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Qun

The qun (Chinese: 裙; pinyin: qún) is a traditional skirt worn as the primary lower garment by women in hanfu, the historical clothing of the Han Chinese.^[1] It typically consists of a wrapped or pleated fabric panel fastened at the waist, often paired with an upper garment like a ru (short jacket) to form the ruqun ensemble, which has been a staple of Han Chinese attire since ancient times. The term "qun" derives from classical Chinese, where 裙 originally denoted a gathered or encircling lower garment, distinguishing it from earlier forms like the chang (裳), an apron-like skirt.^[1] Archaeological evidence traces skirts resembling the qun to the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE), evolving through imperial eras with variations such as straight-cut poqun in the Han dynasty and pleated mamianqun in the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE).^[2] These adaptations reflect changes in fabric availability, social norms, and aesthetic preferences, while maintaining the qun's role in embodying modesty, hierarchy, and cultural identity.^[3]

Terminology and Definition

Core Definition and Components

A qun is a traditional Chinese skirt primarily worn by women as the lower garment in Hanfu ensembles, characterized by its wrap-around design and typically extending from knee-length to ankle-length for coverage and elegance. It consists of a main body formed by draped or pleated fabric panels that create a flowing silhouette, secured at the waist to ensure modesty and ease of movement.^[4]^[5] Key components of the qun include the yaodai, or waistband, which is a fabric tie or band that wraps around the midsection to fasten the skirt securely; the primary skirt body, often constructed from rectangular panels of silk or other textiles sewn together; and hem variations such as straight edges for a simple drape, flared shapes for added volume, or pleats for decorative fullness. These elements allow the qun to adapt to different styles while maintaining its core structure as a versatile lower garment.^[6]^[7] The qun is worn by wrapping the fabric panels around the waist, tucking one end over the other for overlap, and tying the yaodai in a knot or bow at the front or side to hold it in place, often over an undergarment for layering. It is commonly paired with upper garments such as the ru, a short jacket, or the yi, a longer robe, to form balanced ruqun ensembles that emphasize harmony in Hanfu attire.^[7]^[8] In contrast to many Western skirts that may feature fitted waists or structured forms, the qun prioritizes a loose, flowing silhouette that enhances modesty by concealing the body's contours while permitting greater mobility for daily activities and ceremonial wear.^[9]

Etymology and Linguistic Variations

The Chinese character 裙 (qún), denoting "skirt" or "gathered cloth," is a phono-semantic compound character consisting of the radical 衤 (yī), which indicates clothing, and the phonetic component 君 (jūn), providing the sound. This structure reflects its origins as a garment term, with the character first attested in bronze inscriptions from the Warring States period (475–221 BCE). An earlier variant form, 帬 (qún), also carried the meaning of skirt and appeared in similar ancient scripts. In classical Chinese texts, the term for skirt-like lower garments was primarily 裳 (shāng or cháng), referring to draped or pleated lower attire worn by women. This word appears extensively in the Shijing (Book of Songs), a collection of poetry from the 11th to 7th centuries BCE, where it describes women's embroidered or decorative skirts as essential elements of female dress, such as in the poem "Jiu Yu" (Nine Nets) with the line "袞衣繡裳" (gǔn yī xiù shāng), evoking a grand-ducal robe paired with an embroidered skirt.^[10] The Shijing thus establishes 裳 as a key descriptor of women's lower body attire, often symbolizing elegance and status in poetic contexts. Over time, 裙 evolved to encompass similar meanings, supplanting or coexisting with 裳 in later literature, while retaining the focus on gathered or wrapped fabrics. Linguistically, the term varies across Chinese dialects and historical pronunciations. In modern Standard Mandarin, it is pronounced qún (second tone), while in Cantonese, it is kwan⁴ (Jyutping romanization). Classical terms like qún (from 帬) represent archaic variants for early skirt forms, though 裳 remained predominant. These variations underscore the term's adaptability in describing women's leg coverings across eras. Unlike the broader term yī (衣), which refers to upper robes or general clothing applicable to both genders, qun (裙) and its precursors like 裳 were exclusively associated with women's lower garments in ancient Chinese attire, distinguishing female dress from male counterparts that often incorporated trousers (kù, 褲) or simpler wraps by the Zhou dynasty onward.

Historical Evolution

Origins in Pre-Imperial China

The earliest evidence of the qun emerges from the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), particularly in the southern Chu state, where it served as a foundational lower garment for women. Archaeological excavations at tombs in Jiangling, such as the Mashan site, have yielded unlined skirts made of yellow silk, demonstrating the qun's initial form as a simple rectangular cloth wrapped around the waist and secured with ties. These artifacts, dating to the late Warring States era, highlight the garment's straightforward construction, often depicted in Chu tomb silk paintings from sites like Changsha, where female figures are shown wearing similar wrapped lower garments over which upper robes were layered.^[11] Materials for these early qun included both silk for elite wear and linen for everyday use, reflecting regional availability and social status in the agrarian societies of the time. The skirts' basic design—typically a single or multi-panel rectangle draped and fastened at the waist—allowed for ease of movement, making them practical for labor-intensive tasks in farming communities while also suitable for ritual contexts, as evidenced by their presence in noble burials alongside ceremonial artifacts. In southern regions like Chu, early pleating techniques began to appear, with skirts featuring gathered or knife-pleated edges to add volume and drape, achieved through hand-folding and stitching the silk or linen fabrics before wrapping.^[11]^[12] During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), the qun's form evidenced continuity as a standard lower attire, underscoring its role in women's dress. The unification of China under Emperor Qin Shi Huang marked a key event in the qun's evolution, as the regime standardized clothing across the realm to enforce social hierarchy and uniformity, drawing on Legalist principles to regulate attire in court and administrative dress codes. This standardization simplified regional variations, promoting the qun as a practical, wrapped lower garment in official contexts while influencing its adoption in broader imperial protocols.^[13]

Developments During Imperial Dynasties

During the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the qun developed into layered forms known as danqun, incorporating silk fabrics dyed in vibrant colors to reflect social hierarchy. Sumptuary laws, including those outlined in the "Yufu Zhi" from the Book of the Later Han, restricted the use of imperial hues like red and purple to elites, regulating color usage in garments such as the qun. In the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), pleated zhequn styles gained prominence among women, characterized by dense folds and embroidered hems that enhanced aesthetic depth and movement.^[14] These designs, often seen in palace artworks, were favored by literati women for their elegant drape and compatibility with fitted jackets.^[14] The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE) saw Mongol influences reshape the qun through broader panels for greater mobility and occasional fur trims, adapting the garment to nomadic equestrian needs while blending with Han textile traditions.^[15]^[16] Under the Qing dynasty (1644–1912 CE), Manchu rulers issued edicts like the Tifayifu of 1645, mandating ethnic dress distinctions that modified Han qun styles, including the stiffened mamianqun with its rigid horse-face panels for structured formality. Han women retained core elements of the mamianqun but incorporated Manchu-inspired stiffening and patterns to comply with imperial regulations on attire.^[17]

Transformations in the Republican and Modern Eras

During the Republic of China period (1912–1949), the qun underwent significant marginalization amid widespread Westernization and modernization initiatives, as urban elites and intellectuals embraced shorter, more fitted garments influenced by global fashions. The May Fourth Movement of 1919, which promoted ideological emancipation and gender equality, accelerated this shift by encouraging women to adopt simpler, curve-emphasizing attire like the qipao over traditional layered skirts, viewing the latter as symbols of feudal constraints.^[18] However, simplified forms of the aoqun—a jacket-and-skirt ensemble incorporating the qun—persisted in rural areas and among conservative communities, where practical, less ornate versions maintained cultural continuity away from urban reforms.^[19] Following the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, the qun faced outright suppression during the Communist era (1949–1970s), as the new regime rejected traditional attire as emblematic of "feudal" and bourgeois excesses incompatible with socialist ideals of equality and labor. Women were encouraged to wear utilitarian jackets and trousers, modeled after Soviet styles, to prioritize functionality over aesthetics, leading to the near-total disappearance of the qun from everyday and urban life.^[20] It survived marginally in controlled contexts, such as folk performances and revolutionary model operas like those adapted from Peking Opera, where stylized traditional elements—including skirt-like garments—were permitted to convey historical or revolutionary narratives under strict ideological oversight.^[21] Post-1980s economic reforms marked a gradual revival of the qun, initially through cultural media and tourism, as China opened to global influences and sought to reclaim heritage elements. Television adaptations, notably the 1987 CCTV series Dream of the Red Chamber, showcased over 2,700 Hanfu-inspired costumes, including intricate qun variants that fused Qing-era aesthetics with dynastic influences, sparking public appreciation for traditional silhouettes and laying groundwork for broader interest.^[22] By the 1990s, qun elements appeared in tourism promotions at historical sites, where performers in simplified Hanfu attire drew visitors, blending education with entertainment to highlight pre-modern Chinese elegance amid rising domestic travel.^[23] A pivotal moment came in 2003 with the Hanfu revival movement, initiated in Henan province when power worker Wang Letian publicly wore a self-made Hanfu ensemble—including a qun-style skirt—on the streets of Zhengzhou on November 22, attracting media coverage and igniting online forums like Hanwang.^[24] This grassroots effort, rooted in youth subcultures seeking cultural identity, promoted the qun as a symbol of Han heritage, fostering communities that experimented with historical recreations and gradually normalized its wear in casual, expressive contexts beyond formal or performative settings.^[25] By 2024–2025, the movement has gained further momentum among Generation Z, with the Hanfu market evolving to influence modern fashion trends, international adoption in cities like New York and London, and events such as the National Silk and Hanfu Festival highlighting "ancient charm" and "new trends," including increased popularity of men's Hanfu variants.^[26]^[27]^[28]

Construction and Materials

Fabrics and Textiles Used

Silk served as the primary fabric for elite qun, prized for its luxurious sheen, durability, and ability to hold intricate weaves and dyes, with production centered in mulberry-rich regions like Jiangsu where sericulture thrived due to suitable climate and soil for white mulberry cultivation. For commoners, ramie and hemp fibers were predominant in qun construction, offering breathability and lightness ideal for summer wear in humid climates, though they required more frequent replacement due to coarser textures.^[29] These plant-based textiles were abundant in agricultural areas, reflecting class distinctions in material access and garment quality. Dyeing techniques for qun emphasized natural sources to achieve vibrant, long-lasting colors symbolic of status and occasion; indigo, extracted from plants like Indigofera tinctoria, produced deep blues prevalent in Han-era qun, applied through fermentation vats for even penetration into silk or ramie fibers.^[30] In the Qing dynasty, cochineal insects imported via trade routes yielded brilliant reds for court qun, often reserved for imperial and noble attire to denote hierarchy, with the dye fixed using mordants like alum for fade resistance.^[31] Regional adaptations influenced fabric choices, particularly in response to climate; northern Yuan dynasty qun incorporated wool blends for added warmth and insulation against harsh winters, sourced from pastoral herds and woven into durable, felt-like layers.^[32] By the Ming dynasty, cotton's introduction from southern trade networks expanded everyday qun production, providing affordable, soft alternatives to silk for broader populations while enabling finer prints and easier maintenance.^[33]

Sewing Techniques and Structural Features

The construction of a qun, the traditional Chinese skirt integral to Hanfu ensembles, typically involves assembling multiple rectangular fabric panels into a cylindrical tube shape, with the number of panels varying from 4 to 12 depending on the desired fullness and style. These panels are sewn together along their vertical edges using durable techniques such as hand-stitching or flat-fell seams to ensure longevity and a smooth finish, allowing the skirt to drape naturally while maintaining structural integrity.^[3]^[17] Pleating methods differ by qun variant, with hand-pleating being central to achieving the garment's characteristic volume and flow. For zhequn styles, straight knife pleats (2-4 cm wide) are formed by folding the fabric evenly across the width and securing them with stitches at regular intervals, often reinforced with starch to hold the shape during wear. In contrast, poqun variants use 4-12 trapezoidal panels sewn together for a flared A-line silhouette without pleats. These pleats are typically set after the panels are joined, with the hem finished beforehand to facilitate even distribution.^[3]^[34]^[35] Fastening elements are designed for adjustability and security, commonly featuring cord ties or fabric loops at the waistband that wrap around the body and secure via knots or hooks. Formal qun often include an inner lining (li) sewn to the waistband, which provides additional shape and prevents shifting, while the outer layer overlaps slightly for modesty. Waist circumferences generally measure 60-80 cm to accommodate various body sizes, with ties allowing for customization.^[17]^[35] Over time, qun patterns have evolved from simple wrap constructions using fewer panels to more tailored flared designs, incorporating precise measurements for enhanced fit and movement. This progression reflects adaptations in assembly to balance aesthetics and functionality, such as increasing panel counts for greater volume in later forms.^[3]

Variations in Hanfu

The poqun (破裙), originating in the pre-Qin period (before 221 BCE) and found in Han dynasty contexts, was a straight skirt constructed from multiple panels of fabric, typically ankle-length for coverage and mobility in daily activities.^[36] Archaeological evidence from the Mawangdui tombs in Hunan Province, dating to around 100 BCE, reveals well-preserved silk skirts underscoring their use in elite attire, while hemp or ramie versions likely served commoners.^[37] This simple design emphasized functionality over ornamentation, distinguishing it from more elaborate pleated forms. Han dynasty tombs yielded wrap-over skirts, often unlined and made from hemp or ramie for practicality in rural settings, wrapping around the waist for everyday wear. These skirts, typically ankle-length, were prevalent among working women, as inferred from their materials suited to lower socioeconomic groups.^[37] Straight skirts featured constructions for added warmth, such as layered fabrics with overlapping panels, using silk or hemp, suitable for transitional seasons.^[37] Primarily associated with mid-level status due to material demands, such designs appeared in tomb artifacts as practical lower garments. Straight skirts were predominant in working-class attire, as depicted in Han dynasty tomb reliefs from sites such as Chaozhuang in Jiangsu Province, where women are shown in loose-fitting skirts engaged in sericulture, weaving, and other daily labors.^[38] These reliefs, dating from 206 BCE to 220 CE, illustrate the skirts' role in facilitating mobility for commoners, contrasting with more restrictive elite styles.^[39] Hemp-based versions highlight their adaptation for rural and laborious use across Han society.^[37]

Pleated and Layered Skirts (Zhequn Variants)

Pleated and layered skirts, known as zhequn variants in traditional Han Chinese attire, represent a sophisticated evolution in qun design, emphasizing aesthetic volume, movement, and decorative complexity through intricate folding techniques. These styles emerged prominently during the Song dynasty (960–1279), where pleating added fluidity and elegance to women's garments, often creating a bell-like silhouette that enhanced the wearer's grace. Unlike simpler straight skirts such as the poqun, zhequn variants prioritized layered pleats for visual depth and formality, influencing attire across subsequent dynasties.^[3]^[40] The sanjianqun (三襉裙), a pleated form of zhequn, features three inverted box pleats, evolving from poqun in the Song dynasty as a versatile everyday and semi-formal option. Constructed from lightweight silk or chiffon, these pleats allow for natural drape and subtle sway, reflecting the era's preference for refined, flowing silhouettes in women's ruqun ensembles. This design's structural simplicity provided both aesthetic appeal and practicality, enabling ease of movement while concealing the body's contours in line with Confucian ideals of modesty.^[3] Baizhequn, or "hundred-pleat skirt," exemplifies fine accordion-style pleating with narrow folds (1 to 2 cm wide), often stiffened for durability and worn to evoke elegance in upper-class settings. Originating in the Song dynasty and popular in the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), this variant used silk damask or satin, with embroidered motifs like bats for happiness, peonies for prosperity, and butterflies for longevity adorning the panels to convey auspicious symbolism. The pleats created a shimmering effect, making it a favored choice for festive or matrimonial occasions. Examples from collections highlight its bold, colorful embroidery in silk floss and gold thread, underscoring its role in expressing social prosperity.^[3]^[41]^[42] Mamianqun, the "horse-face skirt," originated in the Song dynasty and was innovated in the Qing as an adaptation for practicality, consisting of four flat central panels (mamian) flanked by pleated sides for added volume and mobility. Made from damask silk with accordion pleats on the sides and a lined interior, it wraps around the waist with separate ties, forming a flat front and back that resembles a horse's face—hence the name—and allows for horseback riding without restriction. Popularized among Han women during the Qing, it blended nomadic influences with Han aesthetics, often featured in wedding attire with decorative borders and vibrant hues like red for good fortune. A winter variant, maoqun, incorporates fur lining for warmth, though primarily a later adaptation.^[17]^[40] Layering techniques further amplified the decorative and structural impact of zhequn variants, with up to three qun worn concurrently in formal contexts to achieve voluminous skirts symbolizing wealth and status. The innermost layer provided foundational support, the middle added subtle pleating for texture, and the outermost enhanced opacity and grandeur, often using sheer outer fabrics over solid underlayers. This practice, evident in imperial and elite attire from the Song through Qing, created a rich, multi-dimensional silhouette without excessive weight, aligning with hanfu's emphasis on harmonious layering for ceremonial volume.^[3]

Specialized Forms (Shiliqun and Court Attire)

Long trailing skirts, designed to trail gracefully during court processions, symbolized elegance and status in the Tang (618–907 CE) and Song (960–1279 CE) dynasties.^[43] This design restricted movement, emphasizing the wearer's refined poise in imperial settings, and was often paired with layered ruqun ensembles for ceremonial events.^[44] In the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE), imperial attire for empresses incorporated gold-thread embroidery featuring phoenix motifs, strictly regulated by sumptuary laws to denote the highest feminine authority and distinguish elite garments from common ones. These skirts, typically in rich silks, were part of formal court robes that reinforced hierarchical norms through opulent craftsmanship, with phoenix patterns reserved for the empress to evoke harmony and prosperity.^[45] Qing dynasty (1644–1912 CE) court attire highlighted color symbolism: red signified joy in wedding ceremonies, while yellow was reserved for the emperor's consorts and empress, underscoring imperial privilege under sumptuary codes.^[45] High-ranking consorts wore yellow ensembles during palace audiences, often embroidered with auspicious symbols to align with Manchu-influenced regulations that blended Han traditions with ethnic distinctions.^[46] Ritual qun, including stiffened petticoats like the maweiqun woven from horsehair, were layered beneath outer skirts to maintain a structured silhouette in formal palace ensembles. These adaptations ensured visual harmony in imperial protocols, including those honoring lineage and cosmic order.^[47]

Variations in Other Traditional Contexts

Qun in Xifu and Theatrical Garments

In Chinese opera, particularly Peking Opera (Jingju), the qun serves as a key lower garment in xifu costumes, adapted for stage visibility and dramatic expression. These theatrical qun are typically embellished with intricate embroidery using metallic threads, often in vibrant hues such as reds symbolizing majesty and nobility or greens denoting bold and mighty characters, to ensure they stand out under traditional stage lighting.^[48] Such embellishments, derived from Ming and Qing dynasty textile techniques, include satin, crepe, and silk applications that highlight symbolic motifs like dragons or phoenixes, enhancing the performative role without altering the core skirt silhouette.^[49] The structural design of xifu qun emphasizes movement, with flowing pleats that complement acrobatic and dance elements central to opera performances. These skirts are paired with upper garments to create ensembles that facilitate stylized gestures, drawing from historical civilian attire but exaggerated for theatrical impact. In roles portraying warrior women or noble figures, the qun's hem and pleats are crafted to billow dramatically during spins or steps, amplifying the character's emotional and physical dynamics on stage.^[50] Historically, xifu qun evolved from Ming dynasty (1368–1644) styles, which influenced the ornate layering and coloration seen in early opera attire, and were further refined during the Qing dynasty (1644–1911) through the integration of regional troupe practices. Standardization occurred in the 19th century as Anhui and Hubei opera ensembles merged to form Peking Opera, establishing uniform costume protocols for professional troupes under imperial patronage.^[48]^[50] A prominent example is the "water sleeve" (shuixiu) ensemble in Kunqu opera, where a flowing qun pairs with extended silk sleeves to synchronize lower-body sweeps with upper-limb flourishes, as seen in classic plays like The Peony Pavilion. This combination allows performers to convey poetic grace and narrative depth through fluid, water-like motions, a technique inherited from Kunqu's 16th-century origins and adapted across opera forms.^[48]^[50]

Regional and Ethnic Adaptations

Among non-Han ethnic groups in China, the qun has been adapted into diverse forms that reflect local climates, cultural practices, and historical exchanges, often incorporating elements like embroidery, weaving techniques, and practical materials suited to regional environments. These variations highlight the garment's versatility beyond central Han styles, serving as markers of ethnic identity and daily functionality. In the Miao ethnicity, primarily located in Guizhou province in southwest China, women traditionally wear a pleated qun known for its intricate silver embroidery and numerous fine folds, often exceeding 100 in elaborate versions, which symbolize fertility, prosperity, and ancestral journeys. The pleats are created by pinching and stitching indigo-dyed cotton or hemp fabric around a wooden barrel, a labor-intensive process that can take months, while the silver ornaments—such as bells, plaques, and headdresses—ward off evil spirits and signify wealth, adorning the skirt's hem and upper garments during festivals and daily wear. This style, prevalent among subgroups like those in Shidong and Gedong, integrates symbolic motifs in embroidery, such as pomegranates representing fertility and human figures denoting youth and migration.^[51]^[52]^[12]^[53] Uyghur adaptations of qun-like skirts in Xinjiang emphasize silk fabrics woven with ikat (known locally as atlas or etles) patterns, featuring vibrant geometric and floral designs influenced by Silk Road trade routes that connected Central Asia and beyond. These skirts, often part of flowing dresses or layered ensembles, are crafted from lightweight, breathable silk to suit the arid climate, with resist-dyeing techniques creating blurred, hypnotic motifs that symbolize harmony and cultural continuity. Worn by women in daily life and celebrations, they blend Persian, Turkic, and Chinese elements, showcasing the region's historical role as a crossroads of commerce and artistry.^[54]^[55] In Tibetan contexts, woolen qun variants are integrated as aprons like the pangden, worn over the chuba robe for insulation in high-altitude environments above 4,000 meters where temperatures drop sharply. Made from handwoven yak or sheep wool in striped patterns, the pangden wraps around the waist and ties at the back, providing warmth and modesty while allowing mobility for herding and farming; married women traditionally wear colorful versions to denote status. This adaptation underscores the chuba system's layered construction, which traps air for thermal regulation in the harsh plateau climate.^[56]^[57]^[58] Southern regional variations, particularly among the Zhuang in Guangxi, feature pleated qun styles that blend Han influences with local elements, typically long embroidered cotton skirts suited to the humid subtropical climate and used in agricultural work or festivals, incorporating batik patterns and silver accents to symbolize harmony with nature and community ties.^[59]^[60]

Cultural and Symbolic Significance

The qun, a traditional Chinese skirt integral to Hanfu attire, has historically served as a marker of gender exclusivity, designating feminine dress from the Zhou dynasty onward. Emerging as part of the ruqun ensemble—a short upper garment (ru) paired with a long skirt (qun)—it contrasted sharply with men's attire, which typically included trousers (ku) for mobility and labor, symbolizing women's roles in domesticity and modesty. This division reinforced binary gender norms, with the qun's flowing, layered design emphasizing grace and seclusion over practicality, thereby upholding societal expectations of female propriety.^[5]^[61] In terms of social hierarchy, the qun's materials and embellishments delineated class distinctions, with sumptuary laws in dynasties like the Tang restricting access to luxurious variants. Noblewomen donned silk qun, often dyed in vibrant hues and embroidered intricately, as these fine textiles were reserved for elites to signify wealth and status; commoners wore simpler fabrics in muted or earthy tones. In contrast, peasant women wore coarse hemp or ramie qun, practical for fieldwork but devoid of ornamentation, underscoring economic divides and imperial controls on conspicuous consumption.^[62]^[63] The qun also carried marital symbolism, particularly in red variants worn during weddings to evoke joy, prosperity, and warding off evil, rooted in ancient traditions where the color red denoted auspicious beginnings rather than purity, which later shifted toward white under modern Western influences. In bridal ensembles like the qun kua—a pleated red skirt paired with a jacket—the garment's bold hue and intricate phoenix motifs symbolized fertility and harmony, exclusively adorning brides to affirm their transition to wifely roles within the family structure. Under Confucian influence, especially Neo-Confucianism from the Song to Qing dynasties, the qun's extensive coverage aligned with ideals of female modesty and seclusion, complementing practices like footbinding that curtailed women's mobility to enforce domestic confinement. Long qun skirts concealed bound feet—"golden lilies"—preventing exposure and reinforcing virtues of obedience and chastity, as these norms positioned women as yin complements to male yang, with attire like the qun serving as a visual barrier to the outside world. Imperial regulations occasionally reinforced such standards by mandating covered forms for women in public.^[64]^[65]

Influence on Art, Literature, and Festivals

In classical Chinese literature, the qun frequently appears as a symbol of feminine grace and seasonal beauty, particularly in Tang dynasty poetry. Du Fu's poem "Beautiful Ladies Travel Outside," composed during spring outings in Chang'an, vividly describes noblewomen in embroidered silk skirts that "shine in the sunsets of spring," capturing the flowing elegance of the garment amid blooming landscapes and social gatherings.^[66] This literary motif persists in Qing dynasty novels, where the qun underscores character status and emotional depth. In Cao Xueqin's 18th-century Dream of the Red Chamber, characters' attire includes detailed embroidered qun, reflecting the aristocratic refinement of the Jia family women.^[67] Artistic representations of the qun emphasize its structural variety and cultural prestige, often in courtly or domestic scenes. Ming dynasty paintings, such as those depicting palace life, showcase pleated mamianqun styles worn by ladies, with overlapping panels and embroidered borders highlighting the garment's formality and aesthetic harmony. Qing dynasty porcelain figures further immortalize the qun through molded and painted details, portraying women in layered skirts with floral motifs that evoke imperial elegance and everyday poise.^[4] During traditional festivals, the qun is part of the traditional attire worn by women, enhancing visual symbolism in communal celebrations. Symbolically, qun hems embroidered with lotus patterns draw from folklore, where the lotus evokes prosperity and renewal, as the flower's emergence from mud signifies abundance and moral purity in seasonal tales of growth and harmony.^[68]

Modern Revival and Contemporary Use

Hanfu Movement and Fashion Integration

The Hanfu movement emerged as a grassroots cultural revival in the early 21st century, beginning in 2003 when Wang Letian, an electrical engineering student, publicly wore a homemade Hanfu ensemble in Zhengzhou, Henan Province, and shared photos online, igniting discussions in Chinese internet forums.^[69] This act symbolized a push to reclaim traditional Han Chinese attire amid globalization, with early participants using platforms like Baidu Tieba to exchange patterns, sewing techniques, and historical references. By the late 2000s, the movement had grown through various online communities and local groups, fostering events that emphasized qun skirts as an accessible entry point for newcomers, particularly women, due to their straightforward construction and adaptability from the ruqun ensemble.^[70] The revival gained momentum with the establishment of annual Hanfu Day celebrations on November 22, commemorating the 2003 event, which encouraged public wear of traditional garments, including diverse qun variants like the pleated mamianqun.^[27] In contemporary fashion, qun elements have been integrated into urban styles, reflecting a broader trend where qun serves as a versatile base for fusing heritage aesthetics with practical modern wear, as seen in street fashion popularized on platforms like Xiaohongshu.^[71] These adaptations, including mini-qun hybrids paired with jeans or contemporary tops, appeal to young professionals seeking cultural expression in everyday attire. Major events underscore the movement's scale, such as the 2024 Hanfu Culture Festival in Beijing's World Flower Garden, where participants donned varied qun styles amid floral displays and performances, drawing cumulative attendance nearing 200,000 since the event's inception in 2019.^[72] However, the push for widespread adoption presents challenges in preserving authenticity while ensuring accessibility; traditional qun production contrasts with mass-market versions, which reduce costs but can alter the garment's cultural nuance.^[73] Designers and enthusiasts navigate this tension through innovations in production techniques, allowing broader participation without fully sacrificing symbolic depth. As of 2025, the Hanfu market continues to expand, with projections indicating sustained growth driven by Gen Z interest and e-commerce.^[74]

Global Perceptions and Adaptations

In overseas Chinese communities, qun skirts have been integrated into multicultural festivals during the 2020s, adapting traditional Hanfu elements to contemporary settings. For instance, the Northern California Hanfu Association debuted at the 2024 San Francisco Chinese New Year Parade, where participants wore Hanfu ensembles including pleated qun variants to celebrate Chinese heritage alongside local customs, blending traditional attire with performances of music and dance.^[75] Similarly, enthusiasts in Silicon Valley organized Hanfu showcases in 2023, incorporating qun skirts into public events that highlight cultural exchange among diaspora populations.^[76] Western fashion designers have drawn inspiration from qun's layered and pleated designs in high-profile runway shows from 2023 to 2025. Guo Pei, a prominent Chinese couturier, presented collections at Paris Fashion Week that featured voluminous, pleated skirts echoing traditional silhouettes, often embellished with imperial embroidery to fuse Eastern aesthetics with global couture.^[77] These adaptations have elevated qun's visibility in international fashion, promoting cross-cultural dialogue through wearable art. In pop culture, stylized qun elements have appeared in global media, contributing to heightened interest in Hanfu. The mamianqun, a pleated qun variant, surged in popularity via social platforms, with overseas travelers posting images of Hanfu outfits that garnered 25 billion views on Douyin by 2024, inspiring adaptations in international styling.^[78] The broader Hanfu trend has influenced youth fashion worldwide, as evidenced by significant increases in related e-commerce activity.^[27] Challenges surrounding qun's global adoption include debates on cultural appropriation, particularly when Western brands simplify or commercialize Hanfu elements without crediting origins. These discussions intensified in the early 2020s amid Sino-Korean tensions over similar attire like hanbok, prompting calls for respectful engagement.^[79] UNESCO's 2024 recognition of the Spring Festival as Intangible Cultural Heritage has supported authentic Hanfu promotion by emphasizing its role in cultural festivals and countering misrepresentation.^[80]

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Latest Hanfu Wear Guide 2025 - Newhanfu
The fabrics drape naturally, the overall silhouette is loose, and the layering makes it feel effortlessly modest. The added bonus? Mamianqun prints are just ...
[9]
國風‧豳‧九罭Lessons from the states - Odes of Cao - Jiu Yu
我覯之子，袞衣繡裳。 In the net with its nine bags, Are rud and bream. We see this prince, With his grand-ducal robe and embroidered skirt. 鴻飛遵渚，公歸無 ...
[10]
[PDF] Chinese Skirts of the Qing Dynasty
Jan 26, 1989 · ... Warring States period, 481-221. B.C. In 1982 two unlined skirts, one of yellow silk, were found in another tomb of this period. Skirts that ...
[11]
Initial Analyses of Mashan No.1 Chu Tomb One-Piece Clothes in ...
Through the analysis of the shape structure and wearing form of Mashan No. 1 Chu-state tomb one-piece clothes in Jingzhou, Hubei, it can be discovered that ...
[12]
[PDF] Pleated Skirts of Miao in Guizhou Province, China
Miao groups from differing regions use their own particular techniques to make cloth shiny, adapting to what resources were and were not available: basic dye, ...
[13]
Characteristic Chinese Clothing in Qin and Han Dynasty - CITS
Collar of underpants was exposed; clothes must be sewed with white thread; the width of sleeve was 0.4 meters; the blouse had no sleeve; fur must face outside, ...
[14]
Historical changes of Chinese costumes from the perspective of ...
Dec 30, 2022 · The costume of the Qin and Han dynasties still take Shenyi system robe as the typical costume style, divided into two kinds of Quju (曲裾) and ...
[15]
The ideological background of ancient Chinese clothing culture
According to the Book of the Later Han Dynasty·Yufu Zhi: “Since the imperial ... The color of Chinese Han Dynasty clothing, combined with the belief in ...
[16]
[PDF] The Evolution of the Girdle as a Reflection of Ancient Social Concepts
The "Yufu Zhi" records the system of wearing ribbons in the early years of the Han Dynasty, which was "wearing double seals, measuring two inches in length and ...
[17]
[PDF] Research on the Aesthetic Value of Costume Creation in the Song ...
Apr 16, 2024 · The lengthy skirts had a profusion of pleats and a substantial circumference, resulting in a striking three- dimensional aesthetic.
[18]
Mongol Clothing in the Yuan Period
### Summary of Mongol Influences on Clothing in Yuan Dynasty (Skirts/Qun for Women)
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[PDF] Mongol Court Dress, Identity Formation, and Global Exchange
The Mongol period (1206–1368) marked a major turning point of exchange – culturally, politically, and artistically – across Eurasia.
[20]
Tifayifu - Wikipedia
In 1645, the Tifayifu edict forced Han Chinese people to adopt the Manchu hairstyle, the queue, and Manchu clothing.
[21]
Woman's Skirt Chinese Mamianqun
... mamianqun, which translates to 'horse face pleated skirt' in English. It is a type of traditional qun, or skirt, worn by Han Chinese women in Hanfu.
[22]
Chinese women's fashion progress in last century - Global Times
Dec 25, 2015 · After China's anti-imperialist and anti-feudal May Fourth Movement of 1919, the whole society appealed to ideological emancipation. Women's ...<|separator|>
[23]
The Republican period: modernising Chinese dress
During the early 20th century the aoqun became shorter and more tailored in response to Western dress and changes in fashion. The most distinctive women's ...
[24]
The Feminist Roots of the Chinese Qipao - ELLE
May 9, 2024 · ... Clothing the People of Communist China, 1949–1976, told ELLE.com that “the qipao evolved from a square-cut, looser-fitting style—initially ...<|separator|>
[25]
Theatrical Revolution of Theater: How Peking Opera Evolved After ...
Jun 25, 2022 · Plots, makeup, melodies, songs, and actors can change, but the traditional costumes did not. This was most likely due to the rich historical ...
[26]
The Hanfu Aesthetics in the Dream of the Red Chamber (1987)
Jul 21, 2015 · In 1987, the TV version of "Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦)" was broadcast. Since then, this work has become a classic that can never be surpassed in the ...
[27]
More youngsters choosing to dress with cultural confidence
Mar 1, 2023 · More young people are taking to wearing adapted hanfu as they believe the best way to preserve tradition is to adapt it to modern life.
[28]
When Traditional Hanfu Dress Comes to Contemporary Life
May 17, 2023 · On November 22nd of that year, a power worker named Wang Letian from Zhengzhou, Henan, walked into a downtown commercial street wearing hanfu.
[29]
The Forgotten Drivers of China's 'Hanfu' Movement - Sixth Tone
Nov 27, 2024 · The hanfu movement was kickstarted by Wang Letian, a power worker in the central Chinese province of Henan, who attracted widespread media attention.
[30]
[PDF] Chapter 1 - Cornell eCommons - Cornell University
2.2 The Land: Sericulture-Based Mulberry Agroecosystems. The cultivation of mulberry is the first step in the production of silk. A native of China, white ...
[31]
Looking At Ancient Clothing And Textiles From Poetry And Literature
Sep 20, 2024 · The traditional clothing of the Han Chinese, known as Hanfu (漢服) primarily utilized fabrics derived from plant fibers such as kudzu and ramie.
[32]
(PDF) Indigo The Blue Gold E-Catalog - Academia.edu
... natural indigo dye. Known as the “King of Dyes,” “Devil's Dye ... Classical authors, examples of indigo come from regions where 18 19 from Han Dynasty ...
[33]
Dyes and Dyeing in the Ming and Qing Dynasties in China
This paper makes the first attempt to compare systematically historical Chinese records of textile dyeing to understand its practice. The paper presents ...Missing: qun | Show results with:qun
[34]
1300-1349 | Fashion History Timeline
“Wool was the most important material for clothing, due to its numerous favorable qualities, such as the ability to take dye and its being a good insulator.
[35]
(PDF) The Resistant Fibre: The Pre-modern History of Cotton in China
By the late Ming dynasty, Songjiang became a key cotton textile producer, claiming to 'clothe the empire'. The shift from cotton to opium cultivation in Sichuan ...
[36]
[PDF] Qipao and Female Fashion in Republican China and Shanghai ...
Historically, Chinese people had a tradition of making the most out of the silk textiles when they were used in clothes-making, as textile production often ...
[37]
7 Types of Hanfu Skirts That You Should Know - Newhanfu
Jul 23, 2022 · Here's a little summary of all the most popular hanfu skirt (qun or 裙) types and what the difference between them is!Missing: flowing modesty
[38]
Types Of Hanfu Skirts & Their Differences - 张儒英 Zhang Ruying
Jun 12, 2023 · Mamianqun consists of three Chinese characters: 'mǎ 马' which means 'horse' ; 'miàn 面' which means 'face' ; and 'qún 裙' which means 'skirt'.<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
Ma mian qun | Unknown | V&A Explore The Collections
When the skirt is worn, five pleats twould be visible on each side, with two folded over one way and two the other, with each pair facing the central pleat. The ...
[40]
[PDF] The Textiles of the Han Dynasty & Their Relationship with Society
life in Early Imperial China, and Cook and Major in Defining Chu.15 The book by T'ung- tsu, Han Social Structure, is an enlightening commentary of people ...Missing: pleating | Show results with:pleating
[41]
[PDF] A Study of Costumes for Film and Television Drama Based on The ...
Artifacts from Mawangdui Han Tomb show the style as a short, plain garment made of cotton and silk, with a plain diagonal skirt known as a rimless skirt tied at ...Missing: working- class
[42]
https://collections.rom.on.ca/objects/436216
[43]
China National Silk Museum - 中国丝绸博物馆
Feb 27, 2018 · Han dynasty stone reliefs, commonly found in tomb chambers, depict human figures and stories. The story here, “Madame Zeng educates her son,” ...
[44]
China Daily: Traditional Chinese garment makes stylish comeback
Jun 14, 2024 · Mamianqun is a type of hanfu that features a high, flat front and pleated sides. It originated in the Song Dynasty (960-1279) and maintained its ...
[45]
Chinese woman's pleated skirt – Works - Asian Art Museum
The specific style of this skirt is called a fish-scale one hundred pleat skirt (yulin baizhe qun) because the small steps of a woman with bound feet caused ...Missing: baizhu hanfu scholarly<|separator|>
[46]
Half of a woman's skirt (yulin baizhe qun) - ROM Collections
This lovely skirt is distinguished by a bold design and colourful embroidery. Its visual appeal is multiplied by the abundant decorative motifs.
[47]
Tang-Song fashion saw a shift from flamboyance to modesty
Jul 11, 2024 · Women's clothing during the Sui Dynasty featured narrow-sleeved tops and high-waisted long skirts. In the Tang Dynasty, women typically wore ...
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[PDF] INVESTIGATING CHINESE DRESSES - Scholars Crossing
May 6, 2021 · By the end of the Ming Dynasty, women were wearing phoenix-tail skirts (Yang, 2004). These garments were made of damask and embroidered with ...
[49]
(PDF) “The Empress' Dragon Crown: Establishing Imperial Authority ...
33 Ming sumpracy laws contradict a common assumption that the phoenix represented the empress. In fact, according to the Statutes, the emblem that ...Missing: qun | Show results with:qun
[50]
Ancient Chinese Imperial Dressing: Emperor & Empress' Clothes ...
The winter court robes of empress dowagers, queens and high-ranked imperial concubines were bright yellow, and also decorated with images of dragon patterns.Missing: consorts qun
[51]
[PDF] Chinese Dress - The Cutters Guide
Chinese dress includes styles from the Qing Dynasty to the present, covering Manchu rulers, consorts, mandarins, women, and lower classes, with styles like the ...
[52]
Maweiqun - Wikipedia
Maweiqun also called faqun is a form of underskirt, which was made of woven horsetail. It was tied inside the undergarments of its wearer.
[53]
Ancestor Worship in Ancient China - World History Encyclopedia
Oct 17, 2017 · Ancestor worship in ancient China dates back to the Neolithic period, and it would prove to be the most popular and enduring Chinese religious practice.Missing: qun stiffened petticoats ensembles
[54]
The Cultural Heritage of China :: Entertainment :: Chinese Opera
Peking Opera costumes are called Xingtou or, more popularly, Xifu in Chinese. The origins of Peking Opera costumes can be traced back to the mid-14th century, ...
[55]
Characteristics of Peking Opera Costumes - Chinaculture.org
There are 20 major kinds of costumes, including the ceremonial robe, or Mang; the informal robe, or Pei; and the armor, or Kao, for soldiers.
[56]
A Brief Introduction to Beijing Opera - Association for Asian Studies
In the nineteenth century, Beijing opera grew in popularity, and important families of actors passed their art on to successive generations.<|separator|>
[57]
Pleated Skirt, China - The Textile Atlas
Jul 1, 2025 · Pleats are made by pinching the cloth with a long pin. Once the pleats are made, ropes are firmly tied around the barrel to secure the pleats in ...Missing: early southern
[58]
Silver Ornaments and Embroideries of the Miao Traditional Clothing
Apr 2, 2020 · Generally speaking, there are two characteristics: the exquisite Miao embroideries, and ornate silver ornaments and headwear.Missing: qun fertility
[59]
Exploring the symbolism of Miao Hmong embroidery - Interact China
Nov 26, 2020 · The rich, red blossom of the pomegranate tree has many seeds and translates to a symbol of fertility in Miao embroidery. Multiple seeds mean ...
[60]
Xinjiang keeps traditional way of making Atlas silk
Known for its softness, lightness, and bright colored patterns, it is made through a complicated process and is extremely popular among Uygur women in Xinjiang.
[61]
Flipping Through China's Minority Lookbook: Uyghur Style
Sep 11, 2022 · Traditional Uyghur dress is deeply intertwined with both the ethnic group's history as traders along the ancient Silk Road. In particular, two ...
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https://www.academia.edu/25818914/Material_Girls_Silk_and_Self_Fashioning_in_Tang_China_618_907
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https://www.thechinajourney.com/tang-dynasty-clothing/
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The Tibetan Chuba - Aculturame
Jan 31, 2016 · The traditional chuba originated in Tibet as a practical piece of clothing which was used to protect against the high altitude cold temperatures ...Missing: qun | Show results with:qun
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https://worldhistoryconnected.press.uillinois.edu/6.2/chao.html
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Material Girls: Silk and Self-Fashioning in Tang China (618–907)
This paper explores the relationship between women's fashion and social identity in Tang China (618-907), particularly through the lens of the silk industry.
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The Artful Fabric of Collecting · Collecting Silk - Mellon Projects
These laws regulated cut and color of the garments worn by the imperial family, the nobility, and officials for various celebratory occasions, for periods of ...
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https://www.thoughtco.com/chinese-flower-lotus-687523
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Bound to Be Beautiful: Foot Binding in Ancient China
Jun 4, 2005 · The first definite evidence of footbinding dates from the Song dynasty (960–1279) from the tomb of Lady Huang, the wife of an Imperial clansmen.Missing: coverage | Show results with:coverage
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Teaching Women and Gender Relations in Traditional China
Footbinding gained acceptance among the upper classes during the Song dynasty. For elite women, it was not only Confucian moral values that separated them ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[71]
Du Fu: Beautiful Ladies Travel Outside - LAC Poetry
Feb 16, 2017 · Skin texture moist and fine, bones and flesh proportional. Embroidered silk tops and skirts shine in the sunsets of spring. Embroidered golden ...
[72]
[PDF] A Preliminary Study of the Ink Painting Technique in The Dream of ...
"The Dream of the Red Chamber" is undoubtedly the ... description ... Chapter 109th: "A white silk skirt in light ink is tied under the waist... " Here is a ...
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https://www.newhanfu.com/69535.html
[74]
Dragon Boat Festival - Travel China Guide
Dragon Boat Festival, also called Duanwu Festival, is one of the four grandest traditional festivals in China, falling on 5th day of the 5th month in Chinese ...
[75]
Importance of the Lotus Flower in Chinese Culture - ThoughtCo
Jul 28, 2024 · The lotus stem symbolizes the male genitals. A blue lotus stem (qing) symbolizes cleanliness and modesty. The lotus symbolizes He Xian-gu, one ...
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a visual guide to wearing Chinese hanfu | SCMP Graphics
Nov 24, 2023 · 2003. RESURGENCE. The hanfu movement is believed to have started on Nov 22, 2003 when Wang Letian, an electrical power worker, wore homemade ...Missing: forums June
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Soft nationalism in China: The case of Hanfu style - Sage Journals
Apr 30, 2025 · Hanfu emerges as an affective practice based in a quietly spoken yet assertive nationalism that has been, to an extent, de-ethnicised and domesticated.Missing: June | Show results with:June
[78]
Hanfu craze: Gen Z revives traditional clothing - Global Times
Nov 13, 2024 · Mamianqun (the horse-face skirt), beizi (a traditional Chinese outer coat with loose and long sleeves), baidiequn (hundred-fold skirt)…Missing: qun | Show results with:qun
[79]
Exception de Mixmind released the 2024 Spring/Summer collection ...
Jan 2, 2024 · Exception de Mixmind, a homegrown fashion label known for designs imbued with understated elegance and striking traditional Chinese aesthetics, ...
[80]
Meet Shiyin, the Fashion Influencer Shaping China's Hanfu ... - Vogue
Mar 8, 2021 · Vogue meets the influential Shiyin, one of the country's leading exponents of Hanfu, a way of dressing that is rooted in Chinese tradition.Missing: challenges machine-
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Beijing 2025, the 5th Hanfu Festival - Newhanfu
As North China's largest traditional cultural event, it has attracted nearly 200,000 participants since its 2019 debut. Set against 50,000㎡ floral landscapes, ...
[82]
Why Authentic Hanfu Remains Rare in Chinese Historical Dramas
Jul 29, 2025 · Production Challenges and Economic Constraints. Recreating Hanfu demands meticulous research and craftsmanship. Unlike mass-produced costumes, ...Missing: qun machine-
[83]
[PDF] The Creation of Value Added Contemporary Hanfu Clothing, Using ...
Jul 30, 2025 · We use Hanfu styles,sewing patterns, and garment data sets to train and evaluate our proposed pattern-making method. We obtained 12 part panel ...Missing: pleating | Show results with:pleating
[84]
Northern California Hanfu Association to debut at Chinese New ...
Feb 15, 2024 · The Hanfu Association, which celebrates clothing, music and dance from China, will make its debut at the 2024 Chinese New Year Parade in San ...
[85]
Hanfu Lovers in Silicon Valley Stage Chinese Traditional Costume ...
Nov 21, 2023 · Enthusiasts of Hanfu, the historical Han Chinese outfit, in Silicon Valley of Northern California staged a Chinese traditional costume ...
[86]
Guo Pei and Laurence Xu Lead Foreign Invasion at Paris Couture ...
Paris haute couture week closed Thursday with China's two inimitable designers—Guo Pei and Laurence Xu—leading the foreign invasion.
[87]
Inside the world of China's couture queen: Guo Pei - Harper's BAZAAR
Jan 22, 2020 · Her star rose after she dressed Rihanna in the 2015 Met Gala, but there is so much more to China's first lady of fashion.
[88]
Traditional China hanfu clothing revival influences modern society ...
Oct 13, 2024 · A trend has emerged in China of influencers filming themselves in traditional costume while travelling overseas, then sharing the images on social media.
[89]
Hanbok vs Hanfu: Chinese Cultural Appropriation Stirs Outrage in ...
Apr 15, 2022 · The most obvious difference between Hanbok and Hanfu is the length of the top. Korean Hanbok's top is clearly much shorter than Chinese Hanfu.
[90]
China Rejoices as UNESCO Recognizes Spring Festival - Sixth Tone
Many in China argue that “Lunar New Year” amounts to a form of cultural appropriation, obscuring the fact the tradition first emerged in ancient China. Last ...

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