Pulsed power

Pulsed power is the science and engineering discipline focused on the accumulation of electrical energy over extended periods, typically using capacitors or inductors charged by conventional power sources, followed by its rapid discharge into a load to produce short-duration, high-intensity pulses with peak powers ranging from gigawatts to terawatts.^[1]^[2] This process compresses energy in time and space, enabling the generation of extreme physical conditions such as temperatures exceeding 100 million degrees Kelvin, pressures over 10 million atmospheres, and magnetic fields in the mega-gauss range, often lasting only microseconds or nanoseconds.^[1]^[2] The technology traces its origins to the 1960s at U.S. national laboratories, including Sandia National Laboratories, where it was initially developed to simulate the radiation effects of nuclear explosions through high-power X-ray and gamma-ray sources.^[3] Key advancements include the evolution of pulse-forming networks, Marx generators, and solid-state switches, which have improved efficiency and repetition rates since the early accelerators of the 1970s and 1980s.^[2]^[3] A landmark facility is Sandia's Z Machine, originally configured in the 1980s for weapons effects testing and reengineered in 1997 for Z-pinch inertial confinement fusion, now delivering up to 26 million amperes and 2.7 megajoules of X-ray energy in a single pulse to probe high-energy-density physics.^[3] Pulsed power finds critical applications in national security, including stockpile stewardship and radiation simulation; fundamental science, such as planetary interior modeling and astrophysics under extreme conditions; and energy research, particularly magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF) aimed at achieving ignition for potential fusion power.^[1]^[3] It also drives particle accelerators, radar systems, and medical devices like flash X-ray imaging, with ongoing innovations in compact, high-repetition-rate systems enhancing its versatility across these domains.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Pulsed power is the science and technology of storing electrical or chemical energy over extended periods, typically ranging from milliseconds to hours, and then releasing it in extremely short pulses lasting nanoseconds to microseconds, thereby achieving peak powers that far exceed those available from continuous electrical sources.^[4]^[5] This approach enables the concentration of energy for demanding applications by compressing it both temporally and spatially, converting low-power inputs from standard transmission systems—such as 50/60 Hz alternating current or direct current—into high-intensity bursts.^[4] The core principle of pulsed power revolves around energy compression to amplify output power, governed by the relationship P = \frac{E}{t}, where P is power, E is the stored energy, and t is the pulse duration. By maximizing E through efficient storage and minimizing t to the nanosecond or microsecond scale, systems can attain peak powers reaching terawatts, vastly surpassing the capabilities of steady-state generators.^[5] Energy is accumulated in electromagnetic fields, with electrical pulsed power relying on capacitors to store energy as E = \frac{1}{2} C V^2 (where C is capacitance and V is voltage) or inductors to store it as E = \frac{1}{2} L I^2 (where L is inductance and I is current). In contrast, explosive pulsed power harnesses the high energy density of chemical explosives to drive magnetic flux compression, amplifying currents and fields through rapid circuit deformation.^[5]^[6] Efficient delivery of these pulses requires careful system design, particularly impedance matching between the source and load to optimize energy transfer. This involves setting the source impedance equal to the load impedance, Z_{\text{source}} = Z_{\text{load}}, which minimizes reflections and maximizes power coupling, ensuring that a significant fraction of the stored energy reaches the target effectively.^[7]

Key Parameters and Metrics

Pulsed power systems are characterized by several core parameters that quantify their performance in delivering high-intensity electrical pulses. Peak power, often reaching terawatts (TW), represents the maximum instantaneous power output and is calculated as P_{\text{peak}} = V_{\text{peak}} \times I_{\text{peak}}, where V_{\text{peak}} is the peak voltage and I_{\text{peak}} is the peak current. Typical peak powers in laboratory systems range from gigawatts (GW) to hundreds of TW, enabling extreme energy densities.^[8] Pulse duration, typically on the order of nanoseconds (ns) to microseconds (μs), defines the temporal width of the output pulse and directly influences the system's ability to concentrate energy. Shorter durations, such as 100 ns in advanced facilities, allow for higher power densities but require precise control to avoid excessive heating or breakdown.^[8] Energy per pulse, measured in megajoules (MJ), quantifies the total electrical energy delivered and is given by E = \int P(t) \, dt integrated over the pulse width; stored energies can reach 20-30 MJ, with delivered energies often 1-3 MJ depending on system design. Rise time, the duration from 10% to 90% of peak value, is typically comparable to pulse duration (e.g., ~100 ns) and affects the sharpness of the pulse onset.^[8] Repetition rate, expressed in hertz (Hz), indicates how frequently pulses can be generated, ranging from single-shot (e.g., 1 shot/day in large systems) to kHz for repetitive applications, though high rates are limited by thermal management. Voltage levels span from kilovolts (kV) to megavolts (MV), with typical laboratory ranges of 10 kV to 50 MV, while currents extend from kiloamperes (kA) to megaamperes (MA), up to 30 MA in state-of-the-art setups.^[8] System impedance Z = V / I must be matched to optimize power transfer, often on the order of 0.1-1 Ω, with characteristic impedance Z_0 = \sqrt{L/[C](/page/C)} derived from inductance L and capacitance C. Efficiency metrics are crucial for assessing overall system performance. Wall-plug efficiency, defined as the ratio of output pulse energy to input electrical energy from the wall, typically ranges from 10-50% in modern systems, with values around 15% reported for high-power facilities due to losses in charging, switching, and transmission. Pulse compression ratio, the factor by which input pulse duration is shortened (or power amplified), can exceed 10^4-10^5, as seen in Marx generators where charging times of seconds are compressed to μs or ns pulses.^[9] A key figure of merit is power density, often expressed as power per unit volume (P / V), which scales with I^2 / r^2 for cylindrical geometries and highlights system compactness. Scalability involves trade-offs between voltage, current, and impedance; higher voltages reduce current requirements for a given power but risk dielectric breakdown (limited to ~100 MV/m in insulators), while high currents can cause magnetic core saturation (typically at 2-3 T).^[8] Standardization uses SI units, with typical lab system ranges summarized below for reference:

Parameter	Typical Range	Unit
Peak Power	GW to 100 TW	W
Pulse Duration	10 ns to 1 μs	s
Energy per Pulse	kJ to 30 MJ	J
Voltage	10 kV to 50 MV	V
Current	1 kA to 30 MA	A
Repetition Rate	0.001 Hz to 1 kHz	Hz
Impedance	0.1 to 10 Ω	Ω

These metrics enable evaluation of system design without delving into specific implementations.

History

Origins and Early Developments

The conceptual foundations of pulsed power trace back to 18th- and 19th-century experiments exploring electrical discharges and electromagnetic phenomena. In 1752, Benjamin Franklin conducted his kite experiment during a thunderstorm, capturing electrical charge from lightning and demonstrating that lightning is an electrical phenomenon, thereby highlighting the potential of transient high-energy pulses in nature.^[10] This work laid early groundwork for understanding pulsed electrical events, though practical applications remained distant. Building on such insights, Heinrich Hertz in 1887 generated electromagnetic waves using a spark-gap transmitter, producing short electrical pulses that confirmed the wave nature of electricity and introduced rudimentary pulsed discharge techniques central to later developments.^[11] In the early 20th century, advancements in high-voltage components enabled more controlled pulse generation. During the 1930s and 1940s, high-voltage capacitors and spark gaps were developed for radar systems and lightning protection studies, allowing short, high-power pulses to simulate and investigate atmospheric discharges and radio wave propagation. A pivotal invention came in 1924 when German engineer Erwin Otto Marx designed the Marx generator, a circuit that charges multiple capacitors in parallel from a low-voltage source and discharges them in series to multiply voltage, originally for testing electrical insulators under impulse conditions.^[12] This staged capacitor arrangement provided a scalable method for generating megavolt-level pulses, marking a key conceptual breakthrough in energy storage and rapid release. Post-World War II, pulsed power emerged as a distinct technology in the late 1940s and 1950s, driven by U.S. and UK nuclear weapons programs. Efforts focused on simulating nuclear explosion effects, including flash X-ray radiography for diagnosing implosion dynamics in atomic bombs, with early systems like the 1958 Febetron producing megavolt pulses to generate diagnostic X-rays.^[5] Similarly, pulsed power was applied to replicate electromagnetic pulses (EMP) from high-altitude nuclear tests, which had disrupted electronics during 1950s atmospheric detonations, aiding in vulnerability assessments.^[13] The Marx generator found its first significant use in this era for particle acceleration experiments, enabling high-energy beams to probe nuclear reactions.^[5] Initial implementations faced substantial technical hurdles, particularly insulation breakdown under extreme voltages and the limited reliability of switches in the vacuum tube era, where plasma formation and space charge effects hindered repetitive high-power operation.^[14] These challenges necessitated innovations in dielectric materials and switching mechanisms to achieve stable, high-repetition pulses for defense-related diagnostics.

Key Milestones and Modern Evolution

During the 1960s and 1970s, pulsed power research in the United States advanced significantly through efforts by the U.S. Air Force and Sandia National Laboratories, focused on simulating nuclear weapon effects to test system vulnerabilities.^[15]^[5] Sandia's program, initiated in the early 1960s, developed high-power pulse generators to replicate radiation bursts from nuclear explosions, laying the groundwork for subsequent applications.^[15] Concurrently, explosive flux compression generators—devices that amplify magnetic fields using controlled detonations—matured at Los Alamos National Laboratory after initial concepts in the 1950s, enabling megajoule-level energy pulses for defense-related experiments.^[16] Institutionally, the IEEE Pulsed Power Science and Technology Technical Committee formed in the mid-1970s to coordinate research, with the inaugural IEEE International Pulsed Power Conference held in 1976 in Lubbock, Texas, fostering global collaboration.^[17] In the 1980s and 1990s, pulsed power technologies evolved toward Z-pinch configurations for inertial confinement fusion, compressing plasma to achieve fusion conditions through intense electrical currents.^[18] A pivotal achievement was the operational debut of Sandia's Z Machine in 1996, which delivered unprecedented high-power X-ray outputs exceeding 1.8 megajoules, marking the first successful demonstration of multi-terawatt radiation sources for fusion and high-energy density physics.^[19]^[20] These machines compressed stored electrical energy into brief, intense pulses, advancing the field beyond simulation toward energy production research. The 2000s introduced linear transformer drivers (LTDs) as a modular alternative to traditional Marx generators, enabling compact, scalable systems with faster rise times under 100 nanoseconds and currents up to 1 megaampere.^[7]^[21] This shift supported international expansion in high-energy density physics, including China's development of the Primary Test Stand facility in the mid-2000s, a 10-terawatt Z-pinch driver for plasma experiments.^[22] In Europe, efforts like the UK's MAGPIE pulsed power machine advanced Z-pinch studies for HEDP, contributing to collaborative fusion research.^[23] From the 2010s onward, integration of solid-state switches, including insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and silicon carbide (SiC) devices, revolutionized pulsed power by supporting repetition rates exceeding 1 kHz while maintaining high voltages over 10 kV.^[24]^[25] These advancements improved efficiency and reliability for repetitive applications in fusion and materials science. In 2024, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory demonstrated a prototype four-stage impedance-matched Marx generator, achieving efficient energy transfer with pulse shapes mimicking laser drivers, potentially reducing system size by factors of 10 for future accelerators.^[26]

Technologies and Components

Energy Storage and Generation

Capacitive storage represents a primary method for accumulating electrical energy in pulsed power systems, relying on high-voltage capacitors to store charge for rapid discharge. These devices typically employ oil-filled designs, such as those using paper dielectrics impregnated with mineral or castor oil, or polymer-based dielectrics like polypropylene films, to achieve reliable insulation under high electric fields.^[27] The stored energy in a capacitor follows the fundamental relation

E = \frac{1}{2} C V^2,

where E is the energy in joules, C is the capacitance in farads, and V is the voltage in volts; this electrostatic storage enables energy densities up to approximately 1 J/cc in practical configurations.^[28] Limitations arise from dielectric breakdown, with typical electric field strengths constrained to around 20 MV/m to prevent insulation failure during charging or discharge.^[27] Inductive storage offers an alternative by accumulating energy in magnetic fields within inductor banks, which are arrays of coils designed for high-current operation. The energy stored magnetically is given by

E = \frac{1}{2} L I^2,

where L is the inductance in henries and I is the current in amperes; this approach can achieve higher energy densities, up to 50 J/cm³ in advanced systems.^[29] Inductor banks are often paired with compulsators, which are rotating machines that convert mechanical kinetic energy—stored in flywheels—into electrical energy through all-polyimide or air-core windings, providing efficient amplification for pulsed outputs.^[30] Chemical and explosive methods, such as flux compression generators (FCGs), provide a compact means of generating megajoule-level energies by leveraging explosives to dynamically compress magnetic flux. In these devices, a conductive armature is driven inward by a shock wave from high explosives, reducing the flux-enclosing area and thereby amplifying the magnetic field according to Faraday's law, with energy gains reaching factors of 10^4 or more in helical configurations.^[31] The process relies on shock-induced compression to maintain flux conservation while converting chemical energy into electromagnetic form, enabling single-shot pulses in the MJ range without relying on static electrical storage.^[32] Hybrid systems combine capacitive and inductive elements to facilitate efficient energy transfer, such as capacitor-inductor networks that enable initial charging from standard AC mains power (wall-plug sources) through resonant circuits, bridging low-power input to high-power pulse readiness. These configurations, often involving LC oscillators, allow for controlled buildup of stored energy while minimizing losses during the transition from continuous to pulsed operation.^[33] Material considerations are critical for optimizing storage efficiency and durability, particularly in dielectrics that withstand repeated high-field stresses. Polymers like Kapton (polyimide) offer high breakdown strengths up to approximately 300 kV/mm and thermal stability to 300°C, making them suitable for compact, high-temperature capacitors, while Mylar (polyethylene terephthalate) provides a dielectric constant of 3.3 with breakdown around 295 kV/mm for lower-temperature applications.^[34] In inductive systems, superconductors enable low-loss magnetic storage by eliminating resistive heating, supporting sustained current flows in high-field environments. Recent developments as of 2025 include advancements in high-energy-density dielectrics and solid-state components for improved efficiency in fusion and defense applications.^[35]

Switching and Pulse Forming Systems

Switching technologies in pulsed power systems are essential for initiating the rapid discharge of stored energy, enabling the conversion of low-power inputs into high-power outputs with precise timing. Gas switches, such as spark gaps and trigatrons, are widely employed for applications requiring voltages exceeding 1 MV due to their ability to handle extreme electric fields and high energy transfer in single-shot or low-repetition scenarios.^[36] Spark gaps operate by ionizing a gas medium to create a conductive plasma channel, while trigatrons enhance reliability through an auxiliary trigger electrode that initiates breakdown with reduced jitter, typically in the range of tens of nanoseconds.^[37] These switches are filled with gases like sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) or air to control breakdown voltage and arc stability, making them suitable for high-voltage environments where solid alternatives may fail.^[38] Solid-state switches, including thyristors and insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), dominate in systems demanding high repetition rates above 1 kHz, offering superior longevity and precise control without the electrode erosion issues of gas switches.^[39] Thyristors provide robust current commutation in megawatt-level pulses, while IGBTs enable fast switching with low conduction losses, facilitating compact designs for repetitive operation.^[40] Vacuum switches, particularly triggered vacuum switches (TVS), excel in low-jitter applications, achieving breakdown delays under 100 ns and sub-nanosecond jitter through field emission or laser triggering in a high-vacuum environment.^[41] These switches maintain insulation integrity across repeated cycles, supporting high charge transfer in pulsed power architectures.^[42] Pulse forming networks (PFNs) shape the output waveform to deliver tailored pulses, often rectangular in form, by leveraging transmission line principles to match load impedance and minimize reflections. Transmission line-based PFNs, such as Blumlein lines constructed from coaxial cables, generate bipolar or unipolar pulses by charging multiple lines in parallel and discharging them in series, ensuring flat-top durations determined by the line length and propagation velocity. The characteristic impedance Z of these networks is given by

Z = \sqrt{\frac{L}{C}}

where L is the inductance per unit length and C is the capacitance per unit length, allowing precise tuning to the load for efficient energy transfer.^[38] Blumlein configurations double the output voltage relative to a single line while providing voltage flatness over the pulse width, critical for applications requiring consistent power delivery. Generator topologies integrate switching and forming elements to scale power levels. Marx generators employ cascaded capacitors charged in parallel and discharged in series via gas switches, achieving voltage multiplication up to 5 MV through staged erection, with each stage contributing additive potential during breakdown.^[40] This topology relies on precise spark gap timing to erect the full stack, delivering high-voltage pulses with rise times in the microsecond range. Linear transformer drivers (LTD) modules, in contrast, use parallel arrangements of capacitor-switch "bricks" within a transformer cavity to add currents rather than voltages, reducing overall system size and footprint while enabling faster risetimes through inductive coupling.^[40] Each brick typically consists of a capacitor, switch, and winding, allowing modular scaling for megampere outputs in compact form factors.^[43] Pulse compression techniques further refine waveform characteristics by shortening pulse durations to enhance peak power. Saturable inductors, often wound on ferrite cores, initially present high impedance to delay current rise, then saturate under applied flux to abruptly reduce inductance, compressing rise times from microseconds to nanoseconds with compression ratios exceeding 1000.^[44] Ferrite cores are selected for their high saturation flux density and low remanence, enabling repetitive operation without excessive heating, while the volt-second product determines the compression factor.^[38] These magnetic elements are cascaded in multi-stage compressors to achieve sub-nanosecond edges, balancing power gain against core losses.^[45] Synchronization ensures coordinated operation across multiple stages or modules, vital for uniform pulse delivery in large-scale systems. Laser-triggered mechanisms initiate switch breakdown via focused optical pulses that photoionize the gap or electrode surface, providing jitter below 1 ns for precise timing.^[46] Fiber-optic systems transmit trigger signals electrically isolated over distances up to kilometers, employing light-activated semiconductors or direct illumination to synchronize distributed switches without electromagnetic interference.^[47] These methods enable sub-nanosecond alignment in multi-channel setups, enhancing overall system efficiency and waveform fidelity.^[48]

Applications

High-Energy Physics and Defense

Pulsed power systems play a central role in inertial confinement fusion (ICF) research, particularly through Z-pinch implosions that deliver megajoule-scale pulses to compress plasma to fusion conditions. In these setups, high-current drivers like the Z machine at Sandia National Laboratories generate currents of 20-26 mega-amperes over tens of nanoseconds, imploding wire arrays or liners to produce soft X-ray outputs exceeding 2 megajoules at powers over 300 terawatts, achieving implosion velocities of 70-150 kilometers per second.^[23]^[49] This magnetic direct-drive approach enables efficient energy coupling, with conversion efficiencies above 10% from stored electrical energy to X-rays, supporting fusion ignition studies and synergies with laser-based facilities like the National Ignition Facility for validating plasma physics models.^[50] Magnetized liner inertial fusion (MagLIF) variants preheat the fuel with auxiliary lasers before compression, yielding neutron outputs around 10^12 for deuterium-deuterium reactions at 18-20 mega-amperes, with scaling projections indicating multi-megajoule fusion yields at higher currents.^[49] In high-energy density physics (HEDP), pulsed power facilitates equation-of-state studies by generating intense shock waves that probe material behavior under extreme conditions, such as pressures exceeding 1 megabar. Facilities like Z drive flyer plates to velocities over 40 kilometers per second, creating shocks up to 10 megabars in samples like deuterium, where phase transitions such as the insulator-metal shift occur at 2.8-3.0 megabars.^[23] Ramp compression techniques further enable isentropic loading to over 4 megabars with sub-1% density uncertainty, using quartz standards for precise measurements.^[23] X-ray radiography complements these efforts, employing multi-keV backlighters from Z's lasers to image dynamic material responses, such as implosion instabilities or warm dense matter uniformity, at temporal resolutions below 10 picoseconds.^[23]^[51] Pulsed power is essential for particle accelerators, providing nanosecond-scale pulses to kicker magnets that steer high-energy beams with minimal disruption. In free-electron laser facilities like SACLA, kicker systems deliver bipolar trapezoidal waveforms at 60 hertz repetition rates with stability below 0.01% peak-to-peak, deflecting electron beams by 1.5 degrees for pulse-by-pulse switching between undulator lines at energies up to 7.8 gigaelectronvolts.^[52] These non-resonant power supplies, often using silicon carbide MOSFETs, ensure low jitter and support multi-beam operations, enabling simultaneous lasing with pulse energies exceeding 200 microjoules at 4-10 kiloelectronvolts.^[53] Terawatt-level power from such systems drives free-electron lasers, producing coherent X-rays for ultrafast science while kicker pulses maintain beam integrity against coherent synchrotron radiation effects.^[54] In defense applications, pulsed power underpins electromagnetic pulse (EMP) simulators for testing weapon effects on electronics, with transverse electromagnetic (TEM) structures like bounded-wave generators replicating nuclear EMP waveforms. These systems use Marx generators or similar drivers to produce gigavolt-level pulses over microsecond durations, simulating high-altitude bursts for hardening military assets.^[55] Railguns and electrothermal guns leverage pulsed power for hypervelocity projectiles, with compulsator-based drivers delivering millions of amperes in short pulses to achieve muzzle energies around 9-10 megajoules, enabling precise, long-range kinetic strikes from naval platforms.^[56] Electrothermal-chemical variants integrate plasma armatures with chemical propellants, using capacitor banks to augment muzzle velocities beyond conventional limits.^[57] High-power microwaves (HPM) generated by pulsed power serve as directed energy weapons, producing gigawatt to terawatt pulses across 1 megahertz to 100 gigahertz for disrupting electronics in drones, missiles, or radars. Compact systems like those in the Counter-electronics High Power Microwave Advanced Missile Project (CHAMP) employ solid-state switches and frequency-agile sources to deliver focused beams with ranges of hundreds of meters, disabling multiple targets without kinetic impact.^[58] Pulsed-wave HPMs provide precise targeting through short-duration bursts, with advancements in gallium nitride semiconductors enhancing efficiency for counter-unmanned aerial system roles.^[59]^[60]

Industrial, Medical, and Environmental Uses

Pulsed electric fields (PEF) have emerged as a non-thermal method for industrial food processing, particularly in sterilization and preservation. By applying short bursts of high-voltage electric fields, typically in the range of 20-50 kV/cm, PEF induces electroporation in microbial cell membranes, leading to their inactivation without significantly altering the sensory or nutritional qualities of food products. This technique is effective against bacteria, yeasts, and molds in liquids such as juices and milk, achieving up to 5-log reductions in pathogens while preserving vitamins and flavors better than thermal pasteurization.^[61]^[62]^[63] In metalworking, electromagnetic forming utilizes pulsed magnetic fields generated by high-current discharges to shape sheet or tubular metals at high speeds. The process involves discharging capacitors through a coil to produce Lorentz forces that deform the workpiece without physical contact, enabling complex geometries and improving formability of materials like aluminum and steel by overcoming their elastic recovery. This method is particularly advantageous for automotive and aerospace components, reducing production steps and material waste compared to conventional stamping.^[64]^[65] Medical applications of pulsed power leverage electroporation for targeted therapies. Nanosecond-duration pulses create transient pores in cell membranes, facilitating drug delivery or gene transfer in cancer treatments, where they enhance the uptake of chemotherapeutic agents in tumor cells while minimizing damage to surrounding healthy tissue. Clinical studies have demonstrated improved efficacy in electrochemotherapy for skin and solid tumors, with reduced side effects due to lower drug doses required.^[66]^[67] Pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) therapy applies low-energy, repetitive pulses to stimulate bone healing by promoting osteogenesis and reducing inflammation. Approved by the FDA since 1979 for nonunion fractures, PEMF influences cellular signaling pathways, accelerating callus formation and union rates in delayed healing cases, with success rates exceeding 70% in clinical applications for tibial and spinal fusions.^[68]^[69] In environmental remediation, pulsed power drives plasma discharges for water treatment, generating reactive species like hydroxyl radicals that break down organic pollutants and inorganics such as NOx. Nanosecond pulsed discharges in water aerosols achieve near-complete NOx removal (up to 98%) by oxidizing nitrogen oxides into nitrates, offering a compact alternative to chemical methods for wastewater purification.^[70]^[71]^[72] For air purification, streamer corona discharges produced by pulsed power create non-thermal plasma that decomposes volatile organic compounds and particulates. These discharges, operating at atmospheric pressure, effectively remove pollutants like styrene vapors from industrial exhausts, with decomposition efficiencies over 80% due to the formation of ozone and radicals.^[73]^[74] Pulsed power also aids exhaust gas cleaning in engines by generating non-thermal plasma to reduce particulate matter and NOx in diesel emissions. Nanosecond pulses applied to exhaust streams achieve up to 80% particulate removal by charging and precipitating soot particles, enhancing compliance with emission standards without catalytic converters.^[75]^[76] In agriculture, pulsed electric fields treat seeds to enhance germination by altering membrane permeability and enzyme activity, increasing rates by up to 2.5-fold in crops like barley and buckwheat while promoting root development. This pre-sowing method improves seedling vigor and yield without chemicals.^[77]^[78] Pulsed arc discharges synthesize nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles, by evaporating electrodes in controlled atmospheres. Pulsed-DC power enables high-throughput production of core-shell structures with minimal impurities, supporting applications in electronics and catalysis.^[79]^[80] Overall, these applications highlight the energy efficiency of pulsed power, with PEF achieving up to 90% lower consumption than thermal methods in food processing due to its non-thermal nature, while enabling scalable, eco-friendly operations across sectors.^[81]^[63]

Achievements and Records

Power and Energy Milestones

Pulsed power systems have achieved remarkable peak power levels, with the Sandia Z machine setting early records at 85 terawatts (TW) electrical power in 1996 during its initial operation as a z-pinch driver.^[82] Subsequent upgrades in the 2000s increased X-ray output to 290 TW, enabling higher radiation outputs for high-energy-density experiments.^[83] By the 2010s, further refurbishments pushed X-ray capabilities beyond 300 TW, with current operations (as of 2025) delivering approximately 80 TW electrical power and up to 350 TW X-ray emissions, maintaining the Z machine as a benchmark for laboratory-scale power generation.^[84]^[3] Energy storage and delivery milestones highlight the scalability of pulsed systems, exemplified by capacitor banks reaching 10 megajoules (MJ) in the 1970s Scyllac theta-pinch experiment at Los Alamos National Laboratory, which supported large-scale plasma confinement studies.^[85] Explosive flux compression generators, developed in the 1960s at Los Alamos, demonstrated single-pulse energies up to tens of MJ, leveraging chemical explosives for compact, high-yield operation in early high-current applications.^[16] Modern configurations, such as those in the refurbished Z machine, deliver over 2 MJ of stored energy to loads, with up to 22 MJ total in capacitor banks.^[86] Key voltage and current achievements include the Z machine's delivery of 25 mega-amperes (MA) to z-pinch loads, sustaining currents for implosions in high-energy physics experiments.^[87] Associated peak voltages across insulators reach approximately 4-5 megavolts (MV) per Marx generator module, enabling effective power transfer in multi-stage systems.^[88] Extreme magnetic fields, generated via explosive compression, have attained 2800 tesla (T), a record set in destructive pulsed configurations for probing material properties under ultrahigh conditions.^[89] Repetition-rate advancements in solid-state pulsed power include systems operating at 120 hertz (Hz) with pulse energies in the kilojoule range, supporting applications like excimer laser drivers.^[90] For megajoule-scale pulses, modern linear transformer driver (LTD) configurations achieve repetition rates up to 10-50 Hz with efficiencies exceeding 50% wall-plug to output, improving compactness and reliability over traditional Marx generators.^[7] In X-ray production, the Z machine stands as the world's most powerful laboratory source, yielding over 1 MJ in soft X-rays per pulse during wire-array implosions, with recent operations exceeding 2 MJ to drive radiation-hydrodynamics experiments.^[91]^[3]

Notable Systems and Innovations

One of the most prominent pulsed power systems is the Z Facility at Sandia National Laboratories, which employs 36 Marx generator modules arranged radially to deliver a high-current drive for high-energy-density physics experiments.^[15] This configuration enables the compression of energy to produce extreme conditions, supporting research in materials science and inertial confinement fusion. In March 2025, experiments using the Z machine achieved a record pressure of 3.67 terapascals (TPa) in collaboration with First Light Fusion.^[92]^[93] Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory developed 8 prototype pulsed-power modules for the Scorpius facility at Los Alamos National Laboratory, designed for high-energy-density physics.^[94] These modules facilitate synchronized energy delivery for plasma and hydrodynamic studies. In January 2025, Scorpius accepted delivery of four additional production line-replaceable units, advancing its role in hydrodynamic testing.^[95]^[96] The Angara-5-1 facility in Russia, operated by the Troitsk Institute, features 8 main modules for plasma compression experiments.^[97] This setup allows for the investigation of wire-array Z-pinches and radiation generation in controlled fusion-relevant environments.^[98] In China, the Primary Test Stand (PTS) at the China Academy of Engineering Physics consists of 24 parallel Marx generator modules, enabling multi-terawatt operation for Z-pinch and high-energy-density applications.^[99] This facility demonstrates advancements in pulse forming and load coupling for national research programs.^[22] A key innovation in pulsed power is the linear transformer driver (LTD), developed at Sandia National Laboratories, which uses compact brick-like capacitors and switches to achieve high repetition rates and currents around 1 MA per unit.^[100] LTDs reduce system size and improve efficiency compared to traditional Marx generators, enabling scalable accelerators for diverse experiments.^[101] All-solid-state pulsers represent another advancement for industrial applications, employing semiconductor switches like IGBTs and dynistors to generate kilohertz repetition rates without vacuum or explosive components.^[102] These systems offer durability and precise control, suitable for material processing and environmental remediation.^[103] Emerging technologies include hybrid explosive-electrical systems, which combine shockwave-driven flux compression with solid-state elements to produce high-voltage pulses in compact forms.^[104] Such hybrids enhance energy density for single-shot applications in defense and propulsion.^[105] Nanosecond pulsers tailored for bio-applications deliver ultrashort electric fields to influence cellular processes like electroporation and apoptosis without thermal damage.^[106] These devices target intracellular structures, advancing non-invasive therapies in medicine.^[107] Integration of pulsed power with lasers in multi-modal drivers synchronizes electrical and optical pulses for enhanced energy coupling in high-energy-density experiments.^[108] This approach leverages laser triggering in gas switches to improve timing precision across hybrid systems.^[109] In Europe, facilities like the Swedish Microwave Test Facility support high-power microwave (HPM) research through pulsed power-driven RF sources for vulnerability testing.^[110] These setups address electromagnetic effects on electronics.^[111] Scalability challenges in pulsed power are addressed through modular designs, such as those in LTD and Marx configurations, allowing incremental upgrades without full system redesigns.^[23] Recent developments, including the 2024 inductive multi-stage generator (IMG), utilize impedance-matched stages to achieve gigawatt-class outputs in prototypes, with potential for terawatt-scale in proposed multi-tower configurations, improving efficiency and longevity.^[26]