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Prorogation

Prorogation is the procedural act by which a session of a parliament in Westminster-derived systems is formally terminated, suspending legislative business until the commencement of the subsequent session.^[1] It differs from dissolution, which ends the entire parliamentary term and triggers elections, as prorogation preserves the existence of the legislature while halting its proceedings, including the lapse of unfinished bills unless provisions for carryover exist.^[2]^[1] Initiated by the executive—typically the prime minister—and executed through a proclamation by the head of state or viceroy, prorogation historically served to structure parliamentary calendars, allowing recesses for reflection or elections without fully interrupting the body's mandate.^[1]^[2] In practice, it clears the legislative agenda, nullifying pending questions, motions, and committees, though select carryover mechanisms have been introduced in jurisdictions like the United Kingdom to mitigate disruptions.^[2] While routine in most cases, prorogation's exercise of prerogative power has sparked controversies when perceived as a tool to evade scrutiny, as evidenced by judicial interventions affirming limits on its duration and purpose; for instance, Canada's 2008 prorogation delayed a confidence vote amid government-minority tensions, and the United Kingdom's 2019 five-week prorogation was ruled unlawful by the Supreme Court for excessively frustrating Parliament's ability to hold the executive accountable.^[3] These episodes underscore prorogation's dual role as both administrative necessity and potential check on legislative oversight, with courts increasingly scrutinizing its justiciability under constitutional conventions.^[4]

Definition and Purpose

Core Mechanisms and Effects

Prorogation is effected through a royal prerogative exercised by the Crown, typically on the advice of the prime minister, via a formal proclamation that declares the end of the current parliamentary session.^[2] This proclamation is read in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords (or equivalent chambers in other Westminster systems), immediately terminating all active parliamentary proceedings without requiring legislative approval.^[5] Unlike dissolution, which ends the parliament entirely and triggers elections, prorogation preserves the existence of the legislature, allowing members to retain their seats until a subsequent dissolution.^[6] The core effect of prorogation is the suspension of legislative and oversight functions, clearing the order paper of unfinished business. Bills that have not received royal assent lapse entirely, with no automatic carry-over between sessions unless specific statutory provisions apply in exceptional cases, such as certain money bills or hybrid procedures in jurisdictions like Canada.^[2] ^[7] Select committees and their investigations are dissolved, though final reports may be tabled for reference in the next session; motions, questions, and debates are dropped, halting direct parliamentary scrutiny of the executive.^[5] During prorogation, the government continues to operate administratively and can issue orders in council or secondary legislation, but it faces reduced accountability as Parliament cannot convene for debates, votes of confidence, or inquiries.^[2] This mechanism allows the executive to reset the legislative agenda for the forthcoming session, often aligning it more closely with government priorities, though prolonged prorogations—such as the five-week period ordered in the United Kingdom on August 28, 2019—can limit Parliament's influence over urgent matters like budgetary approvals or treaty ratifications.^[2] In practice, sessions typically last one to two years before prorogation, with the timing strategically chosen to avoid defeats on key legislation.^[5] Prorogation terminates a parliamentary session without ending the Parliament itself, allowing the same members to convene for a subsequent session, whereas dissolution concludes the entire Parliament and mandates a general election to form a new one.^[2]^[8] During prorogation, all unfinished legislative business, such as pending bills and motions, lapses and must be reintroduced in the new session, but select committees may continue their work or report findings.^[2] In contrast, dissolution not only halts all parliamentary proceedings but also vacates all seats, requiring MPs to seek re-election.^[8] Adjournment differs from prorogation as it represents a temporary interruption within an ongoing session, permitting Parliament to resume business without resetting the legislative agenda or lapsing bills.^[9] Prorogation, by ending the session, imposes a more definitive pause, during which neither House nor committees typically meet, though certain documents can still be laid before Parliament.^[10] Adjournments can occur daily, for recesses, or over holidays, maintaining continuity, whereas prorogation aligns with annual cycles to structure sessions around the legislative program, such as following the State Opening.^[1]

Parliamentary Action	Effect on Session	Effect on Parliament	Impact on Legislation and Business	Leads to Election?
Prorogation	Ends current session; new session follows	Continues with same members	Unfinished bills lapse; motions die; committees may persist	No^[2]^[9]
Dissolution	Ends session and entire term	Terminates; seats vacated	All business ceases; new Parliament starts anew	Yes^[8]
Adjournment	Temporary pause within session	Unaffected	Business resumes without lapse	No^[9]

Suspension, less formalized in Westminster systems, may occur informally for security or procedural reasons but does not equate to prorogation's structured termination of a session; for instance, the 2019 UK prorogation attempt was distinguished from mere suspension as it aimed to reset the legislative calendar, though ultimately deemed unlawful for excessive duration.^[11] Prorogation's effects are procedural and anticipatory of a new session's agenda, avoiding the electoral reset of dissolution while exceeding adjournment's brevity.^[7]

Historical Development

Origins in Ancient Rome

In ancient Rome, prorogatio imperii denoted the legal extension of a magistrate's sovereign authority (imperium) beyond the standard annual term of office, enabling former consuls or praetors to serve as promagistrates (pro consule or pro praetore) in military commands or provincial administration. This mechanism addressed the Republic's growing administrative and military demands, particularly after territorial expansions, by retaining experienced leaders rather than relying solely on newly elected officials. The Senate typically decreed the prorogation, though early instances involved popular assemblies, ensuring continuity without violating the principle of annual magistracies.^[12]^[13] The earliest documented prorogation occurred in 326 BC during the Second Samnite War, when the consul Publius Publilius Philo had his imperium extended to prosecute ongoing operations against Samnite forces, as recorded by Livy. This innovation arose from wartime necessities, where abrupt term endings risked operational failures; Philo's extension allowed sustained pressure on enemies without awaiting new elections. By the 3rd century BC, such extensions became routine for praetors managing nascent provinces, with the practice formalizing after the First Punic War (264–241 BC), when Sicily's annexation required prolonged governance to stabilize Roman control over acquired territories.^[14]^[15] Etymologically, prorogatio stems from the verb prorogāre, meaning "to prolong" or "to extend forward," originally tied to proposing or deferring legislative matters but adapted for magisterial terms. As Rome's empire grew, prorogation evolved into a cornerstone of republican governance, with nearly all provincial governors operating as promagistrates by the late Republic; this shifted authority dynamics, often leading to prolonged commands that foreshadowed personal ambitions, as seen in figures like Scipio Africanus, whose 218 BC prorogation enabled his Iberian campaign against Hannibal. However, the procedure remained a pragmatic response to expansionist pressures rather than a deliberate power grab, maintaining senatorial oversight amid annual turnover.^[16]^[12]

Evolution in English and British Constitutional Practice

The practice of prorogation emerged in medieval England as a mechanism for the Crown to suspend parliamentary sessions without dissolution, with the first recorded instance occurring in 1399 during Henry IV's reign, where it served as a recess allowing continuation of business in a subsequent sitting.^[17] By the fifteenth century, monarchs routinely employed prorogation to dismiss assemblies after securing tax approvals, often arbitrarily, which generated parliamentary resentment but underscored the sovereign's control over legislative timing.^[18] This early usage distinguished prorogation from adjournment, the latter being a shorter, house-initiated break that preserved bills, while prorogation terminated unfinished legislation unless specially carried over.^[19] In the Tudor era, prorogation became a tool for managing contentious debates, as exemplified by Elizabeth I's multiple suspensions between 1572 and 1581—proroguing on ten occasions from 1572 to 1576 and twenty-six times from 1576 to 1581—to curb discussions on sensitive issues like royal marriage proposals, such as in 1559 when she avoided public scrutiny of a potential union with Francis, Duke of Alençon.^[18] ^[20] The practice formalized during the Reformation, with journals shifting terminology from "continuavit" to "prorogavit" in the 1530s–1540s to reflect multi-session parliaments, and commissions occasionally used for adjournments to salvage bills, as in 1584.^[17] Tensions escalated under the early Stuarts, where prorogation fueled constitutional conflicts; James I dissolved Parliament in 1614 amid funding disputes and attempted forced adjournments in 1621, which the Commons resisted by asserting self-adjournment rights.^[19] Charles I's 1629 prorogation of a hostile assembly opposing unauthorized taxes led to an eleven-year suspension without reconvention, exacerbating grievances that contributed to the English Civil War.^[18] In response, the 1641 Triennial Act under Charles I mandated parliamentary consent for prorogations or dissolutions exceeding fifty days and required triennial meetings, curtailing royal discretion.^[19] Post-Restoration, the 1664 Triennial Act relaxed these limits, enabling Charles II to prorogue Parliament for fifteen months in 1675, yet the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689 shifted dynamics toward annual sessions driven by the Crown's financial dependence on parliamentary supply, establishing a convention of regular meetings by 1692 without formal statutory enforcement.^[19] ^[17] The Bill of Rights 1689 implicitly reinforced parliamentary continuity by prohibiting suspensions of law without consent, though prorogation retained its prerogative status.^[19] By the nineteenth century, prorogation evolved into a more procedural instrument amid growing parliamentary sovereignty; the Prorogation Act 1867 streamlined short recesses via proclamation, reducing ceremonial burdens.^[17] From 1854, royal commissions formalized the process, transitioning effective control to ministers advising the Crown, a convention solidified over a century.^[18] In contemporary practice since the 1980s, prorogations have shortened to typically under two weeks—often mere days—marking routine session ends, with the Privy Council announcing on the sovereign's behalf, though carry-over provisions for bills emerged in the late twentieth century, as with the Financial Services and Markets Bill in 1998–99.^[2] ^[1] This reflects a shift from monarchical weaponization to executive facilitation of legislative cycles, bounded by conventions of accountability rather than absolute prerogative.^[2]

Constitutional and Procedural Framework

Prerogative Nature and Executive Authority

Prorogation constitutes a royal prerogative power, originating from the inherent authority of the Crown and uncodified in statute, whereby the executive may terminate a parliamentary session without parliamentary consent.^[2] This prerogative, rooted in common law and constitutional convention, allows the Sovereign to prorogue Parliament on the advice of ministers, distinguishing it from legislative processes that require bicameral approval.^[21] Unlike dissolution, which ends a Parliament entirely, prorogation preserves the body's existence but halts its proceedings until a new session is summoned.^[2] In Westminster parliamentary systems, executive authority over prorogation vests primarily in the Prime Minister, who tenders formal advice to the monarch or viceregal representative, such as a Governor-General in realms like Canada or Australia.^[2] The Crown acts in a formal capacity without discretion, rendering the decision effectively unilateral to the government, which remains politically accountable to Parliament for its exercise once reconvened.^[22] This structure underscores the separation wherein the executive initiates session endings to manage legislative timing, often aligning with governmental priorities like budget cycles or agenda resets, without statutory limits on duration beyond constitutional maxima in some jurisdictions.^[5] Judicial oversight has affirmed the justiciability of prorogation where executive motives undermine parliamentary sovereignty, as established in the 2019 UK Supreme Court ruling, yet the core prerogative endures as an executive tool unbound by prior legislative veto.^[23] In practice, prorogations occur routinely—typically lasting weeks to facilitate procedural breaks—but extended uses have tested the balance, prompting calls for statutory reform to curb potential executive overreach without eroding the prerogative's foundational role in constitutional flexibility.^[24]

Involvement of the Crown or Governor-General

In constitutional monarchies following the Westminster model, prorogation is a royal prerogative formally exercised by the Crown, represented either by the sovereign in the United Kingdom or by the Governor-General in Commonwealth realms such as Canada and Australia.^[25]^[9] This authority stems from the Crown's historical role in summoning, maintaining, and ending parliamentary sessions, distinct from dissolution which ends a parliament altogether.^[7] The act typically occurs via proclamation, speech from the throne, or ceremonial announcement in the upper house, marking the end of the session without terminating the legislative body's term.^[5] The decision to prorogue originates with the executive—usually the Prime Minister advising the Privy Council—but the Crown or Governor-General provides the formal assent, rendering it effective.^[9]^[26] In practice, this involvement is ceremonial, as the prerogative is exercised on ministerial advice absent exceptional circumstances warranting reserve powers, such as preventing unconstitutional governance.^[27] Historical precedents, including the 2008 Canadian prorogation and the 2019 UK case R (Miller) v The Prime Minister, illustrate judicial scrutiny of the process, affirming that while the Crown's role is formal, prorogations must align with constitutional principles rather than executive overreach.^[9] Governor-Generals, as the monarch's viceroys, mirror this role in dominions, proroguing parliament upon prime ministerial request while retaining theoretical discretion derived from the Crown's prerogative.^[26]^[5] For instance, under section 5 of the Australian Constitution, the Governor-General holds explicit authority to prorogue, though conventionally bound by advice.^[26] This structure underscores the Crown's position as a constitutional safeguard, ensuring prorogation serves parliamentary function rather than partisan delay, though reliance on executive initiative has prompted debates over codifying limits.^[28]

Effects on Legislation and Accountability

Prorogation terminates the legislative session of Parliament, causing all unfinished bills, motions, and orders to lapse unless explicitly carried over to the subsequent session by agreement among parliamentary authorities. In the United Kingdom, for instance, public bills undergoing scrutiny may be preserved through carry-over provisions, but this requires consensus and is not automatic, often leading to delays or abandonment of complex legislation; private and hybrid bills typically fall entirely. This mechanism allows the executive to effectively reset the legislative agenda without dissolving Parliament or triggering an election, potentially frustrating ongoing law-making processes that demand sustained parliamentary attention.^[1]^[29] The suspension of proceedings also halts all forms of parliamentary scrutiny, including ministerial question times, debates on government policy, and investigations by select committees, thereby interrupting the legislature's role in holding the executive accountable. During the prorogued period, members of Parliament are released from attendance duties, and mechanisms such as oral and written questions to ministers cease, reducing immediate oversight of government actions and expenditures. In Commonwealth jurisdictions like Canada, prorogation similarly ends committee work and substantive proceedings, with the House of Commons procedure manual noting that it terminates business to enable preparation for a new session, though this can shield the government from adverse votes of confidence or inquiries into controversies.^[7]^[30] Constitutionally, these effects underscore prorogation's dual role as a procedural reset and a potential tool for executive dominance, where prolonged or untimely use may undermine democratic accountability by excluding Parliament from deliberating critical issues, as evidenced in judicial reviews of specific instances. Courts in the UK have ruled that prorogation becomes unlawful if it prevents Parliament from exercising its legislative and supervisory functions without compelling justification, emphasizing that the power must not frustrate the fundamental balance between branches of government. Such interruptions can delay accountability for executive decisions, including fiscal matters or international negotiations, until the new session convenes, often after weeks or months.

Applications and Controversies by Jurisdiction

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, prorogation marks the end of a session of Parliament without dissolving the legislature, a process exercised as a royal prerogative on the advice of the Prime Minister. The procedure involves a formal announcement made by a commissioner appointed by the monarch, typically read in the House of Lords and addressed to both Houses, signaling the cessation of parliamentary proceedings until the next session's opening. This act, rooted in constitutional convention, has historically occurred routinely at the conclusion of sessions, often lasting from a few days to several weeks, allowing time for recesses while preserving the Parliament's existence.^[1]^[31]^[2] Upon prorogation, nearly all parliamentary business halts, including pending bills (which lapse unless designated for carry-over under specific standing orders), select committee inquiries, and motions; only essential administrative functions persist. Unlike dissolution ahead of elections, prorogation does not trigger new general elections but suspends legislative scrutiny and debate, underscoring its role in balancing executive initiative with parliamentary accountability. Sessions have varied in length historically, with prorogations since 1900 averaging short durations, though exceptional cases extended them for political purposes, such as Charles II's use in the 17th century to evade debates on the Exclusion Bill or Elizabeth I's in 1559 to sidestep foreign policy discussions.^[32]^[29]^[33] The most significant modern controversy arose in 2019, when Prime Minister Boris Johnson advised Queen Elizabeth II to prorogue Parliament from 9 September to 14 October—a five-week period encompassing the Brexit deadline of 31 October—to facilitate a new Queen's Speech outlining legislative priorities. Critics, including opposition parliamentarians, argued this extended suspension aimed to limit scrutiny of the government's Brexit strategy amid legislative gridlock. On 24 September 2019, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled the prorogation unlawful in R (Miller) v Prime Minister, holding that while prorogation is justiciable, the decision lacked reasonable justification and frustrated Parliament's ability to function, thereby undermining fundamental constitutional principles of parliamentary sovereignty and accountability to voters. The Court declared the order void ab initio, restoring Parliament's operations without retroactive effect on prior acts.^[34]^[24]^[35] This judgment established that prorogation must not prevent Parliament from exercising its legislative and oversight roles without compelling reason, introducing judicial oversight to what was previously an executive-dominated prerogative. Post-2019, prorogations have adhered to shorter, routine timelines, as seen in the 2024 prorogation on 24 May ahead of the general election, reflecting the precedent's constraint on prolonged suspensions. The episode highlighted tensions in the unwritten constitution, where executive advice to the Crown intersects with judicial review, though it did not alter the formal mechanism.^[24]

Canada

In Canada, prorogation ends a session of Parliament without dissolving the body, suspending all legislative proceedings, unfinished bills, and committee inquiries until the next session opens with a Speech from the Throne.^[36] The Governor General formally prorogues Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister, typically via royal proclamation published in the Canada Gazette or, less commonly, in the Senate chamber.^[5] This mechanism, inherited from British parliamentary tradition, allows the executive to reset the legislative agenda but has drawn scrutiny when perceived as evading accountability, as all government oversight ceases during the interval.^[7] The procedure underscores the Governor General's role as a reserve power holder, though grants of prorogation are conventionally routine and rarely refused.^[37] Prorogation differs from dissolution, which triggers an election; post-prorogation, the same Parliament reconvenes unless dissolved separately.^[5] Historically routine—often occurring once per parliamentary term between elections—it gained controversy in modern usage for interrupting non-confidence threats or scandals.^[38] A prominent case occurred on December 4, 2008, when Prime Minister Stephen Harper advised Governor General Michaëlle Jean to prorogue the 40th Parliament until January 26, 2009, averting a likely non-confidence defeat by an opposition coalition amid economic stimulus debates.^[39] Critics, including opposition leaders, condemned it as an abuse to sidestep parliamentary scrutiny, prompting public protests and calls for reforms like requiring House of Commons approval.^[40] Jean's assent, after a 30-minute private meeting, was defended as upholding constitutional convention but fueled debate on reserve powers.^[41] Another instance arose on August 18, 2020, when Prime Minister Justin Trudeau requested prorogation until September 23, 2020, amid the WE Charity scandal involving government contracts and the COVID-19 pandemic's demands on legislative priorities.^[42] The government later attributed the move to refocusing on pandemic response, though opposition parties alleged it delayed inquiries into ethics violations; a Commons procedure committee report in 2021 found no procedural breach but noted heightened partisanship.^[42] This followed Trudeau's unusual first term without prorogation, highlighting its tactical deployment.^[38] Most recently, on January 6, 2025, Trudeau requested prorogation until March 24, 2025, coinciding with his announcement to resign as Liberal leader post-leadership contest, suspending Parliament during the transition.^[43] Democracy Watch challenged this in court, arguing it undermined accountability amid ongoing fiscal and foreign policy debates, though constitutional experts deemed it neither illegal nor unprecedented.^[44]^[45] These episodes illustrate prorogation's dual role as administrative tool and potential shield against legislative opposition, with no binding reforms enacted despite recurrent proposals.^[38]

Australia

In Australia, prorogation is the formal mechanism by which the Governor-General terminates a session of the federal Parliament, pursuant to section 5 of the Constitution, which empowers the Governor-General to "prorogue the Parliament and the Houses thereof".^[46] This power is exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister, reflecting the convention that the Governor-General acts as a representative of the Crown in a system of responsible government.^[47] Unlike dissolution, which ends the Parliament entirely and triggers a general election under section 28, prorogation preserves the life of the Parliament while closing the current session, allowing for the commencement of a new one without altering the composition of the House of Representatives or Senate.^[48] The effects of prorogation are immediate and procedural: all unfinished business, including bills that have not received royal assent, lapses and does not carry over to the subsequent session.^[49] Committees cease to exist, and their proceedings end, though reports may inform future work.^[46] Questions on notice and other parliamentary orders terminate, requiring reintroduction if needed.^[50] This reset function distinguishes prorogation from mere adjournments, which suspend sittings temporarily without ending the session. The Constitution provides no explicit guidance on frequency or timing, leaving it to executive discretion, though it has been described as a tool for managing the parliamentary calendar rather than a reserve power subject to independent vice-regal judgment in ordinary circumstances.^[46] Historically, Australian Parliaments have comprised multiple sessions separated by prorogation, but since the mid-20th century, most have operated as single-session terms to align with electoral cycles, with prorogation typically occurring concurrently with dissolution ahead of elections.^[50] For instance, on 11 April 2022, Governor-General David Hurley prorogued the 46th Parliament on Prime Minister Scott Morrison's advice, immediately followed by dissolution for the federal election.^[50] A rare standalone use occurred on 21 March 2016 under Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull, when prorogation ended the session of the 44th Parliament, enabling an early recall on 18 April for urgent budget legislation without dissolving the houses.^[51] Similarly, on 28 March 2025, Governor-General Sam Mostyn prorogued the 47th Parliament ahead of its anticipated dissolution.^[52] Unlike in jurisdictions such as Canada, Australian prorogations have not sparked significant constitutional disputes, operating within established conventions without judicial intervention.^[53]

India

In India, prorogation of Parliament is governed by Article 85(2)(a) of the Constitution, which authorizes the President to prorogue either the Lok Sabha or the Rajya Sabha, or both Houses, at any time.^[54]^[55] This power is exercised on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister, rendering it an executive function without direct parliamentary veto.^[56] Prorogation terminates the current session, lapsing all pending notices, motions, and resolutions, but it does not affect the life of the Houses—unlike dissolution, which applies only to the Lok Sabha under Article 85(2)(b).^[57]^[58] The Rajya Sabha, being a permanent body with one-third of members retiring every two years, undergoes only prorogation and never dissolution.^[59] The procedure involves the President issuing a proclamation or commission, often following a recommendation from the government via the Cabinet Secretariat.^[58] Parliament typically holds three sessions annually—Budget (February to May), Monsoon (July to September), and Winter (November to December)—with prorogation marking the end of each, ensuring no gap exceeds six months between sessions as mandated by Article 85(1).^[56]^[60] Upon prorogation, members are notified via parliamentary bulletins and press communiqués, and the Houses must be summoned anew for the next session.^[58] Bills pending between Houses at prorogation do not lapse, allowing continuity, though inter-House disagreements may persist until resolved or the Lok Sabha dissolves.^[57] Unlike in jurisdictions such as the United Kingdom or Canada, prorogation in India has rarely sparked judicial challenges or major controversies, reflecting its routine use to conclude sessions without undermining legislative continuity.^[61] The executive's discretion under Article 85 is considered absolute, potentially allowing prorogation to facilitate ordinances under Article 123 by resetting parliamentary scrutiny, though no Supreme Court ruling has invalidated such actions on grounds of abuse.^[62] Historical instances, such as prorogations following Lok Sabha dissolutions in 1991 and 1997, proceeded without dispute, underscoring the mechanism's alignment with India's parliamentary sovereignty.^[59]

New Zealand

In New Zealand, prorogation is authorised by section 18 of the Constitution Act 1986, which grants the Governor-General the power to prorogue Parliament by proclamation, typically on the advice of the Prime Minister.^[63]^[64] This executive action terminates the current parliamentary session without dissolving Parliament itself, suspending all legislative business, including the lapsing of unfinished bills and the cessation of committee proceedings. Unlike mere adjournment, which allows Parliament to resume without resetting the session, prorogation necessitates a new summoning and State Opening for the subsequent session, effectively clearing the legislative docket.^[63] Prorogation has become obsolete in modern New Zealand practice, with Parliament now relying on adjournments to manage recesses, as prorogation offers negligible benefits and disrupts continuity.^[65] The most recent use occurred in 1991, invoked during an adjournment to facilitate an emergency recall for debate on New Zealand's response to the Iraq War, after which it was summoned anew.^[66] Prior to this, prorogations happened sporadically until the late 20th century, but the shift to unicameralism under the Constitution Act 1986 and streamlined session management rendered it redundant.^[65] Historically, prorogation featured in early colonial governance, including a contentious 1854 incident in New Zealand's inaugural parliamentary session, where Governor George Grey's attempt to prorogue via proclamation sparked a standoff with legislators over procedural authority.^[67] This reflected tensions between executive prerogatives inherited from British practice and emerging local parliamentary norms.^[68] Under New Zealand's constitutional conventions, the power remains non-justiciable and unbound by parliamentary consent, underscoring the Governor-General's role as a conduit for responsible government advice rather than an independent actor.^[69] No significant controversies akin to those in other Westminster realms have arisen, owing to its rarity and alignment with ministerial accountability.^[66]

Pakistan

In Pakistan, the Constitution of 1973 grants the President the authority to summon and prorogue sessions of the Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament), comprising the National Assembly and Senate, under Article 54(1). This provision allows the President to convene either House, both Houses, or a joint sitting at times and for periods deemed necessary for legislative business, with the requirement that no more than six months elapse between sessions of a House. Prorogation ends a session sine die without dissolving Parliament, distinguishing it from dissolution under Article 69, which triggers elections. Unlike dissolution, prorogation does not cause pending bills to lapse; Article 76 ensures such bills carry over to the next session unless a general election intervenes.^[70]^[71] The President's prorogation power operates within a parliamentary framework where executive actions are generally advised by the Prime Minister and Cabinet per Article 48, though summoning and prorogation retain some discretionary elements tied to legislative needs. In practice, prorogation is routine for concluding sessions after legislative agendas are addressed or due to quorum issues, but it has been invoked amid procedural disruptions. For instance, on January 1, 2022, a National Assembly session convened briefly to meet constitutional requirements but was prorogued indefinitely after only 12 minutes owing to insufficient member attendance below the quorum threshold.^[72]^[73] Controversial applications have arisen during political instability. On April 28, 2009, the National Assembly was prorogued abruptly without debating government strategies on national security, prompting criticism from opposition lawmakers who viewed it as evading accountability. Similarly, in March 2003, the session was prorogued following uproar over proposed constitutional amendments, allowing time for negotiations between government and opposition but halting immediate proceedings. These instances highlight prorogation's role in managing legislative gridlock, though it has not faced the same judicial scrutiny as dissolutions, which the Supreme Court has invalidated in cases like the 1990s under Article 58(2)(b) before its repeal.^[74]^[75]^[76] Overall, prorogation in Pakistan serves procedural efficiency rather than executive overreach, with the President's role ceremonial in stable governments but potentially influential during transitions, as seen in post-2018 election prorogations under President Arif Alvi to align sessions with new legislative priorities. No major constitutional challenges to prorogation itself have succeeded, underscoring its acceptance as a standard tool distinct from more contentious powers like dissolution.^[77]

Northern Ireland

The Parliament of Northern Ireland, operational since 1921 under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, was prorogued indefinitely on 28 March 1972 following the resignation of Prime Minister Brian Faulkner and his cabinet.^[78] This action, enacted through the Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972, responded to the government's perceived failure to contain escalating violence, including over 400 deaths that year amid the Troubles, civil rights protests, and intercommunal clashes.^[79] ^[80] The prorogation suspended the devolved legislature without formal dissolution, transferring its powers—including security, justice, and finance—to direct rule by the UK Parliament via the newly created Northern Ireland Office, with William Whitelaw as the first Secretary of State.^[81] ^[79] The decision, announced by Prime Minister Edward Heath on 24 March 1972, aimed to restore order after events like Bloody Sunday and the breakdown of unionist authority, but it proved highly controversial, viewed by many unionists as an unconstitutional overreach by Westminster that ended 50 years of autonomous governance.^[81] ^[78] No writs were issued for vacancies, and the prorogation persisted until the parliament's abolition under the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973, which dissolved remaining structures and precluded restoration without new constitutional arrangements.^[80] ^[82] Subsequent attempts at devolution, such as the 1973 Northern Ireland Assembly, also faced prorogation; that body was dissolved and prorogued under the Northern Ireland Act 1974 amid power-sharing failures, reverting to direct rule until the 1998 Good Friday Agreement.^[83] In the modern Northern Ireland Assembly, established by the Northern Ireland Act 1998, prorogation is not explicitly provided for in statute, with dysfunction typically addressed through suspension by the Speaker or failure to form an Executive rather than formal session-ending by the Secretary of State or Crown.^[84]

United States and Analogous Practices

In the United States, the federal legislature operates without a monarchical prorogation mechanism, but analogous practices occur through adjournment sine die, which terminates a session of Congress without dissolving the body itself.^[85] This Latin term, meaning "without day," signifies an adjournment without specifying a reconvening date, effectively ending legislative business for that session while allowing the Congress to resume in a subsequent session of the same two-year term.^[85] Typically, each Congress holds two sessions: the first convening in January following an election year, and the second as a lame-duck session ending on January 3 of the odd-numbered year.^[86] Congress itself effects sine die adjournment via concurrent resolution, as seen in the 118th Congress's adjournment on December 20, 2024.^[87] The U.S. Constitution provides a limited executive role in adjournment under Article II, Section 3, empowering the President to adjourn both houses "in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment" to a time the President deems proper.^[88] This bicameral adjournment clause serves as a constitutional backstop to prevent deadlock but requires genuine disagreement between the House and Senate on adjournment timing, and it has never been invoked by any president since ratification in 1789.^[89] Legal scholars note its narrow scope, interpreting it as tied to the President's convening power and insufficient for unilateral session termination akin to prorogation in parliamentary systems.^[90] Distinctions exist between sine die adjournment and recesses, the latter suspending proceedings temporarily without ending a session, often limited to under three days without interchamber consent per Article I, Section 5.^[91] Recesses exceeding three days enable presidential recess appointments under Article II, Section 2, clause 3, but do not equate to session termination.^[92] At the state level, legislatures follow similar sine die practices to conclude annual or biennial sessions, with governors holding analogous limited powers to prorogue or convene special sessions in some constitutions, such as California's allowance for gubernatorial prorogation of the assembly.^[93] These mechanisms prioritize legislative self-determination over executive override, reflecting the Constitution's separation of powers.^[94]

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[PDF] Prorogation of Parliament
Jun 11, 2019 · “Prorogation” should not be confused with “dissolution” (when a Parliament is brought to an end and a General Election takes place). Nor should ...
[10]
Guide to Parliamentary Work (HTML) - GOV.UK
Nov 19, 2024 · During the period of prorogation neither House nor any Committee may meet. 14. It is possible to lay certain documents before Parliament during ...Missing: distinctions | Show results with:distinctions
[11]
Prorogation and the implications of the Supreme Court judgment
Oct 8, 2019 · Prorogation ends a session of Parliament and allows Parliament to commence a new session. In doing so, it terminates the sitting of Parliament until the new ...
[12]
Roman Praetors | UNRV Roman History
Prorogation was an important aspect of Roman law, as it allowed the Republic to function smoothly and maintain continuity in government, particularly during ...Missing: prorogatio | Show results with:prorogatio
[13]
https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-5337
[14]
Rome and Her Empire - Bryn Mawr Classical Review
Oct 8, 2003 · Publilius Philo's extended command in 326 is the first example of a prorogation of imperium. Liv. 8.23. 2. Liv. 9.6.1-13. 3. See M.W. ...<|separator|>
[15]
Prorogation of imperium before the Hannibalic War - jstor
Apr 3, 2010 · This infact may have been why Metellus was elected praetor, the only office available ifinstant repetition of the consulate was to be avoided.<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
Prorogue - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Origin and history of prorogue ... Roman jurisprudence, noun of action from past-participle stem of rogare "to ask, inquire, question," also "to propose (a law ...
[17]
Prorogation and Adjournment – Reformation to Referendum
Sep 9, 2019 · After that until 1667, however, Parliament was always either prorogued by the king, or the individual Houses adjourned of their own volition ...
[18]
The dramatic history of prorogation in British parliament
Aug 29, 2019 · From Brexit to typhus, this tricky political tool has been used for centuries to shut down legislative sessions.
[19]
On the History of Prorogation
Sep 24, 2019 · Prorogation, as everyone knows by now, is the use of the royal prerogative to produce a temporary suspension of Parliament, usually for a ...
[20]
Prorogation Tide: Elizabeth I and the Parliament of 1572-81
Oct 21, 2021 · Parliament was prorogued on ten occasions between 1572 and 1576, and no fewer than twenty-six times between 1576 and 1581, twelve of them in ...
[21]
What is prorogation - Parliament UK
Sep 15, 2020 · 84.Prorogation is an act performed by the Sovereign under prerogative power to bring a parliamentary session to an end and suspend Parliament ...
[22]
[PDF] Parliamentary Sovereignty and the Politics of Prorogation
Sep 17, 2019 · Cover image: Prorogation marks the end of a parliamentary session. It is an announcement read by the Leader of the House of Lords,.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[23]
[PDF] Evidence on Prorogation and the implications of the Supreme Court ...
2. The power to prorogue Parliament is a prerogative power exercised by Her Majesty on the advice of the Government. The Government is accountable to the Houses ...
[24]
The Prorogation Dispute of 2019: one year on - Commons Library
Sep 24, 2020 · The UK Supreme Court held that Parliament had been unlawfully prorogued in September 2019. This paper explains the judgment, and the background to it.
[25]
Prerogative in connection with Parliament - Erskine May
The legal existence of Parliament results from the exercise of royal prerogative (see para 8.2 ). ... The prorogation of Parliament is also a prerogative ...
[26]
Chapter 7 The Parliamentary calendar - Parliament of Australia
... prorogue. While section 5 of the Constitution gives the Governor-General authority to prorogue the Parliament, the decision to prorogue follows the advice ...
[27]
The governor general - Canada.ca
Dec 16, 2022 · The governor general has important parliamentary responsibilities: summoning, proroguing and dissolving Parliament; setting out the ...Missing: prorogation | Show results with:prorogation
[28]
Reforming the royal prerogative | The Constitution Unit Blog
Dec 8, 2022 · The Brexit process raised questions about how – and in what areas – the royal prerogative should operate ... Similarly, prorogation should be ...
[29]
Prorogation of parliament: what happens to legislation?
Sep 3, 2019 · Carrying over bills can prevent any parliamentary scrutiny that has already taken place from going to waste, and reduces the amount of valuable ...
[30]
What is prorogation of Parliament? | Legal Guidance - LexisNexis
Prorogation also impacts the scrutiny of government actions, as MPs and Lords are unable to hold ministers to account during this period.\n\nConstitutionally, ...
[31]
Prorogation and adjournment - Erskine May - UK Parliament
The prorogation of Parliament is a prerogative act of the Crown. Just as Parliament can commence its deliberations only at the time appointed by the Queen.
[32]
Proroguing parliament | Institute for Government
Prorogation signals the end of the parliamentary session and brings to an end nearly all parliamentary business – including most bills and all motions and ...Missing: system | Show results with:system
[33]
Lengths of prorogation since 1900 - House of Lords Library
Aug 1, 2024 · Prorogation is the mechanism by which parliamentary sessions are ended. This House of Lords Library briefing sets out the start and end dates ...
[34]
R (on the application of Miller) (Appellant) v The Prime Minister ...
The appellant issued proceedings for judicial review on the grounds that the Prime Minister's decision to advise Her Majesty to prorogue Parliament was an abuse ...
[35]
Decision of the Supreme Court on the Prorogation of Parliament
Sep 24, 2019 · UK Supreme Court ruled today that the Government's decision to prorogue Parliament for five weeks was unlawful, and that Parliament has not in fact been ...
[36]
Prorogation puts Parliament on hold - Senate of Canada
Prorogation ends a session of Parliament and all parliamentary business. It is the governor general who prorogues Parliament, acting on the advice of the prime ...
[37]
[PDF] ANNUAL REPORT 2010-2011 - Governor General of Canada
First among the Governor General's executive powers is the authority to convene, dissolve or prorogue Parliament. (Prorogation ends a parliamentary session ...
[38]
Trudeau's self-serving prorogation of Parliament should be ...
Prorogation is a longstanding feature of Canadian parliamentary government. Often called a “reset” or “reboot” of Parliament, it shuts down all parliamentary ...
[39]
Canadian Leader Shuts Parliament - The New York Times
Dec 4, 2008 · Canada's parliamentary opposition reacted with outrage on Thursday after Prime Minister Stephen Harper shut down the legislature until Jan. 26.
[40]
Prorogation: A View from Canada | OHRH - Oxford Human Rights Hub
Sep 3, 2019 · Canada's prorogation controversy was messy, abrasively partisan, and dealt out a number of significant political costs.
[41]
[PDF] The Governor General's Decision to Prorogue Parliament
Votes are only counted in each local con- stituency and the count effects the outcome only in that riding. Only a tiny fraction of the electorate is able to ...<|separator|>
[42]
[PDF] August 2020 Prorogation – COVID-19 Pandemic - House of Commons
Jun 8, 2021 · Justin Trudeau's address to Canadians on prorogation delivered on 18 August 2020, and the transcript of the Speech from the Throne delivered ...
[43]
Proclamation Proroguing Parliament to March 24, 2025: SI/2025-9
Jan 6, 2025 · Now know you that, We do for that end publish this Our Royal Proclamation and do prorogue the said Parliament to Monday, the twenty-fourth day ...
[44]
The Canadian Prime Minister's request for prorogation was neither ...
Jan 24, 2025 · On 6 January, the Governor General of Canada granted a request for a two-month prorogation of parliament. A legal challenge was soon launched ...Missing: australia | Show results with:australia
[45]
Canada advocacy group challenges Trudeau's prorogation of ...
Jan 9, 2025 · Justin Trudeau also prorogued the parliament in 2020 during the WE Charity controversy. This comes after Democracy Watch called on all ...
[46]
Infosheet 25 - Prorogation and dissolution - Parliament of Australia
Prorogation is the process of formally closing a session of parliament. ... Constitution gives the Governor-General authority to prorogue the parliament.
[47]
[PDF] Infosheet 25 - Prorogation and dissolution - Parliament of Australia
Section 5 of the Constitution gives the Governor-General authority to prorogue the parliament. However, in practice the. Governor-General follows the advice of ...
[48]
A Session - Parliament of Australia
Prorogation terminates a session of Parliament; a dissolution terminates a Parliament and thus there must be a general election. The decision only to prorogue ...
[49]
Prorogation and what it means for Senate business
May 31, 2022 · Prorogation terminates the sittings of the Senate and all business before the Senate so that it does not automatically carry over into the next session of ...
[50]
The Parliament has been prorogued and dissolved but what does ...
Apr 11, 2022 · Proroguing a parliament means to end the current session of Parliament. A parliament can consist of more than one session, although recently almost all have ...
[51]
[PDF] Documents relating to prorogation of the Parliament
Mar 21, 2016 · "While section 5 of the Constitution gives the Governor-General authority to prorogue the Parliament, the decision to prorogue follows the ...
[52]
Governor-General of Australia - Facebook
Mar 28, 2025 · Today the Governor-General received advice from the Prime Minister to prorogue the Parliament and dissolve the House of Representatives ...
[53]
[PDF] proroguing the parliament of australia - AustLII
Section 5 of the Constitution states: The Governor‑General may appoint such times for holding the sessions of the Parliament as he thinks fit, and may also ...
[54]
Article 85: Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution
Draft Article 69 (Article 85) was debated on 18 May 1949. It regulated the sessions of the Parliaments, its prorogation and dissolution.
[55]
Article 85 of the Costitution of India with Case law
Jun 13, 2025 · Article 85. Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution. (1) The President shall from time to time summon each House of Parliament ...
[56]
Session of Parliament: (Article 85, 86 and 87) - Rau's IAS
Prorogation of the House means the termination of the Session. A prorogation ends a Session. After prorogation, if the House is to meet, it is to be summoned ...Prorogation Of The House... · Dissolution (article... · Voting In House (article...
[57]
Article 85 - GKToday
Oct 10, 2025 · It provides the constitutional mechanism for the organisation of parliamentary sessions and the termination of their sittings. The article vests ...Article 85 · Sessions Of Parliament · Prorogation Of Parliament<|separator|>
[58]
[PDF] CHAPTER—6 Sessions of Rajya Sabha
In exercise of the powers conferred upon me by sub-clause (a) of clause (2) of article 85 of the Constitution, I hereby prorogue the. Rajya Sabha. The ...
[59]
[PDF] Summoning and Prorogation of Both Houses of Parliament
Aug 22, 1979 · Under Article 85(2) of the Constitution, the President may from time to time prorogue Houses or either House of Parliament. Termination of a ...
[60]
Sessions of Parliament, Constitutional Provisions, Types, Procedures
Sep 1, 2025 · Prorogation formally ends a session of either House of Parliament by the President. A session begins with the first sitting and ends with ...
[61]
A comparative perspective of prorogation with respect to India and ...
Jul 6, 2021 · Prorogation refers to the conclusion of a parliamentary session, causing a recess period and effectively terminating all parliamentary business.
[62]
[PDF] India's Two Parliaments in Comparative Context - BrooklynWorks
In other words, the power to prorogue is absolute; the execu- tive may invoke it at any time and for any reason. Even if done solely to make an ordinance ...<|separator|>
[63]
Constitution Act 1986 - New Zealand Legislation
Jul 16, 2025 · 18 Summoning, proroguing, and dissolution of Parliament The Governor-General may by Proclamation summon Parliament to meet at such place and ...
[64]
The Constitution of New Zealand
Each Parliament has a term of three years, unless it is earlier dissolved. The Governor-General has the power to summon, prorogue and dissolve Parliament.Constitution · New Zealand Royal Honours · The Executive Council
[65]
[PDF] Brexit adventures—comparing the UK and NZ Parliaments
Prorogation has fallen out of use in NZ, as it now serves very little practical purpose. Until 1991, Parliament was still prorogued from time to time, but no.
[66]
[PDF] IMPLICATIONS OF MILLER (NO 2) FOR NEW ZEALAND - NZLII
Prorogation suspends the sittings and business of Parliament; in other words, prorogation is Parliament's temporary time out. Erskine May explains prorogation ...<|separator|>
[67]
Sound: New Zealand's first Parliament | NZ History
May 13, 2025 · This is a re-enactment of a somewhat farcical confrontation in the first session of Parliament in 1854 when the governor attempted to prorogue Parliament.
[68]
Papers Past | Newspapers | THE PROROGATION OF PARLIAMENT.
THE PROROGATION OF PARLIAMENT. [From ihc Home News, August lit.] On the 13th of August the first session of the new Parliament had its brief existence ...
[69]
[PDF] JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ROYAL PROROGATIONS
Although the monarch may attend Parliament and prorogue it in person, the more usual practice is for the monarch to refrain from attending Parliament in person ...
[70]
Pakistan 1973 (reinst. 2002, rev. 2018) Constitution
Summoning and prorogation of Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament). Joint meetings of legislative chambers, Extraordinary legislative sessions. The President may, from ...
[71]
Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan 1973 - Part III
Summoning and prorogation of Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament). (1) The President may, from time to time, summon either House or both Houses of Majlis-e-Shoora ...
[72]
[PDF] PARLIAMENT OF PAKISTAN
(3). When the joint sitting is prorogued, the. Secretary shall cause a notification to that effect to be published in the official Gazette. 4. The Speaker shall ...
[73]
National Assembly session lasts 12 minutes, prorogued indefinitely
Jan 1, 2022 · Later, due to low attendance of the members, the session was prorogued for an indefinite period. Sources in the National Assembly Secretariat ...
[74]
National Assembly prorogued - Business Recorder
Apr 28, 2009 · The National Assembly was abruptly prorogued on Monday without discussing and recommending input to the government for evolving a strategy ...
[75]
Pak Assembly prorogued after uproar over amendments
Mar 11, 2003 · Before proroguing the House, the Speaker said the Assembly was being adjourned to give more time to government and opposition parties to settle ...
[76]
A Bold Defence of Parliamentarism - Verfassungsblog
Apr 12, 2022 · On two occasions, the Supreme Court allowed hostile presidents to dissolve the National Assembly and terminate governments headed by Prime ...
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The National Assembly Session has been Prorogued
Jan 21, 2016 · The National Assembly Session has been Prorogued. Thursday, 21st January, 2016. In exercise of the powers conferred by clause (1) of Article 54 ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
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Abstract of Important Events - Prorogation of Stormont, 28 March 1972
Mar 28, 1972 · The Northern Ireland parliament met for the last time on 28 March 1972 and Brian Faunkner and his cabinet resigned thus ending 50 years of Unionist rule of ...
[79]
Half-a-century since Stormont was replaced by direct rule - BBC
Mar 27, 2022 · When it became clear that Heath was determined to go ahead, Stormont ministers resigned and the Northern Ireland parliament was prorogued. The ...
[80]
Northern Ireland (Temporary Provisions) Act 1972 - Legislation.gov.uk
(3)So long as this section has effect, the Parliament of Northern Ireland shall stand prorogued (and no writ need be issued to fill any vacancy); and Her ...
[81]
'Assuming full and direct responsibility': 50 years of the Northern ...
Mar 30, 2022 · The Parliament of Northern Ireland would stand prorogued but would not be dissolved. The 'increased burden' this transfer of responsibilities ...
[82]
Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973 - Legislation.gov.uk
(10)An Order in Council under this section proroguing the Assembly shall specify the period of prorogation and the Assembly shall meet at the expiration of that ...
[83]
Northern Ireland Act 1974 - Legislation.gov.uk
An Act to provide for the dissolution of the existing Northern Ireland Assembly and its prorogation until dissolution; to make temporary provision for the ...
[84]
Northern Ireland Act 1998
### Summary of Mentions of "Prorogue", "Prorogation", or Powers to End Sessions of the Northern Ireland Assembly
[85]
What Is a Sine Die Adjournment? - Congressional Institute
Jan 5, 2015 · It's Latin for “without a day”. The term is used to describe an adjournment when the date to reconvene is not specified, when Congress intends to leave town ...
[86]
Sessions, Adjournments, and Recesses of Congress
Jul 19, 2016 · A session begins when the chamber convenes and ends when it adjourns. A recess, by contrast, does not terminate a session, but only suspends it temporarily.Missing: prorogation | Show results with:prorogation
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[PDF] Chapter 1 Adjournment - GovInfo
Adjournments sine die (literally, without day) are used to terminate the sessions of a Congress, and are provided for by concurrent resolution. A session ...
[88]
ArtI.S5.C4.1 Adjournment of Congress - Constitution Annotated
U.S. Const. art. I, § 5, cl. 4. If the two houses cannot agree to adjourn, the Constitution gives the President power to adjourn them.Footnote U.S. Const.
[89]
On “Disagreement” and the Presidential Power to Adjourn Congress
Nov 18, 2024 · The presidential power of adjourning Congress has never been used. There are no precedents and scant commentary about what it means or exactly what triggers it.
[90]
The Presidential Bicameral Adjournment Clause Is Almost An ...
Nov 22, 2024 · However, adjournment sine die of the 1st session of a Congress seems to serve as the standard closest equivalent to prorogation in terms of ...
[91]
Glossary of Legislative Terms - Congress.gov
Brief explanations of legislative terms used throughout Congress.gov. In-depth descriptions are provided in “About” Legislation, Legislation Text, Committees, ...
[92]
Interpretation: Article II, Section 3 - The National Constitution Center
The Section also grants the President the authority to adjourn Congress whenever the chambers cannot agree when to adjourn, a power that no President has ever ...
[93]
What Does “Sine Die” Mean? - MultiState
Apr 11, 2024 · When a legislature adjourns sine die, it signifies the legislative body has concluded its meeting without setting a day or time to reconvene.
[94]
Adjournment of Congress | U.S. Constitution Annotated | US Law
U.S. Const. art. I, § 5, cl. 4. If the two houses cannot agree to adjourn, the Constitution gives the President power to adjourn them.4 Footnote U.S. Const.