various engine sensors, such as those monitoring throttle position, engine temperature, crankshaft position, intake manifold pressure, atmospheric pressure, exhaust-gas oxygen content, and intake air temperature.^[1] This approach enables multi-point port injection, where fuel is sprayed into the intake ports, ensuring efficient mixing with incoming air for combustion.^[3] The core principles of PGM-FI revolve around the atomization of pressurized fuel into a fine mist by solenoid-operated injectors, which promotes rapid vaporization and uniform distribution within the air stream in the intake manifold (port injection) to achieve complete combustion and minimize unburned hydrocarbons.^[3] This process targets an optimal air-fuel ratio, with the stoichiometric mixture for gasoline engines typically at 14.7:1 by mass, balancing power output, fuel economy, and emissions control by providing just enough fuel for the available oxygen to fully oxidize the hydrocarbons without excess.^[4] The ECU processes sensor inputs to adjust injection pulse width and timing dynamically, adapting to operating conditions like load, speed, and temperature for enhanced efficiency.^[5] PGM-FI systems operate in either open-loop or closed-loop modes to refine fuel delivery. In open-loop operation, the ECU relies solely on pre-programmed fuel maps derived from sensor data like engine speed and load, without exhaust feedback, which is used during startup, wide-open throttle, or when sensors are not at operating temperature to prioritize rapid response.^[6] Closed-loop operation, activated once the oxygen sensor reaches operational temperature, incorporates feedback from the exhaust gas oxygen (EGO) sensor to measure the actual air-fuel ratio in the exhaust and make real-time corrections to the base fuel map, trimming the mixture toward stoichiometry for lower emissions and better economy—typically within ±5% of the target via proportional-integral control algorithms.^[6] This feedback loop ensures the system self-adjusts for variables like fuel quality or altitude, maintaining precise control over combustion. The term "programmed" in PGM-FI originates from Honda's early adoption of digital ECU programming for fuel management, first implemented in production vehicles like the 1985 CRX Si and Prelude, marking a shift to microprocessor-based control in the 1980s for superior precision over mechanical systems.^[7]

Comparison to Carburetors and Mechanical Injection

Programmed fuel injection, also known as electronic fuel injection (EFI), differs fundamentally from carburetors in its method of air-fuel mixture preparation. Carburetors rely on a fixed venturi effect to draw fuel into the airstream through a mechanical throttle, resulting in a relatively static air-fuel ratio that does not adjust dynamically to varying engine conditions.^[8] In contrast, EFI uses electronically controlled injectors to deliver precise amounts of fuel directly into the intake manifold or cylinders, enabling real-time adjustments based on sensor feedback for optimal stoichiometry. This dynamic control enhances cold-start performance by enriching the mixture as needed without manual choking and significantly reduces emissions through better combustion efficiency.^[9] Quantitative studies demonstrate the environmental and efficiency advantages of EFI over carbureted systems. For instance, in utility engines, EFI can achieve reductions of up to 63% in carbon monoxide (CO) emissions and 30% in hydrocarbons (HC) compared to carburetors, primarily due to closed-loop feedback that maintains leaner mixtures under partial loads.^[10] Fuel economy improvements typically range from 10% to 30%, as the precise metering minimizes fuel waste and allows for adaptive timing across operating conditions.^[11] Compared to mechanical fuel injection systems, which use fixed cams, pumps, or linkages to time and meter fuel delivery, programmed EFI offers superior adaptability through its electronic control unit (ECU). Mechanical systems provide consistent injection based on engine speed but cannot readily compensate for variables like load changes, altitude, or temperature without physical adjustments.^[12] The programmable ECU in EFI systems employs mapping algorithms to optimize injection timing and quantity, resulting in smoother operation and further emission reductions relative to mechanical setups in comparable engines.^[13] The transition to electronic fuel injection in U.S. vehicles during the 1970s was largely driven by stringent emissions regulations under the Clean Air Act of 1970, which mandated sharp cuts in tailpipe pollutants and spurred the development of electronic controls to meet standards unattainable with carburetors alone.^[14] This shift contributed to overall fleet-wide reductions of over 99% in HC and CO emissions since 1970, alongside improved fuel efficiency.^[14]

History

Early Mechanical Precursors

The foundations of programmed fuel injection trace back to early mechanical systems designed to deliver fuel more precisely than carburetors, beginning with Rudolf Diesel's invention of the compression-ignition engine in the 1890s. Diesel's prototype, successfully tested in 1897, utilized a mechanical fuel injection mechanism where high-pressure fuel was sprayed directly into the combustion chamber, ignited by the heat of compressed air rather than a spark. This system achieved an efficiency of 26.2%, surpassing contemporary steam engines by over 16%, and marked the first practical application of injected fuel in internal combustion engines for industrial use.^[15] In the 1920s and early 1930s, mechanical fuel injection advanced further, particularly through prototypes like the common-rail system developed by Brooks Walker and Harry Kennedy. Their late-1920s concept employed a shared high-pressure fuel rail to supply multiple injectors, allowing for more uniform fuel distribution in diesel engines; this was first applied by the Atlas-Imperial Diesel Engine Company in the early 1930s. Concurrently, Robert Bosch GmbH pioneered mechanical gasoline direct injection for aircraft engines in the early 1930s, enhancing performance by replacing carburetors with pressure-regulated pumps that metered fuel based on engine speed and throttle position. These innovations laid groundwork for aviation demands, where reliable fuel delivery under varying altitudes was critical.^[16]^[17] By the 1930s, Mercedes-Benz integrated pressure-based metering into diesel engines, exemplified by the OM 138 four-cylinder unit introduced in the 260 D passenger car in 1936. This engine used a Bosch inline injection pump to deliver fuel into pre-chambers, enabling the world's first series-production diesel passenger vehicle with 45 horsepower output. The system relied on mechanical linkages for timing and quantity control, improving torque and economy over carbureted gasoline engines.^[18] Adoption expanded in the 1950s to high-performance gasoline cars, such as the Goliath GP 700 Sport coupe introduced in 1951, which featured Bosch mechanical direct injection on its two-stroke twin-cylinder engine. This marked the first production passenger car with mechanical fuel injection, boosting power from 25 to 32 horsepower through continuous low-pressure delivery synchronized with intake via mechanical cams.^[19] Despite these advances, early mechanical precursors suffered from inherent limitations, primarily their reliance on fixed mechanical linkages and cams for fuel metering, which prevented dynamic adjustments to variables like temperature, altitude, or load without manual recalibration. This rigidity often resulted in suboptimal air-fuel ratios under diverse operating conditions, contrasting with later electronic systems that enabled real-time adaptations.^[20]

Development of Electronic Systems

The development of electronic fuel injection systems marked a significant shift from mechanical methods, beginning with early experimental efforts in the late 1950s. In 1958, Bendix introduced the Electrojector system on select Chrysler models, such as the DeSoto Adventurer and Chrysler 300D, representing the first production electronic fuel injection for automobiles.^[21] This vacuum tube-based technology aimed to provide precise fuel metering but proved unreliable due to frequent failures in transistors and other components, leading to its discontinuation after just one model year and only about 35 units produced.^[22] Despite these setbacks, the Electrojector demonstrated the potential of electronic control over fuel delivery, paving the way for more robust designs. A major breakthrough came in 1967 with Bosch's D-Jetronic system, the first successful production digital electronic fuel injection (EFI) implemented on the Volkswagen Type 3 1600 model.^[23] This analog-digital hybrid used speed-density calculations—relying on manifold pressure, engine speed, and temperature sensors—to determine fuel needs and deliver grouped injections, improving efficiency and emissions compared to carburetors.^[24] In the 1970s, Bosch further advanced the technology with the K-Jetronic system, a mechanical-hydraulic continuous injection setup with electronic enhancements for air metering, adopted by manufacturers like Mercedes-Benz and Porsche for better cold-start performance and fuel economy.^[25] The adoption of EFI accelerated in the 1970s due to the oil crises of 1973 and 1979, which spiked fuel prices and highlighted the need for efficiency, alongside the introduction of U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards in 1975 requiring improved mileage.^[26] Honda contributed to this momentum with its Programmed Fuel Injection (PGM-FI) system debuting on the 1982 CX500 Turbo motorcycle, the first production bike with electronic fuel injection featuring redundant fail-safes for reliability.^[27] Honda's PGM-FI originated from technologies developed for road racing in the 1970s, where electronic controls were refined for precise fuel management under high-performance conditions. The system's expansion to automobiles began in the mid-1980s, with the 1985 Honda Accord and Prelude models in Japan adopting PGM-FI for improved drivability and emissions compliance. By the late 1980s, stricter U.S. emissions regulations drove widespread EFI adoption in passenger cars for precise air-fuel ratios.^[2] The 1990s saw a further evolution to sequential port injection, where each injector fired individually timed to the engine cycle, enhancing combustion efficiency and reducing emissions, as seen in systems from Ford and General Motors. Honda integrated sequential PGM-FI across its lineup, including VTEC engines, contributing to better fuel economy and performance.^[28]

System Components

Sensors and Inputs

Programmed fuel injection systems rely on a network of sensors to monitor engine conditions and provide real-time data to the Powertrain Control Module (PCM) for precise fuel delivery. These sensors detect parameters such as air intake, engine speed, load, and exhaust composition, enabling the system to adjust the air-fuel mixture dynamically.^[1] Core sensors in Honda's PGM-FI include the manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor for measuring intake air pressure to infer air density in speed-density systems.^[1] The crankshaft position sensor tracks engine rotation and piston position, generating a pulse signal that informs fuel injection timing relative to the combustion cycle.^[1] The throttle position sensor (TPS), mounted on the throttle body, detects throttle valve angle to indicate engine load.^[1] Oxygen sensors, located in the exhaust manifold, provide feedback on the air-fuel ratio by measuring oxygen content in exhaust gases. Narrowband oxygen sensors produce a switching voltage signal between 0.1 V (rich mixture) and 0.9 V (lean mixture), operating effectively near the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of 14.7:1.^[1] Additional inputs include the engine coolant temperature (ECT) sensor, which monitors coolant temperature via a thermistor to adjust fuel enrichment during cold starts, and the intake air temperature (IAT) sensor, which measures incoming air density to compensate for temperature variations.^[1] The atmospheric pressure sensor gauges external air pressure to further refine air-fuel calculations under varying environmental conditions.^[1] An idle air control valve (IACV), driven by an ultra-miniature step-motor, precisely regulates idle airflow in increments as small as 30 µm for stable operation.^[2] Sensor outputs are generally processed as analog voltages, frequencies, or pulse-width modulated signals by the PCM.^[1]

Electronic Control Unit and Injectors

The Powertrain Control Module (PCM) is a microprocessor-based controller that forms the core of programmed fuel injection systems, processing data to optimize engine performance. It incorporates read-only memory (ROM) for fixed calibration data and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) to store fuel maps—multidimensional lookup tables that correlate sensor inputs like engine speed and load to required fuel quantities. In PGM-FI, the PCM features a 32-bit CPU that integrates alternator control with fuel management for enhanced efficiency, particularly in compact models.^[1]^[2] The PCM receives electrical signals from engine sensors, integrates this information to determine optimal fuel delivery, and generates pulse-width modulated (PWM) output signals to drive the injectors, precisely timing and metering fuel sprays for efficient combustion.^[1] Fuel injectors are solenoid-actuated precision valves responsible for atomizing and delivering fuel under PCM command. In PGM-FI port fuel injection systems, injectors are mounted in the intake manifold near the intake valves, spraying fuel into the airstream for mixing before entering the cylinder. For small-displacement engines, two-hole injectors provide optimized atomization with compact design, reducing volume to one-third that of larger models while achieving high fuel mist quality.^[2] Both configurations use an electromagnetic solenoid to lift a needle valve, opening the injector orifice for durations typically ranging from 2 to 20 milliseconds per engine cycle, which allows a controlled volume of fuel to be released as a fine mist. A common rail or fuel line pressure regulator maintains system pressure at 3 to 5 bar, ensuring reliable differential pressure across the injectors for consistent atomization.^[1] For reliability, the PCM includes self-diagnostic capabilities, generating On-Board Diagnostics II (OBD-II) codes to flag injector circuit issues, enabling technicians to isolate failures.^[1]

Operation

Fuel Delivery Process

In programmed fuel injection systems, the fuel delivery process begins with the electric fuel pump, typically located in the fuel tank, drawing gasoline from the reservoir and pressurizing it to a fuel rail that serves as a common manifold for distribution to the injectors. This pressurization maintains a consistent supply at 30-50 psi for port injection systems, ensuring reliable flow under varying engine conditions. The pressurized fuel remains available in the rail until signaled by the electronic control unit (ECU).^[29]^[3] The ECU then calculates the precise injection timing and duration based on engine speed (RPM) and load, using inputs to determine the optimal air-fuel ratio, often targeting a stoichiometric 14.7:1 mixture for balanced combustion and emissions control. In sequential injection, the preferred method in modern systems, each injector fires individually in the engine's firing order, delivering fuel just before or during the intake stroke for the specific cylinder, which enhances mixture uniformity and throttle response compared to older simultaneous or batch firing where groups of injectors activate together. This sequential approach allows for more accurate metering, reducing fuel waste and improving efficiency.^[29]^[30]^[31] Upon activation, the solenoid-operated injectors open briefly to spray a fine mist of atomized fuel, with droplet sizes around 10 micrometers for optimal vaporization, into the intake port (port injection) where it mixes with incoming air to form a homogeneous mixture during the intake stroke. In a typical 4-stroke engine cycle, injection occurs once every two crankshaft revolutions, synchronized with the camshaft position sensor to align precisely with the intake stroke, ensuring fuel delivery coincides with the piston's downward movement and valve opening.^[32]^[30]^[33]

Programming and Control Logic

The programming and control logic in programmed fuel injection systems primarily revolves around fuel maps, which are multidimensional lookup tables stored in the electronic control unit (ECU) to determine the precise amount of fuel to inject based on real-time engine conditions. These maps typically consist of 2D or 3D grids where axes represent key parameters such as engine speed (RPM) and manifold absolute pressure or airflow rate, with values indicating the base injector pulse width (PW) in milliseconds. For operating points not aligning exactly with grid intersections, the ECU employs interpolation algorithms—often linear or bilinear—to estimate intermediate values, ensuring continuous and responsive fuel delivery without abrupt changes.^[34]^[35] Control strategies in these systems alternate between open-loop and closed-loop modes to balance reliability, emissions, and performance. During engine startup, cold starts, or warm-up phases, open-loop control is used, relying solely on the pre-programmed fuel maps and sensor inputs without feedback correction, as exhaust gas temperatures may be too low for accurate sensor operation. Once the engine reaches operating temperature, the system shifts to closed-loop control, incorporating feedback from an oxygen (O2) sensor in the exhaust to monitor the air-fuel ratio (AFR) and trim the base pulse width by up to ±25% as needed, thereby maintaining optimal combustion efficiency and reducing emissions. This transition enhances precision, as the O2 sensor detects deviations from the target AFR and signals the ECU to adjust fuel delivery accordingly.^[36]^[37] Adaptive learning mechanisms further refine the control logic over time, allowing the ECU to modify fuel maps dynamically based on sensor data to account for engine wear, fuel variations, or environmental changes. Knock sensors detect abnormal combustion vibrations indicative of detonation, prompting the ECU to retard ignition timing or reduce fuel delivery in affected cylinders, with learned adjustments stored in non-volatile memory to prevent recurrence under similar conditions. The core calculation for injector pulse width incorporates these adaptations via the equation:

PW = (base\ fuel \times modifiers) + battery\ compensation

Here, base fuel is derived from the fuel map, modifiers include corrections for temperature, pressure, and adaptive trims, and battery compensation adjusts for voltage variations—typically adding 0.5–2 ms at lower voltages (e.g., below 12 V) to ensure consistent injector opening time, as solenoid response slows with reduced electrical supply.^[38]^[39] A key aspect of this logic is lambda (λ) control, which targets an AFR corresponding to λ ≈ 1.0 (stoichiometric ratio of approximately 14.7:1 air to fuel by mass for gasoline) during normal operation to optimize catalytic converter efficiency and minimize pollutants. The ECU continuously calculates λ from O2 sensor voltage and adjusts PW to maintain this value, with deviations triggering short-term trims that influence long-term adaptive maps. Idle speed control integrates this by modulating throttle position, ignition advance, and fuel PW in a proportional-integral (PI) feedback loop, using inputs from the throttle position sensor and RPM feedback to stabilize engine speed at 600–900 RPM while accounting for accessory loads like air conditioning.^[40]^[41]

Applications and Advancements

Automotive Implementations

Honda's Programmed Fuel Injection (PGM-FI) has been widely applied in passenger cars since its introduction on the 1985 Accord, which used the system to meet U.S. Clean Air Act standards by optimizing air-fuel ratios and reducing hydrocarbon emissions.^[42]^[1] The technology became standard in models like the Civic (starting 1988), Prelude, and CR-X, enabling precise fuel delivery for better efficiency and performance. By the 1990s, PGM-FI was integrated into most Honda gasoline engines, contributing to the phase-out of carburetors in line with federal emissions requirements. In hybrid vehicles, PGM-FI integrates with electric motor control in Honda's e:HEV system, using the Atkinson-cycle engine to adjust fuel delivery based on battery state and motor assist, enhancing efficiency during mixed-mode operation. For example, models like the CR-V e:HEV and Accord Hybrid employ PGM-FI for seamless power transitions and up to 10% better fuel economy in urban driving.^[43]^[1] Honda also applies PGM-FI in flex-fuel vehicles in markets like Brazil, where ECUs recalibrate for ethanol-gasoline blends up to E100, using sensors to detect fuel content and adjust injection timing for consistent performance, while incorporating corrosion-resistant components.^[44]

Modern Developments and Variations

Honda's PGM-FI has evolved with advancements like integration into the Earth Dreams engine series, featuring direct injection variants for improved combustion control and higher compression ratios, achieving up to 15% fuel savings over port-only systems in select models since 2012.^[45] In marine applications, PGM-FI is used in Honda outboard engines, such as the BF115-150 series, providing multi-port injection for quick starts, reduced emissions, and fuel efficiency across RPM ranges, with corrosion-resistant designs for saltwater use since the early 2000s.^[46] As of January 2025, Honda issued a recall for approximately 295,000 vehicles in the U.S. to update PGM-FI software in the electronic control unit, enhancing fuel injection precision and emissions compliance without hardware changes.^[47] Emerging trends include cybersecurity enhancements for PGM-FI ECUs in connected vehicles, incorporating encryption to protect against diagnostic port vulnerabilities as per evolving automotive standards.^[48]

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Chrysler Injector Characterization
Looking at the battery compensation table to the right, you can see that we have a pulse width value in microseconds vs battery voltage on the X Axis, and ...Missing: modifiers | Show results with:modifiers
[58]
Air fuel ratio - x-engineer.org
The stoichiometric air fuel ratio is around 14.7:1. This means that, in order to burn completely 1 kg of fuel, we need 14.7 kg of air.
[59]
Air-Fuel Ratio - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Lambda (λ) is the ratio of actual air–fuel ratio to stoichiometry for a given mixture. Lambda of 1.0 is at stoichiometry, rich mixtures are less than 1.0, and ...
[60]
Fuel Injection - AutoZine Technical School
By the early 1990s, most new cars were fitted with fuel injection. Fuel ... The MPI is also called Sequential fuel injection because injections are ...
[61]
Honda Accord Sedan (1985) - pictures, information & specs
Vehicles with PGM-FI (ES3 series engine) earned 13.2 km/L (37 mpg-imp; 31 mpg-US) based on Japanese Government emissions tests using 10 different modes of ...
[62]
Diesel Fuel Injection - DieselNet
While conventional fuel injection systems employ a single injection event for every engine cycle, newer systems can use multiple injection events. Figure 3 ...Low-Pressure Side Components · Pump-Line-Nozzle Injection... · Common rail<|separator|>
[63]
CP4.2 High-pressure Fuel Pump - Diesel World Magazine
Oct 26, 2021 · With 39,000 psi (2,700 bar) capability, the CP4 can meet even the most stringent diesel emission standards, and it's been used in conjunction ...
[64]
Megasquirt EFI - Fuel injection and Ignition Control ECU
Megasquirt is an affordable aftermarket fuel injection and ignition ECU. Support a wide range of engines and has many race features built-in.
[65]
Honda Presents Next-generation e:HEV Technologies at Press ...
Dec 18, 2024 · Honda hybrid-electric vehicles equipped with the e:HEV system realize outstanding fuel economy (environmental performance), achieved by the ...
[66]
The Ultimate Guide: Gasoline Direct Injection - GB Remanufacturing
Jun 6, 2022 · The results are impressive; a 15% decrease in fuel consumption, 5% improvement in engine torque output and reduced emissions. The downside being ...
[67]
How Do Flexible Fuel Cars Work Using Ethanol?
Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) have an internal combustion engine and are capable of operating on gasoline and any blend of gasoline and ethanol up to 83%.Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[68]
Toyota D-4S: Port Fuel Or Direct Fuel Injection? Why Not Both? -
Rating 4.8 (4) Mar 21, 2019 · The D-4S system uses both port and direct fuel injection, blending them for best performance, emissions, and economy, and avoiding carbon ...
[69]
A Comprehensive Experimental Examination of Port Fuel Injection ...
30-day returnsApr 8, 2024 · This study presents an experimental investigation of hydrogen (H2) combustion and engine performance in a boosted spark ignition (SI) engine.
[70]
An Overview of Common Rail System in Marine Engines
Aug 21, 2019 · Common rail system is a type of fuel injection system used in the marine engines on ship. Find out more about these systems in the article ...
[71]
Injection Technology | iS Engines
Automation, iS injection technology, and the option to use unleaded automotive fuels allows Rotax aircraft engines to burn cleaner. A cleaner burn minimizes ...
[72]
Integration of a Model Predictive Control with a Fast Energy ... - MDPI
The present work proposes a real-time implementation of a control strategy able to handle simultaneously motion and hybrid powertrain controls.
[73]
A comprehensive review of security vulnerabilities in heavy-duty ...
This survey paper aims to investigate the security vulnerabilities of heavy-duty vehicles, highlighting their differences from light-duty vehicles and ...